Footnotes and References

CHAPTER 1

Footnotes

1 . Althougoh Waterston' s book is still considered the classic in the development field. similar views have been expressed more recently by Killick (1976. pp. 161-166) and Todoro (1982. pp. 461-464). 2. Later incorporated into the Municipality of Dhaka. 3. See. for examples of this development Muzmanian and Sabatier (1983). Sabatier and Muzmanian (1979). Ingram and Mann (1980). Nakamura and Smallwood (1980). and Palumbo and Harder (1981). Parallel advances have been made in the development field. although these have primarily been in the area of development adminis­ tration. See Lindenberg and Crosby (1981). Grant (1979) and World Bank (1980. Chapter 6). 4. Davidoff and Reiner (1962. pp. 103-115). For a recent survey of the theoretical positions in planning at present. see Healey. McDougall and Thomas (1982. pp. 5-22) . 5. An earlier version of some of these ideas was published in Choguill (1980). 6. For an overview of the situation in Bangladesh. see Pramanik (1982). 7. Further cases are given in Stewart (1978. Chapter 3). 8. See too. Melgolugbe (1983).

188 FOOTNOTES & REFERENCES 189 References Aneroussi, F. et al., 1977, Analysis of Planning and Implementation Procedures in Greece (mimeo), Organ­ ization for Economic Cooperation and Development Symposium on the Implementation of Urban Plans, CT /URB/620. Arnstein, S. R., 1969, A Ladder of Citizen Participation, Journal of the American Institute of Planners, 35:216-224. Ata<;, M., 1977, Country Report: Turkey (mimeo), Organ­ ization for the Economic Cooperation and Development Symposium on the Implementation of Urban Plans, CT/URB/623. Barrett, S., and Fudge, C., 1981, "Policy and Action: Essays on the Implementation of Public Policy", Methuen. London. Choguill, C. L., 1980. Towards a Theory of Implementation in Planning based on the Bangladesh Experience, Journal of Administration Overseas, 19: 148-159. Costa Lobo, N. L., 1977, Clandestine Housing Rehabilitation - A Continuous Planning and Management Process (mimeo), Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development Symposium on the Implementation of Urban Plans, CT/URB/610. Dekleva, J., Bon, R., and Music, V. B., 1977, Implemen­ tation Mechanisms in the System of Social Planning in the Context of Socialist Self Management (mimeo), Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development Symposium on the Implementation of Urban Plans, CT/URB/624. Faludi, A., 1973, "Planning Theory", Pergamon Press, Oxford. Friedmann, J., 1972, Implementation, International Social Development Review, 4. Friedmann, J., 1967, A Conceptual Model for the Analysis of Planning Behavior, Administrative Science Quarterly, 12:225-252. Grant. G., 1979, "Development Administration: Meaning and Application", University of Wisconsin Press. Madison. Healey, P •• McDougall. G., and Thomas, M. J •• 1982. Theoretical Debates in Planning: Towards a Coherent Dialogue, in: "Planning Theory: Prospects for the 1980s", P .-Healey, G. McDougall and M. J. Thomas. eds •• Pergamon Press, Oxford, pp. 5-22. 190 FOOTNOTES III REFERENCES Ingram, H. M., and Mann, D., 1980, Why Policies Succeed or Fail. Sage Yearbook in Politics and Public Policy. 8. Sage. Beverley Hills. KUlick. T.. 1976. The Possibilities of Development Planning. Oxford Economic Papers. 28. Lindenberg. M•• and Crosby. B.. 1981. "Managing Develop­ ment: The Political Dimension", Kumarion Press. West Hartford, Connecticut. Lipton. M•• 1977. "Why Poor People Stay Poor: A Study of Urban Bias in World Development". Temple Smith. London. Mazmanian, D. A., and Sabatier, P. A •• 1983, "Implemen­ tation and Public Policy". Scott. Foresman and Company. Glenview, l11inois. Melgolugbe, I. F., 1983, The Hopes and Failures of Public Housing in Nigeria, Third World Planning Review, 5:349-369. Nakamura, R., and Smallwood. F., 1980, "The Politics of Policy Implementation", St. Martins Press, New York. Nehru, Jawaharlal, 1961, Annual Address by the Prime Minister, Indian Journal of Public Administration, 7. Palumbo, D. J •• and Harden, M. A., 1981, "Implementing Public Policy", Lexington Books, Lexington, Massachusetts. Pramanik, A. H., 1982. "Development Through Urban Bias Public Expenditure: An Empirical Study of Bangladesh", University of Dhaka Center for Social Studies, Dhaka. Pressman, J. L., and Wildavsky, A., 1973, "Implementation: How Great Expectations in Washington are Dashed in Oakland", University of California Press. Berkeley. Republic of Nigeria, 1970, "National Development Plan 1970-1974", Government Printer, Lagos. Rondinelli, D. A., 1977, "Planning Development Projects", Dowden, Hutchinson and Ross, Stroudsburg, Pennsylvania. Sabatier, P. A •• and Mazmanian. D. A., 1979, The Con­ ditions of Effective Implementation: A Guide for Accomplishing Policy Objections. Policy Analysis, 5:481-504. Stewart, F., 1978, "Technology and Underdevelopment". 2nd edition, Macmillan. London. Todoro, M., 1982, "Economic Development in the Third World". 2nd edition. Longman, London. Van Meter, D. S., and Van Horn. C. E., 1975, The Policy Implementation Process: A Conceptual Framework. Administration and Society, 6: 445-488. FOOTNOTES & REFERENCES 191 Vepa, R. K., 1974, The Problem of Achieving Results, Indian Journal of Public Administration, 20:257-291. Waterston, A., 1965, "Development Planning: Lessons of Experience", The Johns Hopkins Press, Baltimore. World Bank, 1980, "World Development Report 1980", Washington DC.

