Global Journal of Human Social Science Also Demanded the Arrival of the Leadership of the of Which Is a Danger to Others, I.E

OnlineISSN:2249-460X PrintISSN:0975-587X DOI:10.17406/GJHSS

CasesofTerroristCrimes PrincipleofSystemicVision

CO2CaptureforSavingEarth CarbonCapture&Storage-CCS

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Editorial Board

Global Journal of Human-Social Science

Dr. Heying Jenny Zhan Dr. Adrian Armstrong

B.A., M.A., Ph.D. Sociology, University of Kansas, USA BSc Geography, LSE, 1970 Ph.D. Geography Department of Sociology Georgia State University, (Geomorphology) Kings College London 1980 Ordained United States Priest, Church of England 1988 Taunton, Somerset, United Kingdom

Dr. Prasad V Bidarkota Dr. Gisela Steins

Ph.D., Department of Economics Florida International Ph.D. Psychology, University of Bielefeld, Germany University United States Professor, General and Social Psychology, University of Duisburg-Essen, Germany

Dr. Alis Puteh Dr. Stephen E. Haggerty

Ph.D. (Edu.Policy) UUM Sintok, Kedah, Malaysia M.Ed Ph.D. Geology & Geophysics, University of London (Curr. & Inst.) University of Houston, United States Associate Professor University of Massachusetts, United States

Dr. Bruce Cronin Dr. Helmut Digel

B.A., M.A., Ph.D. in Political Science, Columbia Ph.D. University of Tbingen, Germany Honorary President University Professor, City College of New York, of German Athletic Federation (DLV), Germany United States

Dr. Hamada Hassanein Dr. Tanyawat Khampa

Ph.D, MA in Linguistics, BA & Education in English, Ph.d in Candidate (Social Development), MA. in Social Department of English, Faculty of Education, Mansoura Development, BS. in Sociology and Anthropology, University, Mansoura, Egypt Naresuan University, Thailand

Dr. Asuncin Lpez-Varela Dr. Gomez-Piqueras, Pedro

BA, MA (Hons), Ph.D. (Hons) Facultad de Filolog?a. Ph.D in Sport Sciences, University Castilla La Mancha, Universidad Complutense Madrid 29040 Madrid Spain Spain

Dr. Faisal G. Khamis Dr. Mohammed Nasser Al-Suqri

Ph.D in Statistics, Faculty of Economics & Ph.D., M.S., B.A in Library and Information Management, Administrative Sciences / AL-Zaytoonah University of Sultan Qaboos University, Oman Jordan, Jordan

Dr. Giaime Berti Dr. Vesna Stankovic Pejnovic

Ph.D. School of Economics and Management University Ph. D. Philosophy Zagreb, Croatia Rusveltova, Skopje of Florence, Italy Macedonia

Dr. Valerie Zawilski Dr. Raymond K. H. Chan

Associate Professor, Ph.D., University of Toronto MA - Ph.D., Sociology, University of Essex, UK Associate Ontario Institute for Studies in Education, Canada Professor City University of Hong Kong, China

Dr. Edward C. Hoang Dr. Tao Yang

Ph.D., Department of Economics, University of Ohio State University M.S. Kansas State University B.E. Colorado United States Zhejiang University, China

Dr. Intakhab Alam Khan Mr. Rahul Bhanubhai Chauhan

Ph.D. in Doctorate of Philosophy in Education, King B.com., M.com., MBA, PhD (Pursuing), Assistant Professor, Abdul Aziz University, Saudi Arabia Parul Institute of Business Administration, Parul University, Baroda, India

Dr. Kaneko Mamoru Dr. Rita Mano

Ph.D., Tokyo Institute of Technology Structural Ph.D. Rand Corporation and University of California, Los Engineering Faculty of Political Science and Economics, Angeles, USA Dep. of Human Services, University of Haifa Waseda University, Tokyo, Japan Israel

Dr. Joaquin Linne Dr. Cosimo Magazzino

Ph. D in Social Sciences, University of Buenos Aires, Aggregate Professor, Roma Tre University Rome, 00145, Argentina Italy

Dr. Hugo Nami Dr. S.R. Adlin Asha Johnson

Ph.D.in Anthropological Sciences, Universidad of Ph.D, M. Phil., M. A., B. A in English Literature, Bharathiar Buenos Aires, Argentina, University of Buenos Aires, University, Coimbatore, India Argentina

Dr. Luisa dall’Acqua Dr. Thierry Feuillet

Ph.D. in Sociology (Decisional Risk sector), Master MU2, Ph.D in Geomorphology, Master’s Degree in College Teacher, in Philosophy (Italy), Edu-Research Geomorphology, University of Nantes, France Group, Zrich/Lugano

Contents of the Issue

i. Copyright Notice ii. Editorial Board Members iii. Chief Author and Dean iv. Contents of the Issue

1. Practice of Application in Cases of Terrorist Crimes, Problems of Law Enforcement. 1-3 2. Public Consortia for the Treatment of Waste: Analysis from the Principle of Systemic Vision. 5-16

3. Making use of CO2 Capture for Saving Earth and Human - A Comparison of “Carbon Capture and Storage-CCS” and “Carbon Capture and Storage Energy-CCSE”. 17-20 4. Men who have Sex with Men: The Male University Students Experience. 21-28 5. The Historical Process and Dynamic of Rural Coconut Sugar Industry Development in Banyumas, Central Java, Indonesia. 29-37 6. Death Territories: Visibility of Juvenile Residents of Porto Alegre who were Victims of Homicide in 2015, 2016, 2017 and 2018. 39-61 7. Conflicts and Resolutions on Religions Differences as means of Acquiring Slaves in the African Gulf of Guinea during the Slave Trade Period: The Case of Nigeria and Cameroon in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries. 63-77

v. Fellows vi. Auxiliary Memberships vii. Preferred Author Guidelines viii. Index

Global Journal of HUMAN-SOCIAL SCIENCE: H Interdisciplinary Volume 20 Issue 2 Version 1.0 Year 2020 Type: Double Blind Peer Reviewed International Research Journal Publisher: Global Journals Online ISSN: 2249-460x & Print ISSN: 0975-587X

Practice of Application in Cases of Terrorist Crimes, Problems of Law Enforcement By Serebrennikova A.V. & Lebedev M.V Moscow state University Annotation- This article provides an analysis of the rules on criminal responsibility for terrorism and hostage-taking, and certain signs of corpus delicti. The problem of qualification of terrorist crimes is relevant today. One of the problems faced by the law enforcer, who qualifies a terrorist act and hostage-taking, is the correct determination of the signs of the composition of these related crimes. In this article, the authors analyze the norms of Art. 205 of the Criminal Code and Art. 206 of the Criminal Code, the basic aspects of the differentiation of norms are disclosed, the practice of law enforcement on the indicated compositions is studied. Keywords: terrorism, terrorist act, terrorist crimes, hostage taking, subject of crime, qualification problems, law enforcement practice. GJHSS-H Classification: FOR Code: 160299

PracticeofApplicationinCasesofTerroristCrimesProblemsofLawEnforcement

Strictly as per the compliance and regulations of:

© 2020. Serebrennikova A.V. & Lebedev M.V. This is a research/review paper, distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-Noncommercial 3.0 Unported License http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/3.0/), permitting all noncommercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

Practice of Application in Cases of Terrorist Crimes, Problems of Law Enforcement

Serebrennikova A.V. α & Lebedev M.V. σ

Annotation - This article provides an analysis of the rules on about the actions of the notary of the Kazan notary district criminal responsibility for terrorism and hostage-taking, and FULL NAME23 as an additional condition for the release certain signs of corpus delicti. The problem of qualification of of the hostage FULL NAME32 ”[2]. terrorist crimes is relevant today. One of the problems faced One of the frequent problems in qualifying a by the law enforcer, who qualifies a terrorist act and hostage- hostage-taking on the basis of a sign of the objective taking, is the correct determination of the signs of the composition of these related crimes. In this article, the authors side is that the law enforcement officer does not always analyze the norms of Art. 205 of the Criminal Code and Art. pay attention to the necessary elements of the corpus 2020 206 of the Criminal Code, the basic aspects of the delicti: capture and retention. The mere fact that there is a restriction of freedom, an obstacle to the movement ear differentiation of norms are disclosed, the practice of law Y enforcement on the indicated compositions is studied. and leaving a person’s place of detention indicates a Keywords: terrorism, terrorist act, terrorist crimes, sign of violence. Non-hazardous violence for life and 1 hostage taking, subject of crime, qualification problems, health, the restriction of freedom is interpreted in law enforcement practice. paragraph 21 of the Resolution of the Plenum of the Supreme Court of December 27, 2002 N 29 “On judicial I. Introduction practice in cases of theft, robbery and burglary”

e illustrate the provisions indicated in the final [6, p. 57]. qualifying work, using the example of judicial The verdict of the Medvedevsky District Court of

W practice. The Judicial Collegium for Criminal the Mari-El Republic in the case of 08.10.2015 established, “Popov A.A. committed the capture and Cases of the Supreme Court of the Republic of Tatarstan examined the criminal case No. 2-9 / 2015 of retention of the juvenile as a hostage, in order to force 03.19.2015. concluded: “Fakhrullina G.F. I went into the the state to act as a condition for the release of the visitors' office of a notary’s office located in: Kazan, ... hostage, in respect of a known juvenile .... Going to the balcony of the apartment, A. Popov lifted a helpless )

and she demanded to give her a certificate of inheritance H

young child by a T-shirt, speaking the words of the threat (

under the law, namely, for an apartment… Volume XX Issue II Version I After that Fakhrullina G.F. showed the notary’s that if the police were called, he would kill FULL NAME3 office employees the belt she had previously put on her, ... in order to coerce the police officers, that is, the state connected by wires with a button, threatening that it was represented by the law enforcement agency - the police, a “martyr” belt stuffed with trotyl, which she would to fulfill his requirements as a condition for the release of the hostage, he put forward the police officers the detonate by pressing the button in case of failure to fulfill - her requirements ... Following criminal intent Fakhrullina conditions to arrange a meeting with the police officer he G.F. transferred her claims, written in advance by her knew - the district police officer. ... arguments of Popov own in writing, to the police officers who arrived at the A.A. about his innocence of the alleged crime, that he notary’s office, told them that she did not want to did not seize and did not hold the juvenile FULL NAME3 negotiate with them, release the hostage FULL NAME32 as a hostage, did not put forward any demands to the until her requirements were met, insisted on the issue of police officers, the court finds vicious, caused by the a certificate of inheritance under the law to her and the desire of Popov A.A. to avoid criminal liability for what provision of funds on accounts of FULL NAME40 in OJSC was done. ”[3]. AIKB ... Another distinction between a terrorist act and hostage-taking is the absence of hostage capture, most

To create a public resonance Fakhrullina G.F. Global Journal of Human Social Science also demanded the arrival of the leadership of the of which is a danger to others, i.e. an indefinite circle of Republic of Tatarstan and the leadership of law persons. Such a danger is inherent in other crimes of a enforcement agencies in order to influence previous terrorist nature. 205, 211, 278 and 279 of the RF decisions of the authorities regarding her complaints Criminal Code [7]. Another feature of the distinction between a Author α: Doctor of law, Professor of criminal law and criminology, terrorist act and hostage taking is the presence of Moscow state University. M. V. Lomonosov Russia, Moscow. e-mail: [email protected] different goals when committing an act. When Author σ: Analyst of Department of National Security, Gubkin Russian committing a terrorist act, the goal is aimed at forcing State University of Oil and Gas, (National Research University), Russia. the authorities to make decisions. Moscow. e-mail: [email protected]

In accordance with the materials of the criminal the opportunity to significantly reduce the grave case No. 2-8 / 2015 contained in the sentence of the consequences of the crime. Supreme Code of the Republic of Dagestan dated So, according to the Verdict of the Klintsovsky 21.04.2015, one can consider the goals of the guilty District Court of March 25, 2016 in the case No. 1-7/ person in the commission of a terrorist act: “... 2016, “by Pugina R.V., in order to compel the committing a terrorist act ..., with the aim of forcing the KlintsovskyDepartment of the Ministry of Internal Affairs of authorities to make a decision on changing the existing Russia, as a state authority , to bring him his former wife management order and granting state sovereignty to the and juvenile daughter, as a condition for the release of Republic of Dagestan with a view to further creating on the hostages, but then, at the request of the employees its territory an independent Islamic state operating on a of the KlintsovskyDepartment of the Ministry of Internal the principles of Sharia. The person # 1 chose, as the Affairs of Russia, independently released the hostages means of implementing the crime planned, a high-power Korzhukhova G.A. and Pugina R.V., in due to it, in explosion in the place of public worship ofadherents of a accordance with the note to Article 206 of the RF different direction in Islam to cause death to the Criminal Code , he is subject to exemption from criminal maximum number of people and intimidate the liability for seizing and holding a person as a hostage, 2020 population ”[4]. committed in order to coerce the state and the citizen to The purpose of Article 206 of the RF Criminal commit an action as conditions for the release of the ear

Y Code is the desire to coerce the state, organization, or hostage, using an item as a weapon, in respect of two citizen to commit certain positive actions, as well as to persons, provided for in Article 206, Part 2, Clause “d”, 2 refrain from committing any actions. So the materials of “g” of the RF Criminal Code . the criminal case No. 1-2002 / 2017 contained in the The analysis of the norm shows that this Decision of the Sernursky District Court of March 10, provision, as indicated in the note, can only apply to that 2017, states: “A.N. Vaseev seized and detained the part of the objective side, which consists in preparing for person as a hostage, ... expressed his demand as a the commission of a terrorist act, but does not extend its condition for the release of the hostage FULL NAME1, to effect to those criminals who express a threat of take action, namely, within five minutes to come to the commission, while when hostage-taking, the note territory of the LLC ... and bring for A. Vasseev a bottle of extends its effect to the entire objective side of the vodka, while expressing, in case of non-compliance with crime. his requirements, the threat of killing FULL NAME1 with a The issues considered in this paper and the kitchen knife ”[5]. conclusions of the authors do not claim to be The domestic literature describes that a exhaustive, but represent a sphere for further scientific )

H situation is possible when a terrorist act and hostage- discussions.

