SAMOA: EXPLORING THE LINKAGES BETWEEN CLIMATE CHANGE AND POPULATION MOVEMENTS Ximena Flores-Palacios A thesis submitted to Auckland University of Technology in the fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Public Policy 2016 Auckland University of Technology i Abstract Samoa, like other Pacific Island Countries and Territories (PICTs), is already experiencing the adverse impacts of climate change and natural disasters, and future projections indicate that these impacts will get worse. While there is clear evidence that climate change is stimulating population movements, the relationship between climate change and mobility has not yet been addressed comprehensively in both research and policy. Much of the research has concentrated on the atoll territories, such as Kiribati as the poster child of the climate change debate with less attention on the impacts in middle- sized Pacific nations, such as Samoa. Furthermore, policies have focused on the physical and technical aspects of climate change with less recognition of the social, economic and cultural impacts. Notably, people’s voices of their experiences have been missing in both research and policy debates. This Samoa study explores people’s experiences and understandings of climate change, including whether and how climate-related factors have been influencing mobility patterns during a period of 30 years (1985 – 2015). The theoretical framework is interdisciplinary combining a Samoan worldview which acknowledges the place of traditional knowledge, values, beliefs and practices in people’s responses to climate change, and Western-based perspectives and disciplinary insights to set the knowledge base. Data about people’s experiences on climate-induced mobility was gained from a village-based study in Lotofaga. Over a period of one year, village observations and interviews (talanoa) were conducted with village-based family members, those who now largely live in the capital Apia, and those who have migrated to New Zealand. In order to contextualise the study, a comprehensive document review of the main economic, social and environmental characteristic of Samoa was carried out backed by interviews with key informants in Samoa and New Zealand. Findings from the village study were used as a lens to identify critical issues at the national level as a base for policy recommendations. Main study findings are: first, despite the fact that climate change is affecting people’s lives, families are demonstrating great strength and resilience in ameliorating the impacts of climate-related events. More particularly, they are using a mix of traditional and Western-based modern technical knowledge, drawing on their family and village ii social support systems, utilising their customary land tenure entitlements, and using population movements to enhance their adaptive capacity. Second, population movements now play an integral part of people’s adaptation strategies to climate change, as seen in cases of displacement and relocation from coastal areas to inland customary lands, temporary and permanent migration to Apia, and overseas migration is becoming more prominent. A third main finding is that climate change tends to exacerbate differences among groups. Families and groups with limited access to resources and support systems have fewer adaptation options, are more vulnerable to the impacts of climate change and are less able to use mobility as an adaptive mechanism. It is necessary to give greater attention to the specific needs of women, youth, elders and other vulnerable groups. Two implications for policy design have been identified in this study. First, the voices of people affected by climate change must be incorporated in both research and policy. Not only are they the ones affected by changes, but also their knowledge and aspirations have a central place in understanding and addressing climate change challenges. Second, climate-induced mobility must be studied within specific social and cultural contexts (place and time) so that tailored interventions can be put in place. In sum, the design of any climate change adaptation initiative must be conducted in consultation with communities so as to ensure that their priorities are taken into account. iii Attestation of Authorship I hereby declare that this submission is my own work and that, to the best of my knowledge and belief, it contains no material previously published or written by another person (except where explicitly defined in the acknowledgements), nor material which to a substantial extent has been submitted for the award of any other degree or diploma of a university or other institution of higher learning. Signed ____ _______ Date _30/09/2016__________ iv Acknowledgements Firstly, I would like to thank the people of Lotofaga, those living in the village, Apia and Auckland. Thank you for your support. Your insightful knowledge, wisdom and experiences have been a source of inspiration throughout my research journey. I would like to extend my gratitude to their families for encompassing warm-heartedness towards me and for making me feel welcome. Fa’afetai tele. I’d also like to express my gratitude to the key informants of this research for sharing with me your knowledge in a wide-array of fields. I am most grateful to the Honourable Fiame Naomi Mata’afa for your guidance, encouragement, hospitality and time. Thank you for your acts of kindness. You have inspired me in so many ways and given me the incredible opportunity to witness and experience the heart of the Samoan culture. I wish to extend my heartfelt gratitude to my Supervisor Professor Tagaloatele Peggy Fairbairn-Dunlop. Thank you for your unfaltering support, intellectual guidance, patience and dedication. You gave me strength to persevere with this study and have instilled profound knowledge within me. Thank you also to my Second Supervisor Dr Fa’alāva’au Juliet Boon Nanai, for your genuine interest, attention to detail and constructive feedback which has been an encouragement at all stages of my work. I would like to thank my family. To my mother, Sachita, and my father, Oscar, for your unconditional love, support and example of service to others. To my sisters Patricia, Karen and Katty, thank you for your good wishes and keeping me focused with your enthusiasm. A special thanks to my daughter Cloe, my sunshine, for supporting me during this journey, we have learned and shared a lot. I hope that you treasure our wonderful experiences in this part of the world. This study is dedicated to you. I would like to gratefully acknowledge the funding I received towards my PhD from AUT Vice Chancellor’s Doctoral Scholarships and through the New Zealand Aid program for postgraduate field research. I am extremely honoured to be a recipient of these funding which have given me to provision to take this research one step further. I would very much like to acknowledge the support of colleagues and friends who helped me to stay focus. A special thank you also goes to the staff of the University of Samoa, Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment and UNDP for providing me support during my stays in Samoa. I am grateful for the professional editing, proofreading and comments of Margi Keys and David Parker and Sue Knox for assisting me with the formatting. v Ethics Approval The ethical approval No 12/207 for this research was granted by the Auckland University of Technology Ethics Committee (AUTEC) at its meeting held on 31 August 2012. vi Abbreviations and Acronyms ADB Asian Development Bank ADPC Asian Disaster Preparedness Centre CBD Convention on Biological Diversity 1992 CDCRM Community Disaster and Climate Risk Management Programme CEHZ Coastal Erosion Hazard Zone CFHZ Coastal Flood Hazard Zone CIF Climate Investment Funds CIM Plans Coastal Infrastructure Management Plans DMO Disaster Management Office DRR Disaster Risk Reduction EEZ Exclusive Economic Zone FAO Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations FDC Foundation for Development Cooperation GDP Gross Domestic Product GEF Global Environment Facility GFDRR Global Facility for Disaster Reduction and Recovery GIZ Deutsche Gesellschaft fur Internationale Zusammenarbeit GNI Gross National Income HRC Health Research Council of New Zealand IASC Inter-Agency Standing Committee ICHCAP International Information and Networking Centre for Intangible Cultural Heritage in the Asia - Pacific Region ICSU Internal Council of Science IDMC Internal Displacement Monitoring Centre IFAD International Fund for Agricultural Development IFRC International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies ILO International Labour Organization IOM International Organization for Migration IPCC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change LSE London School of Economics MDGs UN Millennium Development Goals MFAT New Zealand Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Trade MNRE Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment of Samoa MOF Ministry of Finance of Samoa MOH Ministry of Health of Samoa MWCSD Ministry of Women Community and Social Development of Samoa vii MWTI Ministry of Works Transport and Infrastructure of Samoa NAPA National Adaptation Programme of Action for Climate Change NCP National Climate Policy NGHGAS National Green House Gas Abatement Scheme NGO Non-Governmental Organisation ODA Official Development Assistance ODI Overseas Development Institute OHCHR Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights PICTs Pacific Island Countries and Territories PIDF Pacific Islands Development Forum PIFS Pacific