CHAPTER 2 Footnotes 1. Bangladesh Census Commission (1975). Unfortunately, it is known that even the census data are subject to error as it is estimated that an under-enumeration of 6% occurred in all areas except the major cities of Dhaka, Narayanganj, Chittagong and Khulna where the under­ enumeration was perhaps 16%. The United Nations­ sponsored National Physical Planning Project in their calculations assumed an under-enumeration of 19.3% in these four largest metropolitan areas and their estimate is used in this study. As a result, in the present analysis Dhaka's 1974 population will be assumed to have been 2,003,729 rather than the figure 1,679,572 as reported by the census. Bangladesh National Physical Planning Project/Urban Development Directorate (1979). 2 • Certain of these theoretical inconsistencies are discussed in Choguill (1983). 3. Administratively, Bangladesh is divided into four divisions, twenty-one districts and 71 subdivisions. There is a tendency for numbers within these adminis­ trative categories to increase over time. Although the data used in the analysis refer to the 1961 to 1974 period, the number of subdivisions which could be used totalled 68, the number in existence at the end of 1979. 4. Net cropped areas for rice production in 1975/1976 are found in Ministry of Agriculture and Forests (1979, Volume 1). 5. Consumption of 15 ounces per day is the middle range figure used in Robinson (1973, p. 4). Total national food grain requirements using consumption rates of 14 and 16 ounces per day are included. Chen (1975) suggests that 14.5 ounces per day could be construed as a "reasonably safe level" and that in 1962/1963 the consumption dropped to an average of 13.1 ounces. 192 FOOTNOTES & REFERENCES

6. Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics (1976, p. 221). Alamgir (1974) provides further evidence along these lines when he notes that the ratio of rural to urban wages was less than unity for 14 different years between 1958 and 1973. 7. A situation which. interestingly, reversed itself after 1976. 8. For orientation purposes, Old Dhaka is the traditional part of the city. The central business district extends from there northward to the newer Motijheel Commercial Area. Ramna is the "colonial" area. established by the British. containing many government buildings and the universities. Sher-E-Bangla Nagar contains the new capital and government office buildings. Dhanmandi and Gulshan are examples of upper middle class resi­ dential areas. In recent years, Gulshan has become increasingly popular with the expatriate community. 9. For a description of such situations, see Shakur (1979) and Center for Urban Studies (1979). 10. Using Center for Urban Studies data with an admittedly arbitrary sample. Chaudhury, Ahmed and Huda (1976, p. 108) suggest that of squatters present in Dhaka in 1973, 12% had been there since before 1949, 18% moved in during the period 1950 to 1960, 52% from 1961 to 1971 and 18% in 1972 and 1973. The annual rate of growth is thus nearly four times higher in 1972-1973 than in 1961-1971. 11. An interesting comparison can be made with the total male population of Bangladesh, where 22% of males were within the age group 25-44 and 15% were over 44. 12. Center for Urban Studies (1976, p. 48). In Bangladesh as a whole, according to the 1974 Census, the literacy rate was 30% for males and 14% for females. 13. Qadir (1975, p. 35). Among specific occupations listed were a tailor, a trader of used garments, a mason's assistant, a bamboo fence maker, a painter, a flour mill worker, a guard, a night mechanic, a taxi driver. a signboard maker, a motor mechanic. one who bought wheat from ration drawers and then resold it, a sub­ contractor. a grave digger, a shoe factory worker. a vegetable vendor, a carpenter, a pushcart driver. a cook. a gardener. a member of the river police and a private tutor. 14. The CUS identified 119 clusters of squatters within the Dhaka area. FOOTNOTES & REFERENCES 193 References Alamgir, M., 1974, Some Analysis of Distribution of Income, Consumption, Saving and Poverty in Bangladesh, The Bangladesh Development Studies, 2:737-818. -­ Alim, A., 1974, "An Introduction to Bangladesh Agricul­ ture", Swadesh Printing Press, Dhaka. Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics, 1985, "Statistical Yearbook of Bangladesh 1983-1984", Dhaka. Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics, 1983, "1982 Statistical Yearbook of Bangladesh", Dhaka. Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics, 1979, "1979 Statistical Yearbook of Bangladesh", Dhaka. Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics, 1976, "Statistical Yearbook of Bangladesh 1975", Dhaka. Bangladesh Census Commission, 1975, "Bangladesh Census of Population 1974", Dhaka. Bangladesh National Physical Planning Project I Urban Devel­ opment Directorate, 1979, "Selected Background Infor­ mation on Population and Urbanization in Bangladesh", Working Paper Number 1. Center for Urban Studies, 1979, University of Dhaka, "The Urban Poor in Bangladesh", a research report of UNICEF, Dhaka. Center for Urban Studies, 1976, University of Dhaka, "Squatters in Bangladesh Cities", Dhaka. Chaudhury, R. H., Ahmed, N. R., and Huda, S., 1976, Management of Immigrants to Urban Regions of Bangladesh, in: "National Report on Human Settlements: Bangladesh" ,-Government of the People's Republic of Bangladesh, Prepared for the Habitat Conference, Vancouver, pp. 85-114. Chen, L. C., 1975, An Analysis of Per Capita Food Grain Availability, Consumption and Requirements in Bangladesh: A Systematic Approach to Food Planning, The Bangladesh Development Studies, 3: 93-126. Chen, L. C., and Rohde, J. E., 1973, Civil War in Bangladesh: Famine Averted?, in: "Disaster in Bangladesh", L. C. Chen, ed. ;-Oxford University Press, New York. Choguill, C. L., 1983, Migration and its Implications for Urban Development, Regional Development Dialogue, 4:66-81. Faaland, J., and Parkinson, J. R., 1976, "Bangladesh: Test Case for Development", University Press, Dhaka. 194 FOOTNOTES & REFERENCES