(

Volume XX Issue II Version I taking can become norms competing in qualification. According to V.A. Osipov such a conflict can be Bibliography resolved if we consider the norms asthe general and the 1. Osipov V.A. Hostage taking: criminal law and particular: “terrorist activity is a general norm in relation to hostage-taking” [6], and in this case there is a criminological aspect. Dis. Cand. of Legal Sciences. M., 1999. - qualification rule when the law enforcer should give 2. Sentence of the Judicial Collegium for Criminal priority to a special norm. Cases of the Supreme Court of the Republic of The next element of the distinction of Article 205 and 206 of the RF Criminal Code is a note to the articles Tatarstan No. 2-9/2015 of 19.03.2015, http:// sudact.ru/regular/doc/95HwroRqRplT/?page=12&re containing the conditions for exemption from liability. So, in accordance with Article 205 of the RF Criminal Code, gulardoc_type=1008®ular-court=®ular-date_ a person is exempted from criminal liability at the stage from = 01/01/2015 & regular-case_doc = & regular- (date of access to the electronic resource of preparation if it is possible to complete the objective 01/10/2019). side. Article 206 of the RF Criminal Code contains a similar note, within the meaning of which, the person 3. Verdict of the Medvedevsky District Court of the

Global Journal of Human Social Science who committed the crime can be exempted from Mari-El Republic on the case of 08.10.2015., criminal liability. The difference is a special condition, Http://sudact.ru/regular/doc/r0rgicLUZprH/?page=8 namely: "voluntarily or at the request of the authorities, & regulardoc _type = 1008 & regular-court = (date of access to the electronic resource 22.12. 2018). he will release the hostage if his actions do not contain a different corpus delicti". Based on the criminal cases 4. Verdict of the Supreme Court of the Republic of examined by us, it can be argued that such crimes often Dagestan No. 2-8 / 2015, dated April 21, 2015, http: contain other corpus delicti. As other corpus delictis, the //sudact.ru/regular/doc/G9vvFmgxqgl8/? Page = 5 legislator understands drug trafficking, intentional harm & regulardoc_type = 1008 & regular-court = & to the hostage’s health, arms trafficking, property regular- (the date of the appeal to electronic to the damage, and others. In this case, the guilty person has resource 12/28/2018).

5. Decision of the Sernursky District Court No. 1- 2/2002/2017 of 03/10/2017, http://sudact.ru/regular/ doc/7bjNhUnXnBmV/?page=6®ulardoc_type=1 008®ular-court=®ular-date_from=01.01. 2015®ular-case_doc = & regular- (date of access to the electronic resource 12/20/2018.). 6. Collection of decisions of the Plenums of the Supreme Courts of the USSR, the RSFSR and the Russian Federation on criminal cases. M., 2015. S. 67. 7. The RF Criminal Code of 13.06.1996 N 63-ФЗ (as amended on 27/12/2018) (as amended and supplemented, entered into force on 08/07/2019).

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Public Consortia for the Treatment of Waste: Analysis from the Principle of Systemic Vision By Thanabi Bellenzier Calderan, Jane Márcia Mazzarino & Luciana Turatti Universidade do Vale do Taquari Abstract- In Brazil, the National Policy on Solid Waste (Law No. 12,305) brought new guidelines for waste management and incorporated into its text principles that were previously only in the doctrine, especially the one that deals with the systemic view, which considers the variables environmental, social, economic, cultural, technological and public health. This article analyzes the advantages and challenges of inter-municipal consortium for the integrated management of domestic solid waste, in the light of the principle of systemic vision, since it presents itself as a possibility of facing the difficulties that present themselves. This is a bibliographical study. It is concluded that public consortia can be a viable and advantageous alternative in the search for joining efforts to solve common problems to meet PNRS requirements since they have advantages in all dimensions related to the principle of systemic vision. Keywords: domestic solid waste; integrated management; intermunicipal public consortium. GJHSS-H Classification: FOR Code: 900401

PublicConsortiafortheTreatmentofWasteAnalysisfromthePrincipleofSystemicVision

Strictly as per the compliance and regulations of:

© 2020. Thanabi Bellenzier Calderan, Jane Márcia Mazzarino & Luciana Turatti. This is a research/review paper, distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-Noncommercial 3.0 Unported License http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by- nc/3.0/), permitting all non-commercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

Public Consortia for the Treatment of Waste: Analysis from the Principle of Systemic Vision

Thanabi Bellenzier Calderan α, Jane Márcia Mazzarino σ & Luciana Turatti ρ

Abstract - In Brazil, the National Policy on Solid Waste (Law No. anos de discussão, a Lei nº 12.305 que institui a Política

12,305) brought new guidelines for waste management and Nacional de Resíduos Sólidos (PNRS), com metas, incorporated into its text principles that were previously only in objetivos, diretrizes, princípios e instrumentos, além de the doctrine, especially the one that deals with the systemic datas estabelecidas para o seu cumprimento por parte view, which considers the variables environmental, social, dos municípios, visando prioritariamente: não geração, economic, cultural, technological and public health. This redução, reutilização, reciclagem, tratamento de article analyzes the advantages and challenges of intermunicipal consortium for the integrated management of resíduos sólidos e disposição final ambientalmente 2020 domestic solid waste, in the light of the principle of systemic adequada. Dentre as metas encontra-se a proposta de vision, since it presents itself as a possibility of facing the eliminação dos lixões, a implantação da coleta seletiva ear Y difficulties that present themselves. This is a bibliographical e a elaboração dos Planos de Gerenciamento de study. It is concluded that public consortia can be a viable and Resíduos Sólidos (PGRS).1 5 advantageous alternative in the search for joining efforts to Dentre os princípios adotados pela Lei, o que solve common problems to meet PNRS requirements since se constitui como os fundamentos de toda política they have advantages in all dimensions related to the principle of systemic vision. pública, destaca-se o da visão sistêmica, o qual Keywords: domestic solid waste; integrated explicita que devem ser consideradas as variáveis management; intermunicipal public consortium. ambiental, social, cultural, econômica, tecnológica e de saúde pública na gestão dos resíduos sólidos. Dessa I. Uma Breve Contextualização forma, a lei conduz a uma análise global e complexa Normativa dos problemas ambientais. Uma das propostas mais importantes da PNRS foi a proibição dos lixões e dos crescimento desordenado da economia e das aterros controlados. A Lei determina que todos os cidades, ocorrido em especial a partir da municípios devem ter aterros sanitários adequados década de 1970, trouxe consigo problemas ambientalmente, onde só poderão ser depositados os ) O H relacionados à produção e disposição de resíduos resíduos que não possuam mais possibilidade de ( Volume XX Issue II Version I sólidos domésticos. O volume de resíduos produzidos reaproveitamento ou compostagem. tem denotado a escassez de áreas próprias para Também proíbe catar lixo, morar ou criar disposição e a carência de investimentos em animais nos locais de disposição final de resíduos, e tecnologias adequadas ao tratamento dos Resíduos prevê a necessária inclusão de catadores em Sólidos Urbanos (RSU). Na perspectiva jurídico- cooperativas, de forma a proporcionar melhores - constitucional, o saneamento básico é ao mesmo condições de trabalho e a sua dignidade. O tempo um dever, um direito e um serviço público encerramento de lixões previsto para ocorrer até 2 de essencial, atuando como uma espécie de ponte agosto de 2014 era parte integrante das metas dos normativa entre o mínimo existencial social e a proteção planos estaduais e/ou municipais de resíduos sólidos, ambiental. que previam desde a distribuição ordenada de rejeitos Na busca por mecanismos capazes de em aterros (de modo a evitar danos ou riscos à saúde minimizar os impactos ambientais ocasionados pelo pública e à segurança, minimizando os impactos crescimento dos índices de geração de resíduos, o ambientais adversos) até a coleta seletiva. Estas metas governo brasileiro sancionou em 2010, depois de 20 não foram atingidas.

Author α: Doutora em Ambiente e Desenvolvimento pela Universidade Ainda segundo a Lei, após a desativação, as Global Journal of Human Social Science do Vale do Taquari (Univates). e-mail: [email protected] áreas destinadas a lixões devem ser isoladas e Author σ: Doutora em Ciências da Comunicação pela Universidade do recuperadas ambientalmente. O remanejamento dos Vale do Rio dos Sinos (Unisinos), professora permanente do Programa trabalhadores vinculados a essas áreas deve ocorrer de de Pós-Graduação Ambiente e Desenvolvimento (PPGAD) da Universidade do Vale do Taquari (Univates). forma participativa, utilizando como referência o e-mail: [email protected] Programa Pró-Catador (Decreto nº 7.404/2010) e os Author ρ: Doutora em Direito pela Universidade de Santa Cruz do Sul programas de habitação de interesse social. (Unisc), professora do Programa de Pós-Graduação Ambiente e Desenvolvimento (PPGAD) e do Programa de Pós-Graduação em 1 Sistemas Ambientais Sustentáveis (PPGSAS) da Universidade do Vale A Lei previa originalmente o prazo de agosto de 2014 para adoção do Taquari (Univates). e-mail: [email protected] das referidas medidas.

Considerando que os municípios são tidos os que mais sofrem para tentar adequar-se às como responsáveis pela prestação dos serviços exigências legais, o que pode estar relacionado a previstos na PNRS, aqueles que não se adequassem dificuldades técnicas e financeiras. até o prazo inicialmente previsto estariam sujeitos, entre Uma das alternativas que pode contribuir com outras sanções, à multa de R$ 5 mil a R$ 50 milhões a superação destas dificuldades encontra-se presente (de acordo com os artigos 61 e 62 do Decreto nº 6.514 no artigo 241 da Constituição de 1988 que trata dos de 2008, que regulamenta a lei de crimes ambientais). consórcios, os quais surgem como uma alternativa para Sabe-se, contudo, que estas penalidades não foram a prestação dos serviços públicos de interesse comum aplicadas, talvez pelo grande número de municípios (BRASIL, 2005). Tal dispositivo foi, em parte, que não conseguiu atingir tais metas e, também, regulamentado pela Lei nº 11.107/2005. porque foi solicitada prorrogação do prazo por meio de A formação dos consórcios obedece aos emenda de lei. interesses e disponibilidades de uma dada região, A legislação também prevê, no artigo 55 da comportando diversos modos de atuação e permitindo PNRS, a obrigatoriedade da elaboração de Planos de o seu aprimoramento, inclusão ou não de municípios,

2020 Resíduos Sólidos (PMGIRS), sendo que, a partir de 2 de pela lógica da proximidade, podendo assumir objetivos agosto de 2012, os estados e municípios que não diversos. ear

Y tivessem seus planos elaborados não poderiam ter A Lei dos Consórcios Públicos, Lei nº acesso a recursos da União ou por ela controlados, 11.107/2005, atende à lógica da formação de um

6 para serem utilizados em empreendimentos e serviços Estado Federado, que propõe a cooperação entre seus relacionados à gestão de resíduos sólidos. entes para a realização dos serviços públicos básicos à Mesmo diante do avanço normativo, os dados população e uma possível melhoria na qualidade retirados do Panorama dos Resíduos Sólidos de vida. (ABRELPE, 2014) relativos à destinação final dos Pressupõem-se que os consórcios públicos resíduos coletados, revelam que apenas 58,4% do total podem ser uma alternativa para os municípios unirem dos resíduos gerados no país seguiram para aterros esforços na implantação de um local para o sanitários em 2014, praticamente sem alteração em gerenciamento dos resíduos sólidos domésticos, onde relação ao ano anterior. estrategicamente a triagem dos resíduos também seria Nesse sentido, é importante ressaltar que os facilitada e o tratamento e destinação final ocorreriam 41,6% restantes que correspondem a 29.659.170 de forma adequada, fazendo com que estes toneladas no ano, foram encaminhadas para lixões ou cumprissem as diretrizes da PNRS. ) Pautado no exposto, o presente artigo objetiva

H aterros controlados, os quais pouco se diferenciam dos

( analisar as vantagens e desafios do consorciamento

Volume XX Issue II Version I lixões. Ambos não possuem o conjunto de sistemas e medidas necessários para proteção do meio ambiente municipal relacionado ao tratamento de resíduos, contra danos e degradações. Em 2014 ainda existiam considerando, para tanto, as orientações advindas do 1.559 lixões e 1.775 aterros controlados que, segundo a princípio da visão sistêmica, no intuito de fomentar Lei, deveriam ser substituídos por aterro sanitário novos arranjos institucionais que permitam que, entes com dificuldades em comum unam-se no propósito de - (ABRELPE, 2014). Mesmo com uma legislação mais restritiva e prestar serviços públicos de forma eficiente. diante dos esforços empreendidos em tentar adequar Metodologicamente, a pesquisa valeu-se de uma os municípios às novas diretrizes da PNRS, a análise bibliográfica. destinação inadequada de RSU se faz presente em II. AVisão Sistêmica E A Complexidade todas as regiões e estados brasileiros. Ao todo 3.344 municípios, 60% do total, ainda fizeram uso, em 2014, Ambiental de locais impróprios para destinação final dos resíduos A questão ambiental requer uma abordagem coletados (ABRELPE, 2014). sistêmica capaz de considerar sua complexidade. A No ano de 2013 pouco mais de 62% dos palavra "sistema" deriva do grego synhistanai, que

Global Journal of Human Social Science municípios registraram alguma iniciativa de coleta significa colocar junto. O entendimento sistêmico requer seletiva, percentual baixo levando em consideração que uma compreensão dentro de um contexto, de forma a trata-se de diretriz obrigatória da PNRS. Dos municípios estabelecer a natureza das relações. A principal com até 49.999 habitantes (pequeno porte) 60% não característica da organização dos organismos vivos é a têm iniciativa de coleta seletiva, enquanto que dos natureza hierárquica, ou seja, a tendência para formar municípios com população acima de 500.000 estruturas multiniveladas de sistemas dentro de habitantes (grande porte) apenas 6% não têm iniciativa sistemas. Cada um dos sistemas forma um todo com de coleta seletiva (ABRELPE, 2013). Fica evidente, relação às suas partes e também é parte de um todo. A desta forma, que os municípios de pequeno porte, são existência de diferentes níveis de complexidade com

diferentes tipos de leis operando em cada nível forma a Constata-se que o contexto no qual a sociedade está concepção de "complexidade organizada" inserida consiste num universo menos previsível, mais (VASCONCELLOS, 2010)2. complexo, dinâmico e pluralista, em dança permanente, Considerando-se que o conhecimento humano sujeito a variações e criatividade (BEHRENS, 2002). é complexo, faz-se necessário exercitar uma visão do A complexidade do universo pós-moderno mundo que supere a crise epistemológica da ciência, apresenta a perda do sentimento de certeza e obriga o do meio ambiente e da sociedade. Isto porque o homem a encarar a instabilidade de todo o racionalismo exagerado existente na sociedade e na conhecimento, fazendo com que o homem abdique da ciência, devido à fragmentação do conhecimento, é rigidez das ideias, atitudes e tipos de comportamentos considerado um dos causadores dessa crise, uma vez fundamentados no sistema de valores tradicionais. O que deixou de lado a visão do todo ao focar-se em humanismo manipulador apresentado pela fatos isolados, deixando de compreender a modernidade tende a ser rejeitado, uma vez que o complexidade da realidade. A preocupação cartesiana homem que conquistou a natureza pode estar em vias era uma só: justificar racionalmente o mundo que existe de se auto-destruir, já que não se percebe integrado a (MACHADO, 2011). ela (MACHADO, 2011). 2020 Como consequência, para Machado, o projeto Neste contexto, se faz necessário pensar o ear da modernidade separou o homem da natureza. Esta mundo e tudo o que o compõe como um sistema Y relação de divisão e fragmentação interfere diretamente formado por estruturas complexas que se interligam e 7 na forma do homem conceber a si mesmo, a natureza e se ressignificam constantemente. Morin (2011) os demais objetos existentes no mundo. A considera a complexidade como uma realidade que preocupação cartesiana era uma só: justificar coloca o ser humano diante do paradoxo do uno e do racionalmente o mundo que existe. múltiplo e, ao mesmo tempo, como uma forma de Neste sentido, Morin (2011, p. 16) sugere a organização do pensamento que considera as tomada de consciência das consequências dos diferentes influências recebidas, como um sistema paradigmas que mutilam o conhecimento e desfiguram interligado (MACHADO, 2011). o real. Segundo ele, o pensamento simplificador se O novo paradigma pressupõe uma visão de baseia no predomínio de dois tipos de operações mundo holística, que o concebe como um todo lógicas, disjunção e redução, ambas brutais e integrado e não como uma coleção de partes mutiladoras, enquanto que os princípios do dissociadas. Esta pode ser denominada como uma pensamento complexo são necessariamente de visão ecológica, se o termo “ecológica” for empregado )