Government of the People's Republic of Bangladesh, 1975, National Report: Bangladesh, Prepared for the Habitat Regional Conference in Tehran, Dhaka. Jahan, R., 1974, Bangladesh in 1973: Management of Factional Politics, Asian Survey, 14: 125-135. Johnson, B. L. C., 1975, "Bangladesh", Heinemann, London. Kahn, A. M. M., Amanat Ullah, 1975/1976, Land Value Pattern in Dacca, Oriental Geographer, 19/20. Khan, M. S. A., and Alam, M. K., 1973, "Facts about Squatters. Dacca City" (mimeo). Ministry of Agriculture and Forests, 1979. Agro-Economic Research, "Thana Level Agriculture of Bangladesh 1975-1976". Dhaka. Ministry of Public Works. 1975. Eviction and Temporary Rehabilitation of Squatters at Dattapara. Demra and Mirpur (Phase I), Dacca (mimeo). Muhammad, N., 1974. "Some Aspects of Bangladesh Demo­ graphic Survey" (mimeo). Planning Commission, 1980, The Second Five Year Plan 1980-1985. Dhaka. Qadir, S. R •• 1975. "Bastees of Dacca: A Study of Squatter Settlement", Local Government Institute. Dhaka. Robinson, A •• 1973. "Economic Prospects of Bangladesh", Overseas Development Institute. London. Shakur, M. T •• 1979. "Physical Upgrading of a Low Income Community in Dacca", Unpublished Joint Master's Degree Thesis in Urban and Regional Planning, Bangladesh University of Engineering and Technology/ University of Sheffield. Stepanek, J. F .• 1979, "Bangladesh - Equitable Growth?". Pergamon Press. New York. Sommer, A.. and Mosley. W. H., 1973. The Cyclone: Medical Assessment and Determination of Relief and Rehabili­ tation Requirements, in: "Disaster in Bangladesh", L. C. Chen, ed., OxfordUniversity Press, New York. The Guardian, 1974, 13 August. World Bank, 1983, "World Bank Atlas", Washington DC. World Bank, 1979, "Bangladesh: Current Trends and Devel- opment Issues". Washington DC. FOOTNOTES & REFERENCES 195 CHAPTER 3

Footnotes

1. For an insider's view of the background leading to the Plan, see Islam (1977). 2. For a fuller description of the urban planning system of Bangladesh, see Choguill (1984). Much of the present description is extracted from that source and is repro­ duced with the permission of the publisher. 3. The East Bengal Building Construction Act, 1952 (East Bengal Act II of 1952). 4. The Town Improvement Act, 1953 (East Bengal Act XIII of 1953). 5. Like much of Bangladesh planning legislation, the "improvement trust" can be traced to British ante­ cedents, although this time in an indirect manner. The East Bengal Town Improvement Act of 1953 is modeled very closely on the Calcutta Improvement Act of 1911 which in turn seems to be based on the Glasgow Improvement Trust of 1866. 6. Town Improvement (Amendment) Ordinances, 1958, Sections 73-75. 7. A fourth was added for Rajshahi in 1976 but this is, of course, after the period of our present investigation. Planning in other urban areas is allowed under other legislation passed or amended since the end of this period as well, particularly under the terms of the Paurashava Ordinance of 1977 which was designed to "provide for the constitution of local government institutions in urban areas and to consolidate and amend certain laws relating to local government in such areas". 8. United Nations (1973). The mission consisted of Dr P. S. Towfighi, Team leader, Mr R. Mora-Rubio of the UN Center for Housing Building and Planning, and Mr H. Boldrick of the International Cooperative Housing Development Association. 9. The first of these estimates was based on the Mission's own survey of the squatter situation in Dhaka, published by Khan and Alam (1973). The second and third were by Hussain (1973) and Department of Geography, Dhaka University (1973). 196 FOOTNOTES 11& REFERENCES

References Abedin, Z., 1970, Impact of Rapid Development of Cities and Towns in East Pakistan on Law Enforcement Agency, in: "Our Cities and Towns", M. J. Abedin, ed., National­ Institute of Public Administration, Dhaka. Alam, M. K., 1979, "Proposal for an Integrated Development Planning Organization for the Dacca Metropolitan Area", Unpublished Joint Master's Degree Thesis in Urban and Regional Planning, Bangladesh University of Engineer­ ing and Technology/University of Sheffield. Alam, S., 1970, Maintenance of Beautifying Cities and Towns, in: "Our Cities and Towns", M. J. Abedin, ed., National Institute of Public Administration, Dhaka. Anisuzzaman, M., 1979, "Bangladesh Public Administration and Society", Bangladesh Books International, Dhaka. Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics, 1979, "1979 Statistical Yearbook of Bangladesh", Dhaka. Choguill, C. L., 1984, Dacca: An Analysis of Planning Implementation, Past and Future, in: "Urban Innovation Abroad: Problem Cities in Search Of Solutions", T. L. Blair, ed., Plenum Press, New York, pp. 138-157. Dainik BangIa, 1974, 25 March. Dainik BangIa, 1973, 17 August. Department of Geography, Dhaka University, 1973, "Bulletin of Center for Urban Studies", 4, November. Gerull, B., 1979, "Economic Effects of Housing in Developing Countries, Vol. III: Field Study in Bangladesh, Part A: Analysis of Two Types of Low-Income Residential Areas in Dacca", Institute of Tropical Building and Planning, University of Darmstadt, Darmstadt. Government of East Pakistan, 1965, Water, Power and Irrigation Department, "Government Order No. 464-E" , 17 July, Dhaka. Hafiz, M. A., 1979, Physical Layout of Our Cities and Towns as it Relates to Greater Khulna, in: "Our Cities and Towns", M. J. Abedin, ed., National Institute of Public Administration, Dhaka. Hussain, A. Z. M. W., 1973, "Squatting and Squatters in Dacca City: 1972", Unpublished Master of Arts Thesis, Department of Geography, University of Dhaka. Islam, N., 1978, "Development Strategy of Bangladesh", Pergamon Press, Oxford. Islam, N., 1977, "Development Planning in Bangladesh", Hurst, London. FOOTNOTES & REFERENCES 197