conjunção e de implicação. num sentido muito mais amplo e mais profundo que o H

(

O pensamento complexo absorve o usual. A percepção ecológica profunda reconhece a Volume XX Issue II Version I reconhecimento do inacabado, do incompleto, a partir interdependência fundamental de todos os fenômenos da percepção da inexistência de saberes absolutos e e o fato de que, enquanto indivíduos e sociedades, do reconhecimento dos limites da razão (a razão é um todos se encontram encaixados nos processos cíclicos construto social). Na teoria da complexidade, todo da natureza e, em última análise, são dependentes

sistema vivo gera relações complexas, desses processos (CAPRA, 1996, p. 25). A - complementares, recorrentes e antagônicas. Assim, compreensão dos fenômenos só ocorrerá por meio de Morin considera que as crises são elementos um conhecimento que leve em consideração a essenciais na constituição do pensamento complexo, complexidade, formada pelos diversos elementos que pois exigem novas estratégias, novas ações para novas os compõem (FAVARETTO; PEREIRA, 2014, p. 123). No saídas de um sistema, já falido. É um eterno repensar, mesmo sentido converge o princípio da visão sistêmica refletir com e no meio em que o sujeito está inserido, da PNRS quando contempla a necessidade de ciente de que não há certezas, nem verdades observar o problema dos resíduos a partir de diferentes (MORIN, 2011). dimensões. Para Morin, os problemas atuais requerem uma Leff (2012, p. 416-418) afirma que a crise mudança no pensamento, assumindo-se a visão ambiental da contemporaneidade não diz respeito a Global Journal of Human Social Science sistêmica que marca o paradigma da complexidade. uma catástrofe ecológica, mas ao efeito do pensamento com o qual foi construído e destruído o presente mundo. Essa instabilidade reflete o colapso

2 A Teoria Geral dos Sistemas também é conhecida por Teoria civilizatório atual que “ressignifica e reorienta o curso da Sistêmica. Contudo, elas são diferentes, visto que a Teoria Geral dos história e os limites do crescimento econômico e Sistemas é mais ampla e abarca todas as áreas do conhecimento populacional; dos desiquilíbrios ecológicos, das (Física, Química, entre outras). Já a Teoria Sistêmica está mais voltada para a área da Psicologia. Para fins práticos, elas serão capacidades de sustentação da vida e da gradação utilizadas como sinônimos, o que não se mostra errôneo, mas faz-se entrópica do planeta; da pobreza e da desigualdade essa ressalva para fins didáticos e de esclarecimento (COSTA, 2010). social” (LEFF, 2012, p. 416).

Com a crise ecológica instalada, as pesquisas de resíduos e combate às mudanças climáticas na área ambiental se intensificaram, objetivando (BRASIL, 2011). diminuir os riscos à sustentabilidade do planeta. Essas Dentre as inovações trazidas pela PNRS está a pesquisas devem considerar o meio em que o homem logística reversa, que determina que fabricantes, existe, seus costumes, suas crenças, sua política, suas importadores, distribuidores e vendedores realizem o prioridades, a evolução da sociedade, o seu recolhimento de embalagens usadas. A logística desenvolvimento e, ao mesmo tempo, a preservação do reversa é conceituada, no artigo 3º, XII, da Lei n. meio ambiente. Sem isso carecerão de uma visão 12.305/2011, como o instrumento de desenvolvimento complexa. Por serem os fenômenos multidimensionais, econômico e social caracterizado por um conjunto de necessita-se uma análise dos elementos cultural, ações, procedimentos e meios destinados a viabilizar a político, social, econômico, histórico, físico, biológico, coleta e a restituição dos resíduos sólidos ao setor cerebral, mental e psicológico (MORIN, 2008, p. 23). empresarial, para reaproveitamento, em seu ciclo ou em O grande desafio hoje é, portanto, romper com outros ciclos produtivos, ou outra destinação final a ideia de um pensamento único e unidimensional, ambientalmente adequada. orientado por um “progresso sem limites”, que vem Trata-se de um dos pontos essenciais da 2020 reduzindo, sufocando e superexplorando a natureza PNRS, pois determina o retorno dos resíduos aos seus

ear (LEFF, 2012, p. 9). Especificamente em se tratando de geradores, sendo estes responsáveis pelo seu Y pesquisa na área da gestão dos resíduos sólidos, tratamento e reaproveitamento. A responsabilidade pós-

8 desafia a pensar a partir das variáveis ambiental, social, consumo é um instrumento muito importante para cultural, econômica, tecnológica e de saúde pública, a envolver os agentes econômicos na solução de fim de compor uma visão holística e sistêmica, problemas inerentes aos seus produtos, devendo ser acrescidas das variáveis identificadas pelas autoras a colocada em prática através de medidas como partir de estudos bibliográficos: administrativa e política. esclarecimentos, fiscalização e aplicação de penalidades (CORTEZ, 2011). a) A Política Nacional de Resíduos Sólidos e a visão O art. 33 da referida Lei impôs, de forma sistêmica expressa, a responsabilidade pela estruturação e Os danos decorrentes do descarte incorreto implementação de sistemas de logística reversa a dos resíduos aliados à demanda crescente por fabricantes, importadores, distribuidores e comerciantes consumo, tem implicado numa necessária busca por de agrotóxicos; pilhas e baterias; pneus; óleos soluções para o dilema de uma sociedade que precisa lubrificantes, seus resíduos e embalagens; lâmpadas com urgência conciliar as necessidades globais de ) fluorescentes, de vapor de sódio e mercúrio e de luz

H consumo, de uma população que em 2050 chegará a 9

( mista; produtos eletroeletrônicos e seus componentes. Volume XX Issue II Version I bilhões de habitantes, com as possibilidades de As diretrizes da lei foram estendidas a produtos destinação correta dos resíduos (MAGRI; DAMIATI, comercializados em embalagens plásticas, metálicas 2012, p. 10). ou de vidro, e aos demais produtos e embalagens, Neste sentido, a Política Nacional de Resíduos considerando, prioritariamente, o grau e a extensão do Sólidos regulamentou a destinação final dos resíduos impacto à saúde pública e ao meio ambiente dos - estabelecendo princípios, objetivos, instrumentos e resíduos gerados, desde que haja previsão para tanto diretrizes para a gestão integrada e o gerenciamento, em regulamento, acordos setoriais ou termos de bem como estabeleceu novos parâmetros para a compromisso firmados entre o poder público e o setor responsabilidade na destinação dos resíduos por meio empresarial. do conceito de responsabilidade compartilhada pela Outra novidade foi a previsão da indústria, comércio, poder público e consumidores, responsabilidade compartilhada na legislação brasileira, atores que devem assumir sua parcela de envolvendo sociedade, empresas, prefeituras e responsabilidade na solução do problema. governos estaduais e federal na gestão dos resíduos Segundo o art. 9º da PNRS devem ser sólidos. A partir desta prerrogativa cabe às pessoas observadas as seguintes prioridades no gerenciamento acondicionarem de forma adequada o lixo para o seu Global Journal of Human Social Science dos resíduos: não geração, redução, reutilização, recolhimento, fazendo a separação principalmente reciclagem, tratamento dos resíduos sólidos onde houver a coleta seletiva. A partir da disposição de e disposição final ambientalmente adequada dos forma adequada, incumbe aos municípios o serviço de rejeitos. A experiência recente de países mais coleta e tratamento dos resíduos sólidos (art. 10 da desenvolvidos tem demonstrado que o respeito a esta PNRS). ordem de prioridades proporciona, para o conjunto dos Os municípios também são os titulares do agentes sociais e econômicos envolvidos, o melhor serviço público de saneamento, conforme a Lei resultado em relação à eficiência energética exigida no Nacional de Saneamento Básico (Lei nº 11.445/07). novo marco legal brasileiro para o saneamento, gestão Além dessas diretrizes, a PNRS (BRASIL, 2010)

estabelece o incentivo às cooperativas de catadores, brasileiro não prorrogou o prazo para a entrega, tendo planos de resíduos sólidos, educação ambiental, como consequência a interrupção no acesso a recursos inventários, sistema declaratório anual de resíduos da União para tais municípios. sólidos e coleta seletiva. Outra diretriz presente na PNRS diz respeito ao Segundo a PNRS, a coleta seletiva deverá ser incentivo para a formação de associações implementada mediante a separação prévia dos intermunicipais3 que permitam a estabilização da resíduos sólidos conforme sua constituição ou gestão dos resíduos, com os municípios composição (úmidos, secos, industriais, da saúde, da compartilhando as tarefas de planejar, regular, fiscalizar construção civil etc.). A implantação do sistema de e prestar serviços de acordo com tecnologias coleta seletiva é instrumento essencial para se atingir a adequadas à sua realidade regional. meta de disposição final ambientalmente adequada dos Fica claro assim, que o acesso a recursos da diversos tipos de rejeitos, devendo ser entendida como União e aos incentivos ou financiamentos destinados a um fator estratégico para a consolidação da PNRS em empreendimentos e serviços relacionados à gestão de todas as suas áreas de implantação. resíduos sólidos ou à limpeza urbana e manejo de

No tocante ao serviço público de limpeza resíduos sólidos priorizam as soluções conjuntas: 2020 urbana e manejo de resíduos sólidos deverá se Aos Estados que instituírem microrregiões, para estabelecer, no mínimo, a separação de resíduos secos integrar a organização, o planejamento e a execução ear Y e úmidos e, progressivamente, se estender a separação das ações a cargo de Municípios limítrofes na gestão dos resíduos secos em suas parcelas específicas, dos resíduos sólidos; b) Ao Distrito Federal e aos 9 segundo as metas estabelecidas nos planos de gestão Municípios que optarem por soluções consorciadas de resíduos sólidos (BRASIL, 2011). intermunicipais para a gestão dos resíduos sólidos, ou

Um outro aspecto relevante na PNRS é o apoio que se inserirem de forma voluntária nos planos central à inclusão produtiva dos catadores de materiais microrregionais de resíduos sólidos estaduais; c) Aos reutilizáveis e recicláveis, priorizando a formação de Consórcios Públicos, constituídos na forma da Lei nº cooperativas ou de outras formas de associação de 11.107, de 2005, para realização de objetivos de catadores de materiais reutilizáveis e recicláveis, interesse comum. constituídas por pessoas físicas de baixa renda. Da análise da lei conclui-se que o atendimento Tais pressupostos devem ser incorporados ao disposto na PNRS é capaz de proporcionar a quando da elaboração dos Planos Municipais de diminuição da extração dos recursos naturais, a

Gestão Integrada de Resíduos Sólidos (PMGIRS). O abertura de novos mercados, a geração de emprego e conteúdo mínimo encontra-se no Art. 19 da lei. O renda, a inclusão social de catadores, a erradicação do ) H

Decreto nº 7.404/2010, que a regulamenta, apresenta, trabalho infanto-juvenil nos lixões, a disposição ( no Art. 51, o conteúdo mínimo dos Planos para ambientalmente adequada de resíduos sólidos e a Volume XX Issue II Version I municípios com população de até 20 mil habitantes, recuperação de áreas degradadas. simplificado em 16 itens. Além destes elementos, de ordem econômica, O Plano de Gestão Integrada de Resíduos social e ecológica, acerca dos seus fundamentos, é Sólidos (PMGIRS) pode estar inserido no Plano de possível afirmar que a PNRS é regida por princípios - Saneamento Básico, integrando-se com os planos de que, na sua grande parte, são comuns ao Direito água, esgoto, drenagem urbana e resíduos sólidos, Ambiental. Conforme Nunes (2002, p. 39), princípios previstos na Lei nº 11.445/2007. Neste caso deve ser são direitos inerentes ao próprio homem, pois exercem respeitado o conteúdo mínimo definido em ambos os função relevante dentro do ordenamento jurídico, documentos legais. Os municípios que optarem por orientando a interpretação das normas jurídicas, soluções consorciadas intermunicipais para gestão dos funcionando como regras hierarquicamente superiores resíduos sólidos estarão dispensados da elaboração às próprias normas positivadas no conjunto das dos seus Planos Municipais de Gestão Integrada de proposições escritas ou mesmo às normas Resíduos Sólidos. Neste caso, o plano intermunicipal costumeiras. deve observar o conteúdo mínimo previsto no Art. 19 da

Para Morato Leite (2008) os princípios são Global Journal of Human Social Science Lei nº 12.305/2010 (MMA, 2014). Dessa forma, os construções teóricas que procuram desenvolver uma municípios brasileiros (consorciados ou não) só base comum nos instrumentos normativos de política receberão recursos do governo federal para projetos de ambiental. Servem, ainda, para balizar a atuação do limpeza pública e manejo de resíduos sólidos, após Estado e as exigências da sociedade em relação à aprovação de planos de gestão. tutela do ambiente, dando-lhe um sentido harmônico, O prazo final para a entrega dos planos

municipais, inicialmente proposto era de agosto de 3 A PNRS estabelece, ainda, a priorização quanto ao acesso aos

2014. Poucos municípios foram capazes de elaborar recursos financeiros da União, beneficiando aqueles municípios que optarem pelas soluções consorciadas (Inciso I, § 1º, art. 18 da PNRS). seus planos e, como previsto, o Governo Federal

lógico, racional e coerente. Por serem verdades facilitada pela estratégia de criação dos consórcios fundantes possuem um valor jurídico além da norma intermunicipais para o tratamento dos resíduos. positivada. De acordo com o artigo 6º são princípios da b) As normas que regulamentam os consórcios: a Lei Política Nacional de Resíduos Sólidos (2010): Federal nº 11.107/2005 e o Decreto Federal nº I. A prevenção e a precaução; 6.017/07 II. O poluidor-pagador e o protetor-recebedor; A Lei nº 11.107, de 6 de abril de 2005, III. A visão sistêmica, na gestão dos resíduos sólidos, conhecida como Lei dos Consórcios, surgiu com a que considere as variáveis ambiental, social, finalidade de regulamentar o artigo 2414 da Constituição cultural, econômica, tecnológica e de saúde Federal de 1988 e estabeleceu o “consórcio público” pública; como uma associação pública ou pessoa jurídica de IV. O desenvolvimento sustentável; direito privado que pode ser criada pelos entes V. A ecoeficiência, mediante a compatibilização entre federados para a realização de objetivos de interesse o fornecimento, a preços competitivos, de bens e comum. Da mesma forma introduziu o novo conceito da gestão associada de serviços públicos, através do

2020 serviços qualificados que satisfaçam as necessidades humanas e tragam qualidade de vida princípio da cooperação.

ear e a redução do impacto ambiental e do consumo O princípio da cooperação traduz a ideia de Y que os entes federativos podem reunir esforços, de recursos naturais a um nível, no mínimo,

10 equivalente à capacidade de sustentação estimada buscando a gestão associada de serviços públicos, a do planeta; maioria deles essenciais, visto que de forma isolada VI. A cooperação entre as diferentes esferas do poder não teriam condições de realizar com eficiência a público, o setor empresarial e demais segmentos prestação dos serviços básicos. da sociedade; A redação do artigo 241 causou grande VII. A responsabilidade compartilhada pelo ciclo de impacto no direito administrativo brasileiro, pois sanou a vida dos produtos; lacuna legislativa existente no modelo federativo da VIII. O reconhecimento do resíduo sólido reutilizável e época. Significou um grande passo rumo à

reciclável como um bem econômico e de valor regulamentação e criação das entidades integrantes da administração indireta, como também representou um social, gerador de trabalho e renda e promotor de cidadania; grande ganho nas soluções administrativas e IX. O respeito às diversidades locais e regionais; financeiras dos municípios.