James, J. R., 1973, A Discussion Paper on Some Aspects of Town and Country Planning in Bangladesh, The Ford Foundation (mimeo), Dhaka. Khan, M. S. A., and Alam, M. K., 1973, Facts about Squatters - Dacca City, Urban Development Directorate, Ministry of Public Works and Urban Development (mimeo), Dhaka. Minoprio, Spenceley and P. W. Macfarlane, 1959, "Master Plan for Dacca", London. Noman, A., 1970, Anti-Social Activities, in: "Our Cities and Towns", M. J. Abedin, ed., NationaT"Institute of Public Administration, Dhaka. Pakistan Planning Commission, 1968, "Third Five Year Plan", abridged edition, Karachi. Pakistan Planning Commission, 1960, "Secon d Five Year Plan 1960-1965", Karachi. Planning Commission, 1978, "The Two Year Plan 1978-1980", Dhaka. Planning Commission, 1974, "Economic Development in 1973- 1974 and Annual Plan for 1974-1975", Dhaka. Planning Commission, 1973, "The First Five Year Plan 1973-1978", Dhaka. Rahman, G., 1970, Metropolitan Administration: Planning and Development Aspects, in: "Our Cities and Towns", M. J. Abedin, ed., National Institute of Public Admin­ istration, Dhaka. Robinson, A., 1973, "Economic Prospects of Bangladesh", Overseas Development Institute, London. Sher, O. S., 1979, "Profile of Mirpur: Profiles of Three Developing Areas within the Dacca Metropolitan Area", United Nations Development Program/Bangladesh Urban Devclopment Directorate, Dhaka. United Nations, 1973, "Mission on Urban Squatters", Project of the Government of the People's Republic of Bangladesh, BGD/73/017, November-December. Urban Development Directorate, 1968, Genesis of Physical Planning in East Pakistan, "Physical Planning Progress", Dhaka. Zaman, M. A., 1973, "Background Paper: Possible UNDP Assistance to Housing in Bangladesh", Prepared in conjunction with A. C. Das and M. A. Zaman, Draft memorandum to the Minister of Public Works and Urban Development, 23 January. 198 FOOTNOTES lit REFERENCES CHAPTER 4 Footnotes 1. These latter two points were originally a part of the so-called tIll-Point Program" that was drawn up in 1968 by the East Bengal Students Action Committee which unified what had previously been disparate policies of the Awami League and the left-wing student organ­ izations, particularly the Student Union, linked to the Moscow-oriented National Awami League. 2. It is interesting to note that, according to data tabu­ lated by Chaudhuri (1969, pp. 134-135), privilege was almost a prerequisite for entry into the Pakistani Civil Service in the mid-1960s. In 1963 and 1964, of the 677 candidates for civil service positions whose fathers had an annual income of less than 1,000 rupees per year, only 15% were successful. Of the 72 candidates whose fathers earned over 32,000 rupees, 32% were successful. In a nation that was composed predominantly of farmers, over 31% of the civil service entrants in 1964 were sons of businessmen, teachers, lawyers and engineers. 3. The Deputy Chairman of the Planning Commission (the Head of State was titular Chairman) was Professor Nurul Islam, while the members were Professors Anisur Rahman, Mosharraf Hussain and Rahman Sobban. 4. Interview with Moinrul Islam, Permanent Secretary at the Ministry of Public Works and Urban Development at that time, 14 May 1980. 5. Jinzara. for example, has repeatedly been mentioned as the possible site of a satellite "new town", including the community and the rest of Keraniganj Island. See Ministry of Public Works and Urban Development (1978). 6. No. 1982-JS (UD). Among the eleven points included in this order were that unauthorized construction in certain parts of the city should be demolished, that certain abandoned houses occupied by private organ­ izations should be cleared, that overdue rents on shops and markets should be collected within two weeks of the order and, perhaps ironically under the grave circum­ stances. that the possibility of construction of further three and four room housing units for government officers should be explored. 7. Translated by T. A. Khan, in Khan (1979. p. 42). FOOTNOTES & REFERENCES 199 8. Interview with Moinrul Islam, who in addition to being Permanent Secretary at the Ministry of Public Works and Urban Development, had been appointed Chairman of the Resettlement Planning Committee, 14 May 1980.