) X. O direito da sociedade à informação e ao controle Antes da aprovação da Emenda Constitucional 5 H

( social; (EC) nº 19/1998 , não era possível haver uma autarquia Volume XX Issue II Version I XI. A razoabilidade e a proporcionalidade. (grifo que pudesse pertencer simultaneamente a mais de um nosso). ente federado de diferente nível hierárquico. Essa vedação se dava em virtude da ausência de regramento Conforme o contexto desta lei, a visão constitucional viabilizador de criação conjunta por sistêmica assume o caráter de princípio e propõe que diferentes entes federados de personalidade jurídica de sejam consideradas “as variáveis ambiental, social,

- direito público interno. cultural, econômica, tecnológica e de saúde pública na Na atual concepção o consórcio público não gestão dos resíduos sólidos". A estas acrescentam-se faz distinção quanto à espécie dos participantes. Tanto ainda as variáveis administrativa e política por podem participar entes federativos diversos, como por considerá-las indispensáveis a gestão dos resíduos. O exemplo, a União, os Estados A e B e os Municípios C, entendimento sistêmico é um modo de praticar as D, F, como da mesma esfera, na hipótese de o ajuste metodologias da interdisciplinaridade e da ser celebrado apenas entre Estados e Municípios transversalidade, passando a ser verdadeira bússola na (CARVALHO, 2013). formulação e na implementação de todos os planos previstos na lei (MACHADO, 2014). 4 Art. 241. A União, os Estados, o Distrito Federal e os Municípios

Global Journal of Human Social Science Na gestão dos resíduos sólidos estas variáveis são analisadas de forma holística, considerando-se, disciplinarão por meio de lei os consórcios públicos e os convênios de cooperação entre os entes federados, autorizando a gestão para tanto, o ambiente macro e os fatores citados pelo associada de serviços públicos, bem como a transferência total ou dispositivo legal de forma conjunta. Portanto, os parcial de encargos, serviços, pessoal e bens essenciais à diferentes princípios da PNRS integram-se em uma continuidade dos serviços transferidos. (Redação dada pela Emenda visão sistêmica, a qual para ser exequível requer um Co nstitucional nº 19, de 1998) 5 gerenciamento integrado de resíduos. Isto porque a A EC 19 modificou o regime e dispos sobre princípios e normas da Administração Pública, servidores e agentes políticos, controle de visão sistêmica ressalta diferentes dimensões que tem despesas e finanças públicas e custeio de atividades a cargo do paralelo com a gestão integrada de resíduos, a qual é Distrito Federal, e dá outras providências.

A Lei dos Consórcios Públicos fixa normas recursos da União os Municípios que: optarem por gerais para três novos tipos de contratos soluções consorciadas intermunicipais para a gestão administrativos entre entes federativos: “o contrato de dos resíduos sólidos” (BRASIL, 2010). constituição de consórcio público; o contrato de rateio Ao contemplar o conteúdo mínimo dos planos das despesas de consórcio público; e o contrato de municipais de gestão de resíduos, a lei (art. 19) programa para a prestação de serviços públicos por novamente faz menção às soluções consorciadas: meio de gestão associada” (PEIXOTO, 2008, p. 15). identificação das possibilidades de implantação de O Decreto nº. 6.017/2007, que regulamenta os soluções consorciadas ou compartilhadas com outros consórcios públicos, detalha os conteúdos do Municípios, considerando, nos critérios de economia de Protocolo de Intenções, trata da ratificação do contrato escala, a proximidade dos locais estabelecidos e as de constituição do consórcio da personalidade jurídica, formas de prevenção dos riscos ambientais dos estatutos, da gestão, do regime contábil, financeiro (BRASIL, 2010). e do contrato de rateio (BATISTA et al., 2011b, p. 36). O manejo de resíduos sólidos nas cidades tem Além da gestão associada, que inclui o sido executado, com muito empirismo e improvisações, planejamento, a regulação, a fiscalização e/ou a ou seja, com poucas soluções planejadas. Os 2020 prestação dos serviços, destaca-se também: administradores municipais veem o problema dos RSU limitando-se apenas à coleta e transporte, esquecendo I. A prestação de serviços, inclusive de assistência ear de analisar a necessidade de gestão integrada e Y técnica, a execução de obras e o fornecimento de sistêmica. Os governos locais são induzidos a agir de 11 bens à administração direta ou indireta dos entes modo simplista por falta de estrutura organizacional consorciados; adequada e de profissionais capacitados para o II. O compartilhamento ou o uso em comum de gerenciamento (NARUO, 2003, p. 30). instrumentos e equipamentos, inclusive de gestão, O consórcio público constitui-se em função de de manutenção, de informática, de pessoal técnico necessidades comuns a mais de um ente da federação. e de procedimentos de licitação e de admissão de Há sempre uma motivação concreta em que a pessoal; (PEIXOTO, 2008, p. 12). cooperação entre os entes federados é necessária para Peixoto (2008, p. 12) afirma que os consórcios melhor resolver determinada demanda. Isoladamente públicos poderão ter um ou mais objetivos e os entes um ente federado, seja ele de nível local, estadual ou consorciados poderão se consorciar em relação a federal, pode ter dificuldades de assegurar a melhor todos ou apenas a uma parcela deles. Com isto, o solução para problemas complexos cuja solução consórcio pode executar uma gama de atividades e envolve múltiplos esforços, comprometimento de vários )

ações que racionaliza e maximiza a aplicação dos atores e articulação permanente entre eles. H

( recursos públicos, reduzindo os custos dos serviços Neste contexto, a superação das questões Volume XX Issue II Version I para os usuários, e também permitindo aos municípios político-partidárias coloca-se como uma das barreiras a contar com uma estrutura de pessoal tecnicamente ser transposta, pois os consórcios visam soluções mais qualificada, em razão da escala obtida com a eficazes dos problemas comuns, onde o objetivo maior gestão associada. passa a ser a prestação de serviços públicos com

Portanto, o Decreto nº 6.017/2007 abre uma qualidade e a promoção do bem-estar da população - ampla perspectiva para a criação de consórcios em um (DURÃO, 2005). grande leque de atividades e ações que podem ser Ao internalizar a cooperação como um dos desempenhadas para atender demandas dos seus valores principais, a cultura política local torna o municípios na área do saneamento básico e, consórcio menos instável nos momentos de transição especificamente, para o trato dos resíduos de modo política e alternância administrativa. Para que essa cooperado. cultura seja construída, entretanto, é necessária vontade política, apoio e comprometimento dos III. Vantagens e Desafios do prefeitos e líderes regionais. Também é importante que Consorciamento a Partir da Visão o consórcio seja mantido mesmo em conjunturas

desfavoráveis, pois, no momento em que tais Global Journal of Human Social Science Sistêmica circunstâncias forem revertidas, o legado institucional A PNRS se coloca como um efetivo aporte legal deixado já terá se tornado parte do cotidiano regional e para propor aos gestores municipais novos modelos de sua extinção considerada uma atitude politicamente gestão compartilhada de resíduos sólidos através de inviável (CRUZ et al., 2009, p. 302). alternativas econômico e tecnicamente viáveis para a A formação de consórcios intermunicipais, em destinação dos resíduos, utilizando -se da criação de alguns casos, está relacionada às capacidades prévias consórcios intermunicipais, uma vez que esta traz uma dos municípios, de seus agentes políticos e dos atores série de incentivos à adoção de soluções consorciadas. sociais com raízes na localidade de estabelecerem Segundo o artigo 18, “serão priorizados no acesso aos laços e relações de confiança. Além disso, o

comportamento dos atores e dos agentes políticos em da disponibilidade maior de recursos e do apoio dos torno da formação de um consórcio intermunicipal é demais municípios. influenciado por mecanismos causais diversos, como, Já como desafios referem a inclusão dos

por exemplo, o grau de confiança preexistente entre os catadores em cooperativas.

agentes políticos que se articulam em prol deste c) Tecnológica objetivo e a forma como o empreendedor político Moraes (2012, p. 1.174), Calderan (2013) propõe, discute e convence os mais diversos atores apontam como vantagens tecnológicas: melhoria da sociais e políticos nas mais diversas arenas (DIEGUEZ, capacidade técnica e implantação de usinas de 2011, p. 301). reaproveitamento energético.

Tem-se, assim, que a gestão de resíduos Como desafios indicam o alto investimento sólidos urbanos através de consórcios públicos traz financeiro e a necessidade de equipes qualificadas. vantagens e também desafios, os quais foram organizados no presente artigo a partir das diferentes d) De saúde pública dimensões do princípio da visão sistêmica levando em Tratando da dimensão da saúde pública,

2020 consideração os elementos apontados por autores que Calderan (2013) e Moraes (2012, p. 1.176) referem como vantagens: controle e fiscalização nos aterros, debruçam-se sobre essa questão: Cherubini e Trevas ear (2013), Moraes (2012), Cavalcante (2011), Durão que possibilita o controle de vetores; limitação ao Y

(2005), Batista (2011), Calderan (2013), Cruz et al. acesso de catadores no aterro com a criação de um 12 (2002), Oliveira (2009), Dieguez (2011), Ismael (2005). consórcio os trabalhadores/catadores, que poderão se Além das dimensões do princípio da visão organizar em cooperativas, trabalhando em locais sistêmica como propõe a PNRS, o estudo bibliográfico salubres e com equipamentos adequados. conduziu à adoção de outras duas pelas autoras: a Como desafios indicam a qualidade de vida política e a administrativa. Apontam-se as vantagens e dos trabalhadores no aterro.

desafios postos pelos autores para a aplicação da e) Política

visão sistêmica no trato consorciado dos resíduos. Os autores Moraes (2012), Batista et al. a) Ambiental (2011a), Cruz (2002), Schneider (2005), Amorin (2014), Em relação à dimensão ambiental, os autores Cherubini e Trevas (2013) percebem como vantagens Calderan (2013), Batista et al. (2011a) e Moraes (2012) políticas do consorciamento o fato de que atendem apontam como vantagens: ação conjunta na mais direta e adequadamente às demandas locais e regionais; garantem maior cooperação, maior

) regularização dos aterros; implantação de usina de

H descentralização e mais prestígio para os municípios;

( triagem; venda de produtos recicláveis; auxílio em

Volume XX Issue II Version I programas de educação ambiental nos municípios; permitem alianças em regiões de interesse comum, como bacias hidrográficas ou em espaços regionais e implantação da coleta seletiva; reaproveitamento energético e compostagem; redução do impacto territórios; pode aumentar o poder de diálogo e pressão ambiental (disposição de RSU em um único aterro); coletiva dos municípios; podem criar melhores condições de negociação dos municípios junto aos economia no processo de captação e tratamento de - governos estadual e federal, ou junto a entidades da água para abastecimento das cidades, porque o recurso não estará contaminado pelo chorume sociedade, empresas ou agências estatais, o que emanado dos lixões; economia de recursos naturais, fortalece a autonomia municipal e possibilita a busca de através da reciclagem dos materiais triados. recursos. Além disso, fortalece os princípios de Já os desafios são manter os projetos em funcionamento e a identificação de um local adequado subsidiariedade e solidariedade que sustentam a arquitetura da Federação Brasileira; aumenta o poder para implantação do aterro. de diálogo, pressão e negociação dos municípios; dá b) Social peso político regional para as demandas locais; cria Quanto à dimensão social, os autores Moraes mecanismos eficientes para uma gestão pública menos

Global Journal of Human Social Science (2012) e Batista et al. (2011a), Souza (2012) indicam suscetível a disputas político-partidárias e menor

como vantagens: melhora na prestação dos serviços comprometimento da implantação das políticas; resolve públicos colocados à disposição dos cidadãos; problemas regionais sem se limitar às fronteiras diminuição das desigualdades regionais e da baixa administrativas. capacidade de arrecadação tributária do município; Também assegura agilidade na elaboração de possibilidade de inclusão de catadores e abertura de diagnósticos e ações de governo, necessárias para vagas de emprego aos empregados de baixa renda, enfrentamento dos problemas e prioridades regionais; melhoria da qualidade de vida dos catadores que desloca o centro das decisões sobre políticas públicas trabalham nos lixões; ampliação no atendimento aos para esferas mais próximas das populações assistidas; cidadãos e do alcance das políticas públicas por conta leva aos governos centrais elementos de realidade, o