References

Anisuzzaman, M., 1979, "Bangladesh Public Administration and Society", Bangladesh Books International, Dhaka. Bangladesh Times, 1975a, 4 January. Bangladesh Times, 1975b, 10 January. Bangladesh Times, 1975c, 17 January. Bangladesh Times, 1982, 29 May. Campbell, D. (1981), Bangladesh and the Landless, Paper presented at the Development Studies Association Annual Meeting, Oxford University. Chaudhury, R. H., Ahmed, N. R., and Huda, S., 1976, Management of Immigrants to Urban Regions of Bangladesh, in: "National Report on Human Settlements: Bangladesh" ,Government of the People's Republic of Bangladesh, Prepared for the UN Conference on Human Settlements in Vancouver, p. 114. Islam, N., 1977, "Development Planning in Bangladesh", Hurst, London. Khan, T. A., 1979, "A Study of the Process of Integration of Squatter Settlements in Greater Dacca", Unpublished Joint Master's Degree Thesis in Urban and Regional Planning, Bangladesh University of Engineering and Technology/University of Sheffield. Ministry of Public Works and Urban Development, 1978, "Establishment of a New City at Keraniganj", Dhaka. Ministry of Public Works and Urban Development, 1979, "Eviction and Temporary Rehabilitation of Squatters at Dattapara, Demra and Mirpur {Phase I)", Dhaka. Shakur, M. T., 1985, Changing Attitude of the "Concerned Groups" Toward Squatter Settlements in Dhaka, Bangladesh: A Case Study, Paper presented at Symposium on Change within the Built Environment, Oxford Polytechnic, 21-22 February. The Guardian, 1975, 18 February. The Guardian, 1976, 2 January. 200 FOOTNOTES & REFERENCES CHAPTER 5

Footnotes 1. Which as a result of a reorganization in 1979 was absorbed into the new United Nations Center for Human Settlements (HABITAT) and was transferred from New York to Nairobi. 2. These points are extracted from a memorandum from F. H. Abed, on behalf of the Bangladesh Rural Advance­ ment Committee, to OXFAM's Dhaka office, in reply to questions with respect to a prospective interest-free loan from OXFAM to BRAC, dated 27 September 1978. 3. Draft Grant Agreement, "Mirpur Resettlement Program", March 1978, Annex 1.

References Campbell, D., 1981, "Bangladesh and the Landless", Paper presented at the Development Studies Association Annual Meeting, Oxford University, September. Finucane, A., 1978, "Statement on CONCERN's Interest in Bashantek", 25 July. OXFAM, 1978, "OXFAM Project: BD55 Feeding, Housing and Sanitation Programs in Demra and Bashantek Bustee Camps, Dacca", March. United Nations Capital Development Fund (UNCDF, 1977), "Mirpur Squatters Resettlement Project", Report of Mission to the People's Republic of Bangladesh, March 1977, prepared by G. Gabella, dated July. United Nations Capital Development Fund (UNCDF, 1978), "Mirpur Squatters Resettlement Project", Report of Mission to the People's Republic of Bangladesh, September 1977 - January 1978, prepared by D. Etherton and A. C. Lewin, 27 January.

CHAPTER 6 Footnotes

1. As there were very few agricultural workers in the sample, it is assumed that no seasonal variation exists. 2. Gross National Product estimates for the period 1974 to 1978 are found in World Bank (1979). FOOTNOTES & REFERENCES 201 3. This is, of course, based on a number of very strong assumptions such as the acceptability in the longer term of the differential rent system, the continued goodwill of the Government in providing interest-free credit, no housing or settlement maintenance charges for the inhabitants, a continuation of this rather high rate of growth and no change in the marginal propensities to consume as incomes increase. In effect, this set of assumptions gives the most favorable financial picture possible.

References Ahmeduzzaman, M., 1979, "The Rising Cost of Urban Land: A Report on the Land Market in Savar, Bangladesh", Unpublished Joint Master's Degree Thesis in Urban and Regional Planning, Bangladesh University of Engineer­ ing and Technology/University of Sheffield. Khan, M. D. A., and Alam, M. K., 1973, Facts about Squatters: Dacca City, Bangladesh Urban Development Directorate (mimeo). Ministry of Public Works and Urban Development, 1975a, "Rough Estimate for Eviction of Squatters Unauthor­ izedly Occupying Land of Government and other Agencies and their Temporary Rehabilitation at Dattapara, Demra and Mirpur Including Removal of Unauthorized Markets and Recovery of Possession of Government Properties: General Abstract", Dhaka. Ministry of Public Works and Urban Development, 1975b, "Rough Estimate for Resettlement of Urban Squatters at Dacca, Mirpur", Dhaka. Prakash, V., 1985, Affordability and Cost Recovery of Urban Services for the Poor, Regional Development Dial0frle, 6: 1-39. United Nations, 1973, "Mission on Urban Squatters", Project of the Government of the People's Republic of Bangladesh, BGD/73/017, November-December. United Nations Capital Development Fund (UNCDF, 1978), "Mirpur Squatters Resettlement Project", Report of Mission to the People's Republic of Bangladesh, September 1977 - January 1978, prepared by D. Etherton and A. C. Lewin, dated 27 January. United Nations Capital Development Fund (UNCDF, 1977), "Mirpur Squatter Resettlement Project", Report of 202 FOOTNOTES & REFERENCES

Mission to the People's Republic of Bangladesh. March 1977. prepared by G. Gabella. dated July 1977. World Bank, 1979. "Bangladesh: Current Trends and Devel­ opment Issues. A World Bank Country Study". Washington DC.