©2020 Global Journals Public Consortia for the Treatment of Waste: Analysis from the Principle of Systemic Vision que ajuda a adequar as políticas públicas; cria canais celebração de concessões, permissões e autorizações por onde podem fluir as experiências criativas das de serviços públicos; o gozo de maior flexibilidade no localidades; viabiliza as políticas sociais por meio da poder de compra, na remuneração de pessoal e de democratização dos recursos e do poder de decisão pagamento de incentivos; a contratação pela sobre elas. administração, direta ou indireta, sem necessidade de Da mesma forma, dá agilidade à administração licitação; a ajuda as prefeituras menores, que assim municipal, aumentando sua capacidade de realização; podem receber apoio das prefeituras que dispõem de permite o intercâmbio de ideias, projetos e melhor infraestrutura; e, ainda, ajuda o município a experiências; permite que o planejamento das políticas superar sua incapacidade de investimento público; públicas se faça de forma conjunta, com a participação permite a realização de ações inacessíveis a um único de todos os membros do Consórcio; permite a município; viabiliza obras de grande porte e serviços de racionalização de equipamentos, a ampliação de alto custo, que não são acessíveis à maioria das cooperação regional, a flexibilização dos mecanismos localidades; promove a constituição de aparatos de aquisição de equipamentos e de contratação de institucionais competentes, com capacidade técnica e pessoal, entre outras. de recursos, para elaboração e financiamento de Além disso podem aumentar a transparência projetos e melhora a capacidade gerencial e financeira 2020 dos processos, pois as decisões tomadas pelos de grupos de municípios. ear consórcios são de âmbito regional e envolvem vários Y Como desafios evidencia-se a distância

atores, naturalmente elas se tornam mais visíveis, pois geográfica entre os consorciados e a sede; conflitos de 13 exigem um processo de discussão mais aprofundado ideias e interesses, assim como a cooperação na em cada município e em termos regionais. Com isso, solução de problemas, desprovido de interesses abre-se espaço para o controle social. pessoais. Os consórcios ainda podem se constituir como g) Cultural um meio de desenvolvimento microrregional Os autores Calderan (2014), Durão (2005), transformando-se em um foro privilegiado para a Batista et al. (2011a), Cherubini e Trevas (2013) afirmam discussão de dificuldades comuns e para a busca por que as vantagens culturais atravessam aquelas já soluções, atuando como um facilitador principalmente elencadas e constituem-se na mudança de paradigma da organização municipal. na questão do trato com resíduos. Como desafios políticos os autores apontam: Já como desafios apontam a mudança do existência de interesses comuns entre os municípios; pensamento dos gestores quanto à importância do disposição de cooperação por parte dos líderes locais; manejo adequado dos resíduos e a conscientização da ) H

superação de conflitos político-partidários; proximidade população em relação a coleta seletiva e não geração ( física das sedes municipais; tomada de decisão política Volume XX Issue II Version I de resíduos. em se consorciar; existência de uma identidade intermunicipal; a dificuldade de entendimentos políticos h) Econômica para a implantação da gestão, associada com a Os autores Calderan (2014), Durão (2005), consequente formação de consórcios públicos; e, a Batista et al. (2011a), Cherubini e Trevas (2013) indicam baixa qualificação dos gestores para a experimentação como vantagens relativas à dimensão econômica: a - desse "novo" modelo de gestão. prestação de contas facilitada; a economia de recursos; a redução de gastos e de serviços comuns com maior f) Administrativa eficácia e cobertura, bem como programação Como vantagens administrativas, os autores orçamentária; a valorização dos poucos recursos de Moraes (2012), Cavalcante (2011), Durão (2005), Batista que dispõe cada Município; a criação de novos fluxos et al. (2011a), Cherubini e Trevas (2013) indicam: de recursos para o município, e a diminuição da agilidade na execução de projetos, o que barateia dependência das transferências do Fundo de custos; descentralização de recursos técnicos e Participação Municipal. financeiros; possibilidade de ganhos de escala; Como desafios os autores sustentam a racionalização e otimização na aplicação dos recursos dificuldade na autossustentabilidade desse sistema. Global Journal of Human Social Science públicos; maior flexibilidade em relação à administração direta; contrato de programa pertinente ou termo de IV. Considerações Finais parceria, respeitando-se os critérios e disposições da legislação federal aplicável; e, licitação de serviços e O estudo evidenciou que a Política Nacional obras públicas visando a implementação de políticas de dos Resíduos Sólidos avança no que tange ao interesse comum dos entes consorciados. gerenciamento dos resíduos ao incorporar uma visão Da mesma forma os consórcios facilitam a sistêmica, mesmo que na realidade dos municípios realização de convênios, contratos e acordos para o brasileiros ainda imperem contradições e deficiências. recebimento de auxílio, contribuição ou subvenção; a Neste sentido, surgiu a necessidade de organizar os

ap ontamentos dos diversos autores que debruçam-se direção fundante para a formulação e para a sobre este tema tão desafiador à sociedade estruturação de todos os planos previstos na contemporânea, levantando-se o que apontam como legislação. A Política Nacional de Resíduos Sólidos vantagens e desafios do consorciamento entre reveste-se, assim, de um aspecto hermenêutico, municípios para a realização de uma gestão integrada, apontando para o diálogo, em razão da complexidade proposta amparada em lei específica. do tema, tal como das consequências de seus Se a visão sistêmica foi contemplada na mecanismos, evolvendo os mais diversos setores e legislação brasileira, é porque o final do século XX foi âmbitos, além de uma gama de variáveis. marcado por mudanças na ciência que se propuseram Com a promulgação da Constituição Federal a um rompimento com o passado e à instalação de um em 05 de outubro de 1988, os municípios, na condição período caracterizado pela busca do conhecimento, de entes federativos assumiram responsabilidades, pela auto realização, num mundo concebido em termos antes pertencentes aos Estados e a União. Dessa de conexões, inter-relações, teias, movimentos, forma, criou-se a disparidade entre competências e mudanças e transformações. arrecadação, pois o atual modelo de retorno O paradigma da complexidade, permeado por redistributivo dos recursos arrecadados apresenta-se 2020 uma visão de mundo sistêmica, propõe uma desigual, havendo uma concentração dos recursos abordagem transdisciplinar e a integração das financeiros junto ao Governo Federal e recaindo, por ear

Y disciplinas, permitindo a interconexão dos conteúdos, outro lado, os encargos da execução sobre os Estados no sentido de auxiliar na compreensão da realidade e e Municípios. 14 dos fenômenos. Portanto, o que se propõe é uma Nesse contexto, os municípios passaram a ter aproximação dos objetos de estudo a partir de um olhar dificuldades para cumprir suas atribuições legais, o que sobre suas múltiplas dimensões. dificulta a prestação dos serviços públicos, gerando a Por meio da visão sistêmica, a aprovação da responsabilização aos gestores municipais, pois são PNRS (Lei n° 12.305/2010) estabeleceu o papel do eles os responsáveis diretos pelo gerenciamento da Estado na direção de um desenvolvimento socialmente coleta e tratamento do lixo. O consorciamento mostra- justo e ambientalmente sustentável, cobrando do poder se viável porque a maioria dos serviços públicos é de público, em especial dos municípios, uma postura mais interesse comum dos municípios próximos, rigorosa em relação aos resíduos. principalmente na questão da coleta e tratamento do A Lei estabeleceu a eliminação de todos os lixo doméstico que envolve toda a municipalidade. Além vazadouros a céu aberto existentes no país. Com esse dos interesses comuns, os desafios de cumprir a lei instrumento regulatório, a União, os estados e os também os aproxima. )

H municípios passaram a dispor de um indutor de ações Com o marco regulatório dos consórcios, Lei nº

(

Volume XX Issue II Version I que, estima-se, deve vir a possibilitar que qualquer 11.107/2005, todos os entes federados passaram a ter rejeito deixe de ser depositado inadequadamente. uma alternativa para a prestação dos serviços públicos Caracterizam parte do rol de diretrizes da PNRS, além de interesse comum. Portanto, o consórcio se coloca da implantação da coleta seletiva, ações como a como uma forma de cooperação entre os entes elaboração de estudos para regionalização, a federativos para que estes possam prestar os serviços

- implantação de planos estaduais de gestão integrada públicos com qualidade e ao mesmo tempo em que de resíduos sólidos, o apoio e incentivo à formação de atendem a obrigação legal sem precisarem dispor de consórcios públicos, a formulação de planos outras formas de administração como a concessão ou intermunicipais e/ou municipais de gestão integrada de a terceirização desses serviços. resíduos sólidos e o estímulo para formação de Das dimensões analisadas, destaca-se como cooperativas atuantes no setor de triagem e reciclagem. aquela que tem mais elementos vantajosos a dimensão Em relação à gestão compartilhada e à regulação de política. Apesar de todas as vantagens citadas, alguns estímulo para a formação de consórcios desafios relevantes estão incluídos, podendo inviabilizar intermunicipais, a premissa é de que a pequena os consórcios. É o caso da dificuldade de entendimento capacidade gerencial e o baixo volume orçamentário político para a sua implantação, que é permeado por

Global Journal of Human Social Science dos municípios, especialmente os de menor porte, questões partidárias. inviabilizam ações efetivas de limpeza urbana e Fica evidente ao final do estudo que os destinação final dos resíduos de modo tecnicamente e consórcios públicos podem constituir-se de uma socialmente adequados (FLORENCE; SILVA, 2014, alternativa viável e vantajosa na busca pela união de p. 915). esforços para solucionar problemas comuns para o Com efeito, a visão sistêmica, em uma ótica atendimento das exigências da PNRS. Aponta-se, princípio lógica, deve conduzir a uma análise global dos ainda, de modo conclusivo, que os consórcios públicos diversos fatores envolvidos em todo o gerenciamento apresentam vantagens em todas as dimensões do dos resíduos sólidos. Assim, surge como premissa que princípio da visão sistêmica. Por outro lado, muitos são o princípio sistêmico abarca os demais como uma os desafios a serem enfrentados.

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Brasil. (2013). (11a ed). São Paulo: Associação em foco: debate conceitual e construção de quadro

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Resíduos Especiais. Recuperado de http://www. Revista Cadernos do Desenvolvimento, 6(9), 291-

abrelpe.org.br/Panorama/panorama2013.pdf 319. Recuperado de http://www.cadernosdodes 2. Ayala, P. de A., & Leite, J. R. M. (2004). Direito envolvimento.org.br/ojs-2.4.8/index.php/cdes/

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Janeiro: Forense Universitária. 15. Durão, P. (2005). Convênios & consórcios 3. Batista, S., Vecchia R., Pereira, M. P., Augusti, M. T., adminsitrativos. (2a ed). Curitiba: Juruá.

Hernandes, J. S., Bachiega, C. A., Sanches, M. M. 16. Favaretto, M. P., Pereira, R. (2014, abril/maio). (2011). Guia de consórcios públicos: O papel dos Aplicação da teoria da complexidade na pesquisa prefeitos e das prefeitas na criação e na gestão de das normas de direito ambiental na sociedade de consórcios públicos. Brasília: Caixa Econômica risco. Anais do Direito Ambiental III: XXIII Encontro 2020 Federal. Nacional do CONPEDI, Florianópolis, SC, Brasil, 13.

4. Behrens, M. A. (2006). Paradigma da complexidade: ear

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metodologia de projetos, contratos didáticos e artigos/?cod=f861aa27e08 ead51

portfólios. Petrópolis, RJ: Vozes. 15 17. Florence, H., & Silva, E. M. da. (2014). 5. Constituição da República Federativa do Brasil de Institucionalização da Política Nacional de Resíduos 1988. Recuperado de http://www.planalto.gov.br/ Sólidos: dilemas e constrangimentos na Região ccivil_03/constituicao/constituicao.htm Metropolitana de Aracaju (SE). Revista de 6. Lei n. 11.107, de 06 de abril de 2005. Dispõe sobre Administração Pública, 48(4), 913-937. Recuperado normas gerais de contratação de consórcios de http://www.scielo.br/pdf/rap/v48n4/a06v48n4.pdf públicos e dá outras providências. Recuperado 18. Fonseca, F. (2013). Consórcios públicos: de http://www.planalto.gov.br/ccivil_03/_ato2004- Possibilidades e desafios. In M. Cherubine, & V. 2006/2005/Lei/L11107.htm Trevas. (Orgs.), Consórcios públicos e as agendas 7. Lei n. 12.305, de 02 de agosto de 2010. Insitui a do Estado brasileiro (pp. 29-40). São Paulo: Editora Política Nacional de resíduos Sólidos. Recuperado Fundação Perseu Abramo. de http://www.planalto.gov.br/ccivil_03/_ato2007 - 19. Ismael, R. (2005). Nordeste: a força da diferença: os 2010/2010/lei/ l12305.htm ) impasses e desafios na cooperação regional. H

8. Calderan, T. B. (2013). Consórcio público ( Recife: Fundação Joaquim Nabuco. Intermunicipal de Gerenciamento de Resíduos Volume XX Issue II Version I 20. Leff, H. (2012). Saber Ambiental: sustentabilidade, Sólidos Domésticos: um estudo de caso (Dissertação em mestrado). Centro Universitário racionalidade, complexidade, poder. (9a ed). Rio de Univates, Lajeado, RS, Brasil. Janeiro: Vozes. 9. Capra, F. (1996). A teia da vida: uma nova 21. Machado, S. C. (2011). A teoria da complexidade de compreensão científica dos sistemas vivos. (5a ed). Edgar Morin e suas Contribuições para a - São Paulo: Cultrix. epistemologia da educação (Trabalho de conclusão 10. Carvalho, J. dos S. F. (2013). Consórcios Públicos: de curso). Centro de Teologia e Ciências Humanas, Lei Nº 11.107, de 06/04/2005 e Decreto Nº 6.017, Pontifícia Universidade Católica do Paraná – PUC, de 17/01/2007. (2a ed). São Paulo: Atlas. Curitiba, PR, Brasil. 11. Cavalcante, R. (2011). Manual de consórcios 22. Magri, C., & Damiati, D. (2012). Política Nacional de públicos. Fortaleza, CE: Secretaria do Planejamento Resíduos Sólidos: Desafios e Oportunidades para as

e Gestão do Estado do Ceará. Empresas. São Paulo: Designing. 12. Cortez, A. T. C. (2011). Embalagens: o que fazer 23. Moraes, J. L. de. (2012). Os consórcios públicos e a com elas? Revista Geográfica da América Central, gestão integrada de resíduos sólidos em pequenos 2(47), 1-15. Recuperado de https://www.revistas. municípios do estado do Ceará, Brasil. Revista Global Journal of Human Social Science una.ac.cr/index.php/geografica/article/view/2568 Geonorte, 3(4), 1171-1180. Recuperado de 13. Cruz, M. do C. M. T., Leite, C. C., Araújo, F. F. de, http://www.periodicos.ufam.edu.br/index.php/revist Silva, I. G. da, & Silva, V. M. da. (2009, maio). a-geonorte/article/view/2014 Consórcios Intermunicipais de Desenvolvimento: 24. Morin, E. (2011). Introdução ao pensamento Mudando para Sobreviver. Anais do II Congresso complexo. (4a ed). Porto Alegre: Sulina. CONSAD de Gestão Pública , Brasília, DF, Brasil, 2. 25. Naruo, M. K. (2003). O estudo do consórcio entre Recuperado de http://www.escoladegoverno.pr. municípios de pequeno porte para disposição final gov.br/arquivos/File/Material_%20CONSAD/paineis_ de resíduos sólidos urbanos utilizando sistema de

informações geográficas (Dissertação de mestrado). Escola de Engenharia de São Paulo, Universidade de São Paulo -USP, São Paulo, SP, Brasil. 26. Nunes, L. A. R. (2004). Manual de Introdução ao Estudo do Direito. (4a ed). São Paulo: Saraiva. 27. Peixoto, J. B. (2008). Manual de implantação de consórcios públicos de saneamento. Brasília: Associação Nacional dos Serviços Municipais de Saneamento. 28. Vasconcellos, M. J. E. de. (2010). Pensamento sistêmico: O novo paradigma da ciência. (9 ed). Campinas, SP: Papirus. 2020 ear

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Volume XX Issue II Version I

Global Journal of Human Social Science

©2020 Global Journals Global Journal of HUMAN-SOCIAL SCIENCE: H Interdisciplinary Volume 20 Issue 2 Version 1.0 Year 2020 Type: Double Blind Peer Reviewed International Research Journal Publisher: Global Journals Online ISSN: 2249-460x & Print ISSN: 0975-587X

Making use of CO2 Capture for Saving Earth and Human- A Comparison of “Carbon Capture and Storage-CCS” and “Carbon Capture and Storage Energy-CCSE” By Jiamin Jin Abstract- Two technical routes of “Carbon Capture and Storage- CCS” with “Carbon Capture and Storage Energy-CCSE” or “Smoke Storage Energy-SSE” have compared. The results show that there are many problems in CCS, such as high cost, limited application, and the application research has not done as yet, limited storage zone and safety hazard. Therefore, author considers that CCS is not a feasible technical route.