CHAPTER 7 Footnotes 1. Portions of this chapter have appeared in slightly different forms in Choguill (1982a) and Choguill (1982b) and are used here with permission of the publishers. 2. Site visit memorandum by D. Etherton. 13 June 1979. 3. Coordinating Committee Minutes. 17 June 1978. 4. The issue was discussed at some length by the Coordi­ nating Committee during at least seven meetings between 7 July and 21 November 1978. 5. Informal memorandum of BRAC's position with respect to the sanitary system. prepared by A. Jenkins. presented to the Committee on 15 November 1978. 6. Coordinating Committee Minutes. 20 November 1978. 7. M. R. Haq. President of the Bangladesh Thikador Society at the Inaugural Ceremony of the First National Convention. 27 May 1973. quoted in World Bank (1978, p. 6). 8. Between 13 June 1978 and 25 April 1979. a total of 21 inspection reports were issued covering approximately 52 site visits. Personnel involved included represen­ tatives of UNDP. UNCDF. OXFAM, CONCERN, BRAC, the Bangladesh Water Development Board (including a representative of the Netherlands Technical Assistance Program who was seconded to this organization and who played a leading role in attempting to save the embank­ ment) and HSD. These reports provide the information used in analyzing the responsiveness of implementing bodies to problems that arose in the course of con­ structing the embankment.

References Choguill, C. L., 1982a, Linking Planning and Implemen­ tation: The Mirpur Resettlement Project, Ekistics, 49 January I February: 37-42. FOOTNOTES & REFERENCES 203 Choguill, C. L., 1982b, Mirpur Revisited: An Analysis of a Squatter Resettlement Scheme, Plannin¥ and Develop­ ment in Developing Countries, Proceedmgs of PTRe Summer Annual Meeting, University of Warwick. Khan, T. A., 1979, "A Study of the Process of Integration of Squatter Settlements in Greater Dacca", Unpublished Joint Master's Degree Thesis in Urban and Regional Planning, Bangladesh University of Engineering and Technology/University of Sheffield. United Nations Capital Development Fund (UNCDF, 1978), "Mirpur Squatters Resettlement Project", Report of a Mission to the People's Republic of Bangladesh, prepared by D. Etherton and A. C. Lewin, dated 27 January. World Bank, 1978, "Bangladesh: Review of Construction Industry, December 1977", Report of a Mission to the People's Republic of Bangladesh, prepared by H. S. Kaden, B. Coukis and J. Henley, Washington DC. Index

Agriculture, Bangladesh, Bangladesh Rural 22-24 Advancement (see also Land use: Rice) Committee Analysis of implementation, at Mirpur, 124-125 importance, 3 project document, 127 Awami League, 73 role in implementation of Mirpur project, 157 Bangladesh role in squatter accelerating ubanization, resettlement, 96 17-46 Bangladesh Volunteer densities, 19-23 Service, in squatter food availability, 21-23 resettlement, (Table) land use, 21-23 97 Jure of urban areas, Bashantek, Mirpur, squatter 27-29 resettlement migration from rural early days, 103-105 areas, 18-27 non-government pull (urban) factors, organizations, 18, 29-31 103-105 push (rural) factors, squatters sent to, 2 18, 29-31 (see also Mirpur squatter (see also Migration) resettlement) class divisions, 60-62 housing, see Housing, Capital cities, bias towards Bangladesh investing in, 11 natural disasters, 24-27 Christian Health Services, results, 25-27 role in resettlement population, 17 of squatters, 91-94 densities, 19-23 Church of Bangladesh. see largest cities, 18, Christian Health (Table) 19 Services society structure, 60-62 Class divisions, 60-62 squatting, 17 -18 CONCERN characteristics, 36-45 role in implementation of (see also Squatters: Mirpur project, 157 Squatting) role in resettlement of war and after, 24 squatters, 93-94

205 206 INDEX CONCERN (continued) Demra (continued) squatter resettlement at and employment, 90 Bashantek, Mirpur, initial conditions, 88-89 104-105, 116 non-government Mirpur, 124-125 organization, 93-94 project document, simplicity of plans and 125-128 successful Constraints on completion, 174 implementation, 8-13 site for squatter construction difficulties, 12 resettlement, 76, 78 cultural understanding, subsequent developments, 10-11 94-100 lack of resources, 9-10 Dhaka organizational issues, 8-9 house rents, (Figure) 34 organizations, location, 9 land values, 32-33, public participation, (Figure) 35 inadequate, 12-13 migration to, 1964-1971, 30 technology, inappropriate, characteristics of 11-12 squatters, 36-45 Construction difficulties and (see also Squatters: implementation Squatting) constraints, 12 coping with new (see also Embankment at residents, 31-36 Mirpur, longer-term, 30-31 constructing) removal of squatters Co-ordination in the planning 1975, 33 process, 7 Tejaon Industrial Area, 57 Costings Dhaka Improvement Trust, preliminary plans, 54, 55, 56-57 resettlement, 80-83, accomplishments, 56 86-87 constraint, 56-57 site development, Mirpur, financing, 56-57 110-111, 117-121 Disasters, natural, Cultural factors in Mirpur Bangladesh, 24-27 resettlement project, Droughts, effect on rice 180-182 production, 59 Cultural understanding, and implementation East Bengal Construction Act constraints, 10-11 1952, 54 Cyclones, Bangladesh, 24-27 Educational standards of effects, 25-26 squatters, Dhaka, 40 results, 26-27 Embankment at Mirpur, 111-114 Demra constructing, 159-168 costings for preliminary breaks rise to six, 164 plans, 80-83 INDEX 207 Embankment at Mirpur Embankment at Mirpur (continued) (continued) constructing (continued) feasibility, 145-149 construction problems, identifying what went 162-163 wrong, 169-173 distrust, 162 attributing cause of elevation marker failure, 169 removal, 166 complexity of project not government economic recognized, 172-173 setback, 167 government I UN disagree­ materials, availability, ments, 169-170 161-162 linkage of deadline monsoon arrived, 163-164 dates, 171 1977, reports, devel­ schedules, problems, opment programmes, 170-171 160 UNCDF report ignored., 1979, February, not near 171-172 completion, 167 technology, appropriate, 1979, March, work to be 182-184 restarted, 167-168 Employment, Bangladesh, 1979, 1980, pumping 28-29 operations, 168 Engineers, short supply, personnel and responsi­ and implementation bility, 161 constraints, 9 planning/implementation link, 159-160 Failure in implementation, short-term remedies, 5-6 164-165 reasons, 6 soil bearing tests, 165 Famine, Bengal, 29 boring begins, Financial constraints and November 1978, 165, ramifications, 56-57, 166 58-60 subsidence in second background, 56, 58-60 segment, 163 imported wheat, 59 theft from dikes, 165 rice production curtailed, third break, 164 59 work began, serious UN Mission, 66 slippage, 156-157, Financial feasibility and 162 planning process, remedial work, Mirpur, 130-151 156-157, 162 First Five Year Plan, delay, 163-164 Bangladesh, 50-51, work tlnished, but 63, 67-68 nothing built inside, Floods 168 Bangladesh. 24-27 evaluation, 122 effects, 25-26 208 INDEX Floods (continued) Housing, Bangladesh embankment, 111-114 (continued) evaluation, 122 outside help, UN Mission, free site, feasibility, 62-69 Mirpur, 145-149 failure of planning problems, Mirpur, over­ process, 69 coming, 108-109 finances, 66, 68-69 results, 26-27 long term measures, (see also Embankment) 66-69 Food 1978-80, stop gap plan, availability, and population 69 density, Bangladesh, Planning Commission, 21-23 67-69 subsidy ration card, 29 planning cycle started Fotulla, site for squatter again, 1980-85, 69 resettlement, 76, recommendations, 67 78-79 resource situation, 67 short term measures, Housing, Bangladesh 65-66 backlog, 32 rental, availability, 32 building problems, 32-33 rents, 32 doubling-up, slum areas, of squatters, Dhaka, 32, 33 construction, 44-45 Government approaches, (see also Squatters: 47-71 Squatting) after independence, 52-53 Idealism, effect on resettle­ First Five Year Plan, ment, 73-88 Pakistan, 50-51, 63 Implementation of Mirpur growing crisis, East project, 152-174, Pakistan, 49-52 175-187 planning, Pakistan, co-ordination problems, 1955-1970, 48-49 153-159 private development, 51 assigning responsibility, problems of dispersal, 153 return, and over­ Committee established, running, 52-53 156 Second Five Year Plan, Government attitUde to Pakistan, 51-52 UNCDF consultants, urban planning system, 155-156 53-58 size of scheme, 153 (see also Urban cultural understanding, planning system) 180-182 land values, 32-33 Government starts work NHrpur, 109-110, 114 without UN funds. costs, 110 155-156 INDEX 209 Implementation of Mirpur Land project (continued) resources, shortage, and organizational issues, implementation 176-178 constraints, 9 organizationas involved, use, Bangladesh, 21-22 (Table) 154 rural households, 23 planning for, 175-187 values, and building, public participation, Dhaka, 32-33 184-185 Latrines, tubewells, resources, 178-180 provisions, 88-89 availability of money at (see also Sanitation: right moments, Sewerage) 178-180 Location of organizations, technology, appropriate, causing constraints 182-184 on implementation, 9 Implementation of plans analysis, importance, 3 Migration compartmentalization, 4-5 direction to other land, constraints, 8-15 179 (see also Constraints on to Bangladesh, 18-29 implementation) from rural areas, 18-27 cultural understanding, from rural areas to 10-11 Bangladesh, 18-29 failure, defining, 5-6 coping with new reasons, 6 residents, 31-36 flaws leading to no action, (see also Squatting) 1-2 proportion, long-term, importance, 1-16 30-31 methodological issues, pull (urban) factors, 18, 13-15 29-31 planning, process, push (rural) factors, 18. deiming, 7-8 29-31 and policy, 3-4 time period, 18-19 program formulation, 4-5 Mirpur resettlement, 1975, 90-91 houses and apartments within the planning built, 1972-1973. 53 process, 3-5 overrun and abandoned. Islamia Mission, in squatter 53 resettlement, (Table) Mirpur squatter resettlement 98 assessing affordability, 134-135 Jinzara, site for squatter Bashantek. early days, resettlement, 76, 79 103-105 difficulties. 103 Khulna, squatters, numbers, non-government organ­ 64 izations, 103-105 210 INDEX Mirpur squatter resettlement Mirpur squatter resettlement ( continued) ( continued) differential rent system, selling to settlers, costs, 140-143 136, 137 Embankment, see 'ability to pay', 137-139 Embankment site, 76, 78 estimating costs, 131-133 choice and cultural five different plans, understanding, 181 131-132 costings for preliminary finance, 110-111 plans, 80-83 imances, timing of non-government organ­ availability, 178-179 izations, (Table) recovery of costs, 96-98 179-180 selection, feasibility of imancial feasibility, low/high ground, 130-151 145-149 flood-free site, total community repay­ comparison studies, ments, 139-140 145-149 United Nations Capital flat rate system, 143 Development Fund, flooding problems, 108-109 107-111 formulating the scheme, commitment, 117-121 106-111 (see also Resettlement, housing units, 109-110 squatters) implementation, 152-174 Monetary resources, lack, (see also Implementation) and implementation non-government organ­ constraints, 9 izations, 124-125 permanent solution, Natural disasters, 102-129 Bangladesh, 24-27 planning stage, 111-117 'Negative powers', 7 community buildings, 114 Non-government organ­ embankment, 111-114 izations at Tongi, evaluating, 121-125 Demra and Mirpur, fresh water supplies, 116 93-100 housing, 114 at Bashantek, early days, open space/ recreation 104-105 areas, 114-116 at Mirpur, 124-125 sanitation, 116-117 storm damage, 117 Occupations of squatters, suggested layout, Dhaka, 42-44 (Figure) 115 OXFAM project document, 125-128 role in implementation of recovering costs, 135-136 Mirpur project, 157 rent charges, 135 role in resettlement of squatters, 92-94 INDEX 211 OXFAM (continued) Population, Bangladesh squatter resettlement at (continued) NHrpur, 104-105, in terms of available food, 116, 124-125 21-23 project document, Public 125-128 participation, inadequate, and implementation Planners, short supply, and constraints, 12-13 implementation Water Data, Mirpur, constraints, 9 108-109 Planning Commission, First Five Year Plan, Rents, 32 67-69 differential system, 140-143 co-ordination problems, 155 flat rate system, 143-144 views on squatters, 72-73 Resettlement of squatters, intellecturals/bureaucrats 72-101 in posts, 74 bureaucracy, 74-75 rise and fall of idealism, bus service for employ­ 73-88 ment, 89, 90 squatter removal, 75 clearance to resettlement, state of emergency, 76 human problems, (see also Resettlement of 87-88 squatters) costings for preliminary Planning plans, 79-83, 86-87 housing needs, Pakistan, education, 99 1955-70, 48-49 Government appointments, failures, 69 74 (see also Housing, health hazards, 89 Bangladesh) idealism, rise and fall, . for implementation, 175-187 73-74 bnportance, 1-16 initial conditions at camps, (see also Implementation) 88-91 Mirpur resettlement, latrines, tubewells, 111-117 provisions, 88-89 costing, 117-121 non-government organ­ evaluating, 121-125 izations, 91-94 process, defining, 7-8 plans not implemented, 91 and financial feasibility, provision of facilities and Mirpur, 130-151 service utilities, Policy, analysis and (Table) 84 implementation, 3-4 removal of squatters and Population, Bangladesh, subsequent 17-18 emergency, 75-76 densities, 19-23 sites suggested, 76-79 land use, 21-22 statistics, 85 largest cities, (Table) 19 212 INDEX