On CCSE or SSE, It shows that there are many advantages. For example; The CO2, considered waste, becomes the main raw material for gas production. Theoretical calculation shows that energy stored is 3.52 times that of energy consumption. unlimlted storage place, no safety risks, protect the environment, conservation of resources.

[CO2-Coal+ Firewood - Electric Gas Generators] three together can save the earth. Let men live a peaceful and happy life.

Keywords: CCS carbon capture electric gas generator gasification.

GJHSS-H Classification: FOR Code: 049999

MakinguseofCOCaptureforSavingEarthandHumanAComparisonofCarbonCaptureandStorageCCSandCarbonCaptureandStorageEnergyCCSE

Strictly as per the compliance and regulations of:

© 2020. Jiamin Jin. This is a research/review paper, distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution- Noncommercial 3.0 Unported License http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/3.0/), permitting all non-commercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

Making use of CO2 Capture for Saving Earth and Human - A Comparison of “Carbon Capture and Storage-CCS” and “Carbon Capture and Storage Energy-CCSE”

Jiamin Jin

Abstract - Two technical routes of “Carbon Capture and scale CCS projects were in operation around the world. Storage- CCS” with “Carbon Capture and Storage Energy- On August 6.2012, China's first carbon dioxide storage CCSE” or “Smoke Storage Energy-SSE” have compared. The to the underground salt water layer full process 2020 results show that there are many problems in CCS, such as

demonstration project was completed and put into ear high cost, limited application, and the application research has Y

operation for more than a year, it has accumulated more not done as yet, limited storage zone and safety hazard.

Therefore, author considers that CCS is not a feasible than 40,000 tons of carbon dioxide, it is considered to 17 technical route. be technology breakthrough progress in CCS technical On CCSE or SSE, It shows that there are many field. The IEA's call for 200 CCS projects to be put into advantages. For example; The CO2, considered waste, operation by 2020, and by 2050, 3000 projects will have becomes the main raw material for gas production. to be put into. Thus, the international community's

Theoretical calculation shows that energy stored is 3.52 times concerns about climate change are anxious and that of energy consumption. unlimlted storage place, no impatient. safety risks, protect the environment, conservation of resources. I wrote four articles on the CCS for years [CO2-Coal+ Firewood - Electric Gas Generators] [1,2,3,4]. It doesn't seem to get attention. The purpose three together can save the earth. Let men live a peaceful and of this article is to further clarify the author's views, it is happy life. hope for attention. Keywords: CCS carbon capture electric gas generator gasification . II. Problems in CCS Technical Routes ) H

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I. Introduction CCS technology routes from a power plant in Volume XX Issue II Version I the United States. The current situation is that CCS he weather is getting warmer and the extreme technology routes are fully adopted globally. The climate is frequent, which seriously threatens the International Energy Agency（IEA） has repeatedly survival and safety of human beings. The CCS has T stressed that CCS technology routes are an green become a focus of research and an international house gas emission reduction solution. - strategy to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. The United Nations has met many times for this purpose, The CCS has been described in detail in the particularly in Paris. The International Energy paper "Progress and Problems in Carbon Dioxide Capture and Sealing Technology " written by Li Xuejing, Agency（IEA） has repeatedly issued updated the CCS Qiao Ming[5]. This article is only briefly describe and technology routes to guide countries around the world. supplement. Zhang Dong xiao, president of China's Institute of Clean

Energy at Peking University, believes that CCS is a) There are still some problems to be studied in CCS expected to be the world's largest single technology for technology route reducing carbon emissions. At present, the CCS The CCS technical route consists of three technology is still in the research stage, and Some parts: carbon capture, transport, and burial, in which the Global Journal of Human Social Science scholars believe that the combination of burial and cost of carbon capture accounts for 2/3 of the total cost. application is only the feasible technical route, but the In the view of some scholars, be near economically, it is purification application of carbon dioxide is a global not advisable to keep all carbon dioxide in storage; problem, to 30-50% is still to be raised. So say, the CCS Therefore, the burying and applying it together is the technology route is not yet fully mature。 only feasible technology route. But the purification of At present, there are 56 projects in operation or CO2 is a global problem that has not solved as yet. That planning in the US, EU and China, and three industrial- is to say, it is not feasible to bury and apply 。 Author: Shanghai Research Institute of Materials, Shanghai, China. simultaneously e-mail: [email protected]

b) High cost monoxide.，that is, (1)+（3）=（2). This fully According to the Internet report that power conforms to the energy conservation law. plants that use CCS technology have consumed 30-50% When we compares the heat released from the more energy than those that do not use CCS combustion of carbon monoxide with the heat absorbed technology. Burial a ton of carbon dioxide, which costs by the carbon gasification reaction, $52. Electricity bills per kilowatt-hour rose by $0.01- i.e.（2）/（1）=3.517 or 570865/162297=3.517. $0.05. Theoretical calculations show that the carbon c) Limited burial site gasification reaction has absorbed a lot of heat, but it The storage of carbon dioxide includes has stored 3.52 times the amount of heat absorbed. geological and marine storage. Some scholars believe This 3.52 makes it clear that it is very cost-effective to that the saltwater layer beneath the Ordos Basin in convert electricity into chemical energy to use electricity China can contain tens of billions of tons of carbon and carbon gasification reaction. dioxide, and the zone is more common in China. 3.52 is the result of theoretical calculations, However, the author believes still that this can only be taking into account heat loss such as furnace wall, but also not less than 3.4.

2020 said to be limited storage zones. It cannot last forever to stored in the long history of human life. Please, people, remember firmly the 3.52 in the

ear heart. 3.52 is important and reliable data. because the Y d) There are safety risks carbon gasification reaction is a very important industrial

18 The safety hazard should be the most reaction. It`s thermodynamics, kinetics, reaction important. Whether it's geological or marine, there's mechanism, catalytic reaction and catalysis mechanism always a carbon dioxide leak. After 100 or 1,000 years, if have studied in detail. In the industrial production, the unpredictable geological hazards occur in the burial use of this reaction to produce products already has a site, and a large amount of carbon dioxide is released, long history. Example; the blast furnace iron making, it humans will be wiped out. For the sake of future can be said to rely entirely on this reaction, because the generations, we have to stop. possibility of direct contact of solid carbon with oxide The above analysis shows that there are still iron are almost zero, hundreds of millions of tons of iron many problems to be studied in the CCS technical rely entirely on this gasification reaction . The production route. Therefore, the international community turned to of spongy iron in the flint kiln is also entirely dependent the CCS technical route, and we had to think deeply. on this gasification reaction. etc. Remember 3.52, we will inevitable find that there

) III. Carbon Capture and Storage Energy- are many unreasonable initiatives in the current

( CCSE or Smoke Storage Energy-SSE industrial production. Volume XX Issue II Version I Example: A pumped-storage power station. The energy The production processes of CCSE or SSE are consumption to raise the water of the lower reservoir to as follows: the upper must be greater than the electrical energy Raw materials (CO2+ Carbonaceous raw material) produced by hydraulic. It is a negative increase, and electric gas generator cooling tower dust removal can not compare to a 3.52 increase.

- desulfurization gas storage tank. → As compared with CCSE, it is inevitable thinking In the preceding→ article[3], →raw materials, that it is much more reasonable to build an electric gas production→ processes,→ production equipment and safety generator than to build a pumping station. for CCSE etc. have been described. The SSE is first The rubbish incinerator, which has been proposed in this paper. The following points need to be popularized in global, uses kerosene or natunal gas to 。 added: burn rubbish This action, which consumes both energy and resources, and pollutes the environment, it is very a) Theoretical side unreasonable. If the rubbishs are putted into the electric Related Carbon Gasification Reactions: gas generator, It stores both energy and gets clean gas after over high temperatures.

Global Journal of Human Social Science C+CO2=2CO -162297kj/kg.mol(-38790kcal/Kg.mol) (1) Besides, electric energy is first used for lighting, 2CO+O2=2CO2 +570865kj/kg.mol(136440kcal/kg.mol (2) electric motor, heating and so on. Author thinks it is also unreasonable. If the electricity is first used in an electric C+O =CO +408568kj/kg.mol(97650kcal/kg.mol (3) 2 2 gas generator, electricity is converted into chemical The（1）formula is famous Boudouard reactive energy, it stores 3.4 times the energy absorbed by gas. formula. It is endothermic reaction. The heat absorbed At present, the electricity produced in global is 26 billion by carbon gasification reaction plus the heat released degrees, If we multiply by 3.4, it's 88.4 billion. The from the full combustion of carbon is equal to the heat situation of electricity shortage can be solved quickly, released from the combustion of carbon and the electric gas generator not only consumes a lot

©2020 Global Journals Making use of CO2 Capture for Saving Earth and Human - A Comparison of “Carbon Capture and Storage-CCS” and “Carbon Capture and Storage Energy-CCSE” of garbage and carbon dioxide, but it also protecting same direction, from low temperature to high- environment, and protecting resources. temperature, the advantage of this flow direction is that

Therefore, the author thinks that the application the content of CO2 in the gas can reach zero, the of electric should be: Electric→Electric gas second is the harmful volatile matter produced in the generator→Application and Storage. Controlling the raw material after high temperature refining, its are proportion of application and storage can control the completely decomposed, and the result is clean gas. carbon dioxide content in the air and control the The shortcoming is that the outlet gas temperature is climate. higher, it must be cooled by cooler to improve the thermal efficiency. Of course, the direction of the CO b) Raw Material 2 flow can also flow in the opposite direction to the raw In addition to coal, firewood; carbon-containing material, it is like blast furnace smelting, from high to low raw materials, such as peat, used rubber, dried algae, temperature. The advantage is higher thermal efficiency. domestic waste, medical waste, waste plastics etc. can However, the deficiency is that the harmful components be used as raw materials to produce gas. in the gas must be treated separately outside the Author thinks that a lot of energy is stored in furnace, and the carbon dioxide in the gas cannot be firewood, We should make full use of the firewood for 2020 completely converted to CO because of the reaction carbon gasification. equilibrium. Carbon monoxide produced in the high ear c) The purity of CO2 and centrifugal gravity temperature zone, to the low temperature zone, under Y concentration the action of the catalyst, the reverse reaction occurs, 19 On the gas production, it`s demand is not strict and CO is decomposed into CO2 and carbon. on the purity of CO . Even if the smoke is directly 2 introduced into the gas furnace. The calorific value of e) Desulfurization gas produced is also higher than the city gas. Because A "Desulfurization" process is marked in the the carbon dioxide content in the city gas is always production process, but the author considers that this around 5%, and the gas produced by the electric gas process needs to be verified by experiments. The generator, the carbon dioxide content can be zero. A reason is that at high temperature, the carbon is a very large amount of nitrogen only plays a dilution role, no strong reducing agent, and the oxidizing gases, such as CO with effect on conversion energy consumption or little 2, SO2, NO2 and H2O in the smoke, will be reduced or effect. The advantage of SSE is that it can reduce decomposed into sulfur, nitrogen and hydrogen by emissions quickly and saved a costly carbon capture carbon, and after cooling, they cannot be reoxidized in process. the presence of a large amount of carbon monoxide. But if the gas produced contains a lot of carbon dioxide, )

However, if the smoke were to be recycled to H

there is also the possibility of re-oxidation. Therefore, at ( use, the nitrogen content in the smoke will inevitably rise Volume XX Issue II Version I gradually, the calorific value of the gas will become the beginning, the desulfurization process is properly lower and the production will be unstable. Proper retained. enrichment is therefore necessary. 。 The smoke is directly introduced into the furnace, the desulfurization and denitrationunit process Table 1: The specific gravity of several gases (g/cm3). of the power plant, can be revoked. -

N2 CO2 NO2 SO2 f) Equiptment to be researched in CCSE or SSE 0.00125 0.00198 0.00198 0.00293 i. Electric gas generator

The idea of centrifugal gravity concentration is The Electric gas generator is the only main that the specific gravity of CO2 is 1.58 times that of N2, equipment of CCSE or SSE, it is also a innovative and the specific gravity varies a lot. The current equipment. In fact, it is a heating furnace, which is 235 238 technology can separate U and U , and it expects characterized by large power. A ton of CO2 can produce 3 3 that the separation of N2 and CO2 can increase the 1000 m CO. Each producing 1 m CO requires about ， concentration of CO2. How much can be improved it is 1 degree of electricity, that is, 1 ton of CO2 conversion to to be determined experimentally. Fortunately the

CO requires 1000 degrees of electricity. Global Journal of Human Social Science demand for the purity of CO for gas production is not Furnace types can be varied, blast furnace type, 2 strict, only for stability. rotary furnace type, boiling type， horizontal, vertical。

If the cost with compression separation method The authors prefer the rotary furnace type, The is not too high, of course it is best. , the gas produced final choice needs to be decided by the furnace expert. with high concentrations of CO2 has a high calorific ii. Centrifugal gravity concentrate equipment value. The author thinks that there can be two d) Airflow direction on the CO2 methods for centrifugal gravity separation, one is by In the previous paper[3], it shows that the centrifuge principle, the other is by using the ancient direction of CO2 flow and solid material flow are the windmill principle to separate. Which one of the two is

better, it should be determined according to the 2. Jia-min Jin. Make use of capture CO2 for energy experiment. storage and carbon reduction emission, GUANGZHOU CHEMICAL INDUSTRY, 2017, Vol. 45, IV. Supply of Power No.6. Currently, the world's total carbon dioxide 3. Jiamin Jin, Making use of the capture CO2 for the emissions are 35.2 billion tons. The largest is China, energy storage and carbon reduction emission, 10.9 billion tons, followed by the United States and 5.1 Journal of low carbon economy. 2017 Vol. 6 No.3. billion tons, with China and the United States making up 4. Jiamin Jin, Making use of the carbon capture, coal half of the world's total emissions. The world's electricity and firewood to produce gas, Journal of low carbon generation is 26 trillion degrees, with China accounting economy. 2019 Vol. 8 No.4. for 25.49% and the United States 15.66%. We already 5. Li Xuejing Qiao Ming, Analysis on the Technology know that a ton of carbon dioxide to carbon monoxide Progress and Existing Problems of Carbon Dioxide requires about 1000 degrees of electricity, and 352 Capture and Storage, Chinese and Foreign Energy 2008 Vol.13，No.5. billion tons of CO2 to CO. far exceed the global total power generation. But there is no need to worry, 2020 because the amount of CO2 absorbed by plants is very

ear much, and How much to capture remains to be Y

determined by experts.