Resettlement of squatters South American Baptist (continued) Mission, role in subsequent developments, resettlement of 94-100 squatters, 92 unemployment, 89-90 Squatters vocational training, 99 Dhaka, 1973, numbers, 64 water supply, 100 from Dhaka, resettlement (see also Mirpur) plans, 2 Resources, lack, causing direction to other land, constraints on 179 implementation, 9-10 dispersal, and return, engineers and planners, 9 Khulna, 52 land, 10 income expenditure monetary, 9 analysis, 139 Rice resettlement, 72-101 aman crop, geared to (see also Resettlement) monsoon periods, 25 (see also Housing) land for production, Squatting in Bangladesh, Bangladesh, 22-23 17-18 production curtailed by characteristics, Dhaka, droughts, 1972/73, 36-45 59 ages of heads of house­ yields per acre, holds, 40 Bangladesh, 22-23 construction of houses, 44-45 Salvation Army, role, educational standard, 40 resettlement of electricity, 37 squatters, 91-94 job distribution, 42-44 Sanitation at Mirpur, origins, (Figure) 41 116-117, 157-158 percentage of population, evaluation, 122 36 Savar area, compared with schools, 37-40 Mirpur, feasibility settlement numbers, 37 study, 145 sewerage, 37 Second Five Year Plan, coping with new residents, Bangladesh, 51-52 31-36 Seventh Day Adventist, in housing backlog, 1974, squatter resettle­ 32 ment, 97 migration from rural areas, Sewerage, Khulna, 62 18-27 Mirpur, evaluation, 122 (see also Migration) (see also Sanitation) removal from Dhaka, 1975, Society structure, 33 Bangladesh, 60-62 Storm damage at Mirpur, 117 INDEX 213 Technology, inappropriate, United Nations Center for leading to implemen­ Housing, Building tation constraints, and Planning, 11-12 Dhaka, 1973, 64-67 Tej80n Industrial Area, United Nations Development Dhaka, 57 Project Terres-des-Hommes Inter­ at Dhaka, 123-124 national, role in at Mirpur, 123 resettlement of project document, squatters, 91-94 125-128 Tongi Urban areas, bias, 11 costings for preliminary Urban Development plans, 80-83 Directorate, 1965, initial conditions, 88 functions, 55-56 non-government organ­ (see also Urban planning izations, 91, 92, 93 system, Bangladesh) simplicity of plans, and Urban planning system, successful com­ Bangladesh, 53-58 pletion, 174 Dhaka Improvement Trust, site for squatter resettle­ 54, 55, 56-57 ment, 76 East Bengal Construction subsequent developments, Act, 1952, 54 94-100 financial constraints, 58-60 UNCDF offer rejected, 106 financial problems, 57 -58 planning failure, 69 Unemployment, and resettle­ UN Mission, 64-69 ment at squatters Urban Development camps, 89-90 Directorate, United Nations Capital functions, 55-56 Development Fund, (see also Housing, 107-111 Bangladesh) costs, assessing afford­ Urbanization, Bangladesh, ability, 134-135 17-46 recovering costs, 135 (see also Bangladesh) offer at Tongi, 1976, lure of urban area, 27-29 rejected, 106 agreement in 1977, 108 Wages, Bangladesh, 1973-74, at Mirpur, housing units, 28 110-111 War of Independence, financial commitment, Bangladesh, 117-121 problems after, 24, Mirpur project document, 46, 52 125-128