20 V. Conclusion Two technical routes, CCS and CCSE or SSE,

have compared. The CCS stores “CO2” that are thought to be waste. But in CCSE or SSE technology routes, the

CO2 becomes into raw materials, into commodities. The CCS technical routes are both difficult and costly. The CCSE or SSE technology routes store energy and store 3.52 times more energy than it absorbs. Therefore, CCSE or SSE is feasible. The CCS is a exhaust the manpower and drain the treasury. We have to vigorously develop electric gas

) generator for achieve rural coal gasification. We have to H

( consider reorganizing the direct combustion turn to Volume XX Issue II Version I indirect combustion for improving heat efficiency. we have to make full use of natural resources for achieve natural balance,

The combination of CO2-firewood and garbage- electricity, can save the earth. - The author believes that the ancient, primitive and most convenient direct combustion mode is very unreasonable. If it is changed to hydropower- gasification-application mode, or fire power-gasification at the same time, it is not only to double the energy, but it is also to protect the environment, to protect resources, human beings do not have to worry about coal and other resources exhausted, live a peaceful and happy life. We can say that only carbon dioxide can save Global Journal of Human Social Science the earth. The use of CO2 to convert the vast amount of energy stored in plants and animals into chemical energy for human use will enable mankind to live a permanent and peaceful and happy life.

Références

1. Jia-min Jin. Power generation technology using CO2 capture energy storage, Power & energy 2016 Vol.37. No.4.

Men who have Sex with Men: The Male University Students Experience By Maricel Aguila Gomez Leyte Normal University

Abstract- There is an increasing incidence of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection in the Philippines. The majority of those affected were males and men having sex with men (MSM) is the predominant mode of transmission. Much of the literature available is on statistics of HIV cases and the population of those engaged in MSM. However, there is a lack of research in understanding the reasons that lead male youth to be involved in MSM activity and their views regarding such activity. This qualitative case study reports on the experience of eight male university students involved in MSM. Data obtained through interview and focus group discussion helped understand the views, dynamics, and factors that contributed to the MSM involvement of male university students. Results revealed that male university students involved in MSM for a variety of reasons. Curiosity, alcohol drinking, and sexual satisfaction were the primary reasons. Participants were aware of the potential risks of being involved in MSM, observed certain dynamics, and also have ways to protect themselves.

Keywords: case study, HIV, MSM, male, university students.

GJHSS-H Classification: FOR Code: 160899

MenwhohaveSexwithMenTheMaleUniversityStudentsExperience

Strictly as per the compliance and regulations of:

© 2020. Maricel Aguila Gomez. This is a research/review paper, distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution- Noncommercial 3.0 Unported License http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/3.0/), permitting all non-commercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

Men who have Sex with Men: The Male University Students Experience

Maricel Aguila Gomez

Abstract- There is an increasing incidence of human Organization (WHO, 2015). Also, it was indicated that immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection in the Philippines. The 31% (348) of the reported cases were 15-24 years old at majority of those affected were males and men having sex with the time of testing. men (MSM) is the predominant mode of transmission. Much of the literature available is on statistics of HIV cases and the Region 8 has listed 604 reported HIV positive population of those engaged in MSM. However, there is a lack cases from 1984 to February 2018 (DOH, 2018). As of of research in understanding the reasons that lead male youth July 2019, region 8 has reported 4% (2,780) newly to be involved in MSM activity and their views regarding such diagnosed cases (HARP, 2019). In February 2018, Leyte 2020 activity. This qualitative case study reports on the experience has the highest number of reported HIV cases. It has of eight male university students involved in MSM. Data ear

around 334 reported positive HIV cases. In Leyte, Y obtained through interview and focus group discussion helped Tacloban City has the highest number among the

21 understand the views, dynamics, and factors that contributed different municipalities with reported cases of 104 (31%). to the MSM involvement of male university students. Results Also, 550 (91%) of the 604 reported positive HIV cases revealed that male university students involved in MSM for a variety of reasons. Curiosity, alcohol drinking, and sexual were males. In terms of mode of transmission, MSM satisfaction were the primary reasons. Participants were aware ranks first with 307 (58%) positive with HIV. The of the potential risks of being involved in MSM, observed existence of MSM activity among the youth in Tacloban certain dynamics, and also have ways to protect themselves. City is corroborated by the findings of Ogena and Data collected can be used as a basis for designing and Kabamalan (2014) and Matillano (2013). Reported also implementing programs that can provide an opportunity for in the data are cases of individuals who were 15-24 those engaged in MSM to know where to seek guidance years old. regarding this sensitive issue, thereby, encouraging them Much of the literature available is on statistics of towards observing a more positive sexual health behavior. HIV cases and the population of those engaged in Keywords: case study, HIV, MSM, male, university MSM. There is not much literature dealing with

students. ) understanding the reasons and factors that lead male

youth to be involved in MSM activity. According to WHO ( I. Introduction Volume XX Issue II Version I (2015), lack of global data on the number of young en who have sex with men (MSM) are MSM, their levels of risk for HIV and their protective considered at present as the predominant behavior is due in part to a "lack of research and M mode of transmission of Human surveillance, and also to the difficulty of reaching young Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) infection among males. It MSM who may fear disclosing their same-sex behavior" - is identified as one of the subpopulations with the (p. 6). Hence, this study was conducted as an effort to highest risk of acquiring HIV by DOH-HIV Serologic address this lack of research on understanding MSM Surveillance (UNAIDS, 2011; Hernandez & Imperial, among the youth. The purpose of this study is to 2009). MSM in this study refers to those males understand the reasons, perceptions, dynamics, regardless of whether they associate themselves as potential risks, and ways of protection of male college straight, gay, or bisexual, who have sex with other students engaging in MSM activity. The study sought to males, and whether or not they have sex with women answer the following questions: (UNAIDS, 2011). From the records of HIV/AIDS and ART What are the reasons for engaging in MSM? Registry of the Philippines (HARP) from January 1984 to What are the perceptions of college students being July 2019, there are 69,512 reported HIV positive cases

involved in MSM? Global Journal of Human Social Science and 94% (65,162) of those diagnosed were males (DOH-HARP, 2019). It was also reflected from the same What are the dynamics involved in MSM? data that MSM (85%, 55,386) was the predominant What are the potential risks involved in engaging MSM? mode of transmission among males (DOH-HARP, What are the measures for protection from the potential 2019). MSM is taking up an increasingly more significant risks of MSM? portion of new HIV infections (Burki, 2017). These data are corroborated by findings of the World Health II. Theoretical Framework

Author: Science Unit, Leyte Normal University, P. Paterno St. Tacloban This study is anchored on the theories of peer City, Leyte Philippines. e-mail: [email protected] influence and social construction of sexuality or 'frame'

theory. The theory of peer influence posits that people interviewed. A total of eight (8) students, 18 years old are most likely to engage or adopt new behaviors when and above, served as participants of the study. positive feedbacks of the experience in engaging such According to Wa-Mbaleka and Gladstone (2018), a case behavior are observed among similar others whom they study can have a minimum of eight (8) participants. trust or respect (Hernandez & Imperial, 2009). In this Also, the researcher felt that data saturation has been study, the theory of peer influence is elucidated as the reached already in these eight (8) participants. Two (2) majority of the participants indicated that their peers identified themselves as heterosexual, two (2) bisexuals influenced them to engage in MSM. but more into liking females, and four (4) openly The theory of the social construction of sexuality admitting gays. The university guidance counselor and or 'frame' theory advances that physically similar sexual the health personnel were also interviewed. acts may have different social significance and

subjective meaning on the people depending on the c) Data Collection Procedure culture and periods it is being defined and understood Qualitative research depends on many different (Vance, 1999). In this study, the participants have types of data sources such as interviews, focus groups, varying views or perceptions of MSM. artifacts, observations, documents, and archival data 2020 (Creswell, 2013; Yin, 2014). In this study, a survey III. Methodology questionnaire that also served as an interview guide was ear

Y Understanding MSM dynamics entails an in- used. A separate interview guide was used for the university guidance counselor and health personnel. The 22 depth exploration in which qualitative inquiry is most fitting. In this study, qualitative research was preferred questionnaire used for the male participants was because it focuses on a process that is quite complex researcher-made. It was composed of 14 open-ended and there are no preset variables (Lichtman, 2012). questions that were designed to gather data on Likewise, I tried to interpret or make sense of the participant's views and reasons for engaging in MSM meanings research participants brought to their activity. Two experts in qualitative research validated the involvement in MSM (Dezin & Lincoln, 1994). questionnaire. Then it was pilot tested to gay and heterosexual male university students, who in turn were IV. Research Design not taken as participants of the study. They were asked for comments and suggestions to improve the As an effort to understand the factors that questionnaire. The same questionnaire also served as prompted a male college student to engage in sex with the guide during the interview. The questionnaire was another male, this study was conducted using a case given first individually to the participants for them to ) study as the primary research design. Case study

H have an idea of the questions and helped them decide

( research involves "studying of a case within a real-life

Volume XX Issue II Version I on their participation in the interview that will be contemporary context or setting through detailed, in- conducted to elaborate on their answers. For the depth data collection involving multiple sources of university guidance counselor and health personnel, the information" (Creswell, 2013; Stake, 1995; Yin, 2009). interviews were primarily focused on their awareness of Also, this study follows a single case study design with male students' involvement in MSM activity and the subunits using three groups of participants, namely

- programs being implemented by the University gays, bisexuals, and heterosexuals as subunits concerning reaching out to these students. belonging to a larger case which is men having sex with men (Yin, 2003). In the course of data gathering, the participants opted to be interviewed in a group rather than a) Research Setting individually. Hence, a focus group discussion (FGD) The study was conducted in a state university was conducted. In an FGD, a small group of where students of different gender are enrolled. participants from similar backgrounds or experiences However, in terms of the student population, it is gathers to generate data such as their perceptions, dominated by female students. The university is attitudes, beliefs, opinion, or ideas on a specified topic primarily a teacher-training institution. or issue (Wong, 2008). The researcher conducted two

Global Journal of Human Social Science FGDs. The first group was composed of four (4) openly b) Participants and Sampling Procedure Due to the sensitivity of the topic being admitting gays. The second group was composed of explored, purposive sampling, particularly snow-ball two (2) bisexuals and two (2) heterosexuals. sampling, was used to get participants of the study. A A triangulation procedure was observed in the key informant helped the researcher in identifying willing study. Triangulation is an excellent method to use in participants of the study. The criteria for choosing the validating data through cross verification from two or participant included a) male university students who had more sources (Yazan, 2015). Interviews with the experienced MSM regardless of their gender; b) willing university guidance counselor and the health personnel to answer the survey questionnaire; and c) willing to be as well as documents from the Department of Health

(DOH), supplemented the data gathered from the Member checking was also done by the participants. researcher to improve the credibility of the results from the data gathered from the participants. Birt, Scott, d) Ethical Consideration Cavers, Campbell, and Walter (2016) mentioned that in A key informant helped the researcher in member checking, "data or results are returned to fielding the questionnaire and retrieved the same in a participants to check for accuracy and resonance with sealed envelope. A consent form was attached to the their experiences"(p. 1802). questionnaire. Only participants who were willing to be part of the research were given the questionnaire. The V. Results participants were instructed that they can skip questions they do not want to answer. It was also stated in the The results section is presented in five (5) main consent form that their identity would be held parts: the first deals with the profile of the participants in confidential, pseudonyms would be used, and their terms of age, gender, and confidant; second, focuses responses would be reported collectively. Also included on the perception and reasons for engaging in MSM; in the consent was asking permission for audio third, the dynamics involved in MSM activity; fourth, the recording during the interview, which was conducted to perceived potential risks of engaging in MSM and the 2020 have a deeper understanding of their answers in the measures of protection from the potential risks identified ear questionnaire. by the participants, and the last, advice from the Y

In the conduct of FGDs, it was done on a participants and actions done by the university. 23

Saturday when there were no other students present. It a) Age, Gender, Profile, and Confidant of the was in a closed room to make sure that the identity of Participants the participants was held confidential from other The university guidance counselor, physician, students. Likewise, at the start of the FGD, the process and nurse confirmed that there are students who were was explained, and participants were informed that they involved in MSM activity at the University. The guidance could withdraw from the discussion at any time. counselor confirmed that there were students who went For triangulation, the researcher interviewed the to their office and asked for advice regarding their MSM health personnel and guidance counselor of the involvement. For the university physician and nurse, they university. The interviews were primarily focused on their get to know the MSM involvement of students because awareness of male students' involvement in MSM and of being diagnosed with having sexually transmitted the programs being implemented by the University infections (STI). Based on the university clinic records concerning reaching out to these students. There were

from 2013 to 2018, there were reported ten male ) no names, personal data, or health records asked H

students diagnosed to have STIs. Through their probing, ( regarding the individual participant of the study. they were able to confirm that these student-patients Volume XX Issue II Version I Permission was also sought in the use of an audio were involved in MSM with partners who were either a recorder during the duration of the interview. student of the university or from another school. e) Reflexivity i. Age: The participants were ages 19 to 21 years old. The researcher has no direct supervision of the When asked how old they had first experienced participants of the study. The participants were not MSM, one gay participant indicated to have - students of the researcher. The researcher is a experienced it at a young age of 6 years old with an Biological Science teacher who includes the topic of HIV older cousin. The other participants experienced it infection in some of her discussions. at the age of 9, 13, 14, 15, and 17 years old. Results suggest that the first experience of the MSM of the f) Data Analysis participants in this study happened at a very young The units of analysis in this study were the three age. groups of male college students involved in MSM namely, gays, bisexuals, and heterosexuals; hence, ii. Gender: When asked about their gender, they have cross-case synthesis best fit in analyzing the data. For different answers on how they classify their sexual orientation. Aggleton et al. (1989) defined sexuality this study, with-in case analysis was done for each Global Journal of Human Social Science group first, followed by cross-case synthesis. Cross- as an expression of one's totality as a person and case synthesis enabled the researcher to see may refer to one's masculinity and femininity. In the comparisons on the views and reasons for engaging in study, four openly admitted that they are gays the MSM activity of the three groups. In the analysis, because they are attracted to the same sex and themes were formed, and then an interpretation of the does not like to have a sexual relationship with meaning of the case or assertion was made (Creswell, women. The bisexuals classified themselves as 2013). The data from the recordings of the FGD were such because they are attracted to both men and analyzed following the stages developed by Ajawwi and women. However, they had indicated that they

Higgs (2007). associate more themselves with the side of

masculinity. For the heterosexuals, they classified be in a group to share their thoughts regarding this themselves, straight men, because they are not sensitive topic, each participant felt more at ease, attracted to have a relationship with gay, they have knowing that it is not just him engaged in MSM activity. male sex organs, and it is what the society dictates. ii. Reasons for engaging in MSM activity: All iii. The Confidant of the Participants: The participants participants have indicated that the first time they expressed to have confidant whom they share their engaged in MSM was because of curiosity and peer experiences in being involved in MSM activity. The pressure. The story of pleasure experienced by their most common confidantes were close friends. peers motivated the participants to also engage in However, it is interesting to mention that some tell MSM. Also, alcohol intoxication plays a role in their family members such as sister, cousin and getting involved in MSM. Participants shared that even mother. One gay participant shared that his once they are under the influence of alcohol, they mother, knows he is gay and has a relationship with "did not become ashamed of engaging in the man, but he did not directly confide to her that he is activity". When they are sober, they felt shy to initiate already involved in MSM. Others mentioned or to engage in such activity. Alcohol intoxication confiding to women friends because they consider also leads some participants not to use a condom 2020 them as "best people to understand…" regarding during their intercourse.

ear their involvement in MSM. Also, another gay Social media and exposure to pornographic Y

participant shared that they proudly tell their gay sites also influence the participants to engage in MSM

24 friends being involved with a specific man and activity. The participants visited websites with sexually- showing it off like a trophy to them. explicit content and watched sex-videos through Moreover, one bisexual participant shared that cellphones or the internet. Participants also mentioned his girlfriend knew that he was engaged in MSM activity receiving some material things such as cellphones from before. Others mentioned that their girlfriends know they being engaged in MSM. Aside from sexual pleasure, got involved with gays but not on the details of their one bisexual mentioned that he was given an amount for being involved in MSM. One straight man, also tuition fee but already stopped receiving it. Another mentioned that his mother expressed that it is better to mentioned he was offered money but refused because get involved with gay while studying in college than to he does not want to be asked for favors in return for the have a girlfriend because he might impregnate a money given. For the heterosexuals, they engaged in woman. such activity primarily just for sexual pleasure, which When asked about the reactions of the people they cannot get from masturbation or from having sex

) they confided about being engaged in MSM, they have with women. They also indicated that gays find pleasure H

( a common answer that their confidantes were first in doing oral sex to them. This statement is Volume XX Issue II Version I shocked and disgusted. Some said, "they laughed at substantiated by the gays who said that they "felt like us". But the participants said they did not think much of they are a woman when they could let their male partner their reactions. However, one straight man feared that able to release or reached climax". other people will know aside from the people he

confided with because he considers it as a confidential c) Dynamics of the MSM Activity - matter. All participants mentioned that they got involved in the activity at their own free will, and they only engage b) Perception and Reasons for Engaging in MSM with people they know, such as casual friends, close i. Perception of MSM activity: Gays, bisexuals, and friends, and boyfriends. Before the MSM activity heterosexuals have different views on MSM activity. happens, all participants observed body language and All participants admitted that they felt awkward, wait for signals such as meaningful glances. Gays ashamed of themselves, and guilty in their first MSM jokingly touched the sides or back of the man to check if experience. Then, later on, they overcame the guilt the guy is into it. This move by the gays was confirmed and considered it as a normal activity for them. by the heterosexual and bisexuals, who mentioned that Interestingly, one heterosexual considers it a gay man tends to be touchy. In addition, the

Global Journal of Human Social Science abnormal because "it is man to man when it is heterosexual participants revealed that they tend to be supposed to be done by a man and a woman". the insertive partner. They usually engaged in oral sex Another one mentioned that he knew that engaging with the gay as the receptive partner. For gays, they felt in MSM is considered as "sin in the Bible, and it is a satisfied just being a receptive partner either in oral or form of fornication". However, as time passed the anal sex. They indicated that they felt beautiful or like a guilt in doing the activity diminishes that it becomes woman when they can let their male partner reached or a regular activity, especially if done with boyfriend. climaxed. They also mentioned that if their partner would It is also interesting to note that the participants agree that they are going to switch the role of being preferred to be interviewed in a group rather than insertive to receptive, it is an indication that the man is a individually. When they were asked why they preferred to bisexual.

Also, most of the participants admitted that they they find a way to excuse themselves. Another way do not engage MSM activity at their own houses. They of protection is the use of condoms during anal sex. did it in boarding houses of their sexual partner, friend's Other participants mentioned that they do not house and even in public places for as long as it is dark engage in anal sex because they believe that is how and secluded such as the plaza or school. Also, the they can be infected with STI or STD. gays mentioned that they engaged in MSM with men e) Participant's Advice on MSM and Actions are done who are from their home town rather than those from the by the University city because they believe that rural men have lesser Participant's advice regarding engaging in MSM tendencies of being infected with sexually transmitted activity. Interestingly, the participants advised that men infection (STI) or sexually transmitted disease (STD). as much as possible "should avoid being involved in In terms of frequency in doing the activity, the MSM". The gays mentioned that young gays "should not participants had varying answers. Ranging from rarely, be in a hurry to be involved in MSM and to be very once a week, every monthly anniversary, twice to four responsible and careful in choosing a partner". The times a month or just when they feel like doing it. When heterosexual advised, "not to get involved in MSM just to asked if they will stop engaging in the MSM, the

get money nor to have a relationship with a gay". 2020 participants mentioned they would stop in the future, but Actions are done by the university. In the not immediately. interview with the guidance counselor and the university ear Y d) Perceived Risks and Ways of Protection physician, symposiums were being conducted

25 i. Perceived risks: All participants indicated that being regarding HIV and STI awareness every year. The infected with s STI or STD is one big possible risk of guidance counselor, however, admitted that few attend engaging in MSM. They too were aware of STI and the said yearly activity and very few come to the STD signs and symptoms that include difficulty in guidance office to talk about their involvement with urinating, genital and mouth sores, blisters or MSM. With the sensitivity and confidentiality of the rashes, and bad smell discharge. They too have matter, the guidance office is gearing towards designing indicated that they do not have any sign or other ways or activities that can effectively reach these symptom of STI or STD at the moment the FGD was students to give them advice and guidance. conducted. VI. Discussion Aside from the health risk mentioned, other risks indicated were more on a personal aspect. This includes This study was undertaken to get an in-depth being discovered by parents resulting in being understanding of the profile, reasons, perceptions, )

reprimanded or condemned and being the topic of dynamics, potential risks, and ways of protection of H

(

nasty talks or gossips resulting in a damaged male college students engaging in MSM activity. The Volume XX Issue II Version I reputation. One heterosexual also mentioned he is afraid results showed that male participants experienced MSM that the gay partner will take a naked picture of him and at a young age, below 18 years old. This finding show it to his friends or post on social media. All corroborates what DOH (2017) and Ogena and perceived risks mentioned elicited feelings of Kabamalan (2014) have reported regarding the age

apprehension or fear among the participants in being range of male youths who were engaged in MSM. The - engaged in MSM. However, despite their apprehension result of having the first experience of MSM as young as or fear, they continue to engage in the activity. six years old and with a cousin supports the findings of ii. Ways of protection: All participants have ways to Italia and Oducado (2014) that their participants had protect themselves from harm or STI. All participants their first experience of MSM below 18 years old and indicated that they chose to engage MSM with with a relative. This finding is quite alarming implying partners they are familiar with because they are that parents or guardians should provide greater more confident that the person is not infected with attention to the interaction of their kids have with other STI or STD. They also advised not to have multiple people, in this case, their young sons with other male partners. In addition, gays mentioned that another individuals.

way to protect themselves is by doing a body check Concerning how the participants described their Global Journal of Human Social Science of their potential partner. They did this by touching sexual orientation, the participants tend to define their the side of their partner's body to check if he has sexuality based on their social construction and something inserted in the pocket or inside of their subjective meanings of masculinity. The description of clothes. If they felt that there is something, they being a straight man because of "having a penis" is one slowly distance themselves because it may indicate of the constructions of Filipino masculinity. For Filipinos, that the man has a deadly weapon that may be physical characteristic is an essential component for used to harm them later on. They also smell their one to be considered as masculine (Hernandez, 2004). potential partner in a not so obvious manner. If they Possession of the penis and its corresponding function smell something not right in their potential partner, is the physical characteristic being referred to as an

essential aspect of Filipino masculinity (Aggleton, Hilary, influence which posits that people are most likely to Jan, Stuart, & Simon, 1989). Likewise, the participant's engage or adopt new behaviors when positive response that he is a straight man because "it is what feedbacks of the experience in engaging such behavior the society dictates" (Participant 6) reflects the are observed among similar others whom they trust or socialization perspective of viewing masculinity. respect (Imperial & Hernandez, 2009). Likewise, the Socialization perspective posits that "masculine identity result that is under the influence of alcohol led is framed by the local culture where traditional beliefs participants to engage in MSM is corroborated by and values and norms are embedded in the male findings of Italia and Odocado (2014). Participants were psyche in the process of growing up" (Aggleton, Hilary, less likely to initiate engaging MSM when they were Jan, Stuart, & Simon, 1989, p.7). sober. Increased accessibility to the internet and It is likewise interestingly reflected in the results exposure to pornographic sites at a young age is also that in MSM dynamics, participants observed roles, like identified as another factor leading to the engagement who is going to be the insertive or receptive partner. The of participants to MSM. This implies that parents or role of being an insertive partner can determine that the guardians should be more mindful in monitoring what person is either bisexual or a straight guy. Being the their young sons or kids are exploring the internet to 2020 receptive partner is a role that a homosexual would do in prevent them from being exposed to pornographic sites. Participants also mentioned certain perceived risks that ear MSM. They likened this to be the role of a woman in a Y male-female sexual activity. somehow made them feel a certain degree of hesitation in engaging MSM. The risks were classified as a health 26 In addition, four of the participants openly admitted that they are gays and said they accept and personal risks. Health risk identified was the themselves for they are. According to WHO (2015), possibility of being infected with STI or STD. Personal research shows that men who accept their sexual risks include being reprimanded by parents and orientation are more psychologically healthy and have damaged reputation once their MSM involvement is higher self-esteem. These four gay participants were discovered. Filipino culture, in general, is conservative, observed to have vibrant personalities and were very hence some participants have fear of being discovered open to sharing their experiences. They were also by friends and relatives to be engaged in MSM activity. cultural performers and student leaders. Their being According to WHO (2015), the fear of being condemned open about their sexual orientation may have or stigmatizing attitudes towards homosexuality is one contributed to their great confidence and high self- major obstacle affecting the lives and health of MSM. In esteem. the study, one gay participant indicated that for a long time he has not engaged again in MSM because of his

) As reflected in the results, participants have

H fear of his brother who was becoming stricter in

( varying views regarding their being engaged in MSM

Volume XX Issue II Version I activity. These varying views reflect the concept of the following up on his daily activities in school. social construction of sexuality or "frame" theory Interestingly, despite the perceived risks, the advancing the idea that physically similar sexual acts participants still engage in MSM. Likewise, despite the may have different social significance and subjective fear of being discovered of being engaged in MSM, the meanings depending on the culture and periods it is participants preferred to be interviewed in a group rather

- being defined and understood (Vance, 1999). The than individually. In the beginning, it was observed that different perceptions of the participants regarding their there was a bit of hesitation, but later on, the MSM involvement may also be rooted in their upbringing participants became more engaging in the FGD. in the family or community where they were raised. Sharing their experiences in a group made them feel Three participants indicated that their family is validated knowing that there were others like them in the conservative that they have a fear that their family university who were also engaged in MSM activity. The members will know that they are engaged in MSM. researcher had seen that the FGD is similar to a support

group for the participants wherein they were free to The results further show that the major reasons that lead express their views and feelings regarding MSM activity the participants to engage in MSM activity include: without the fear of being judged. They also tend to have

Global Journal of Human Social Science Curiosity, peer pressure, alcohol intoxication, confidantes whom they choose carefully to share their watching pornographic sites, sexual pleasure, and personal experiences without the fear that their material rewards received such as cell phone and confidential activity being told to other people such as money for tuition fee. This finding of getting money from their relatives. their sexual partner corroborates to what Italia and With the perceived risks identified, participants Oducado (2014) indicated in their study. Listening to engaging in MSM activity observed certain dynamics for friends sharing their experiences on being engaged in their protection. Participants indicated that they were MSM activity and the pleasure they get from the activity, careful in choosing their partners, observed body stirred the curiosity and motivated the participants to language for signals, performed body check on their engage in it. This result reflects the theory of peer potential partner, and use of condoms as means to

©2020 Global Journals Men who have Sex with Men: The Male University Students Experience protect themselves from being infected with STI or STD. practitioners learn to communicate clinical Despite the pleasures, they get from the activity, reasoning. The Qualitative Report, 12. 612-638. protecting themselves from potential harm is of utmost 3. Birt, L., Scott, S., Cavers, D. Campbell, C. & Walter, consideration. F. (2016). Member checking. A tool to enhance trustworthiness or merely a nod to validation?, VII. Recommendation Qualitative Health Research. 2613:1802-181. The result that participants preferred to be Retrieved from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/ interviewed in-group rather than individual, may serve as pubmed/27340178 a basis for the concerned office in the university such as 4. Burki, T. (2017, June) HIV in the Philippines the Guidance office to design a support group where President Rodrigo Duterte's war on drugs could those engaged in MSM can seek guidance and freely bolster the burgeoning HIV epidemic. Newsdesk. discuss this sensitive and confidential matter without the 589-590. Retrieved from www.thelancet.com/ fear of being judged. Male students who are involved in infection MSM can be tapped as peer counselors. This idea is 5. Creswell J. Qualitative inquiry research design: embodied in the theory of peer influence (Hernandez & Choosing among five approaches. Thousands 2020 Imperial, 2009, p.45). Peer counselors who experienced Oaks, CA: Sage; 2013. Available from: http:// community.csusm.eddu/ pluginfile.php MSM activity can be good listeners, advisers, and ear 6. Department of Health (DOH). (2018, February) Y positive influencers encouraging male students who HIV/AIDS Cases in Region VIII (Eastern Visayas). come for advice to observe a more positive sexual 27 health practice. Likewise, further research is needed to Retrieved from Epidemiology Bureau. DOH-VIII. collect data from other groups, such as professional 7. Department of Health (DOH). (2019, July). HIV/AIDS and higher age groups. This can provide a more & ART Registry of the Philippines. Retrieved from https://www.doh.gov.ph/sites/default/files/statistics/ comprehensive picture of the dynamics of MSM activity among males. EB_HARP_July_AIDSreg2019.pdf 8. Hernandez, L.I. Reducing the vulnerability of VIII. Conclusion HIV/AIDS among male sex workers in the This study has elucidated that MSM among Philippines. Review of Women Journal. XIV (1). young male college students is an existing 9. Hernandez, L.I., & Imperial R.H. (2009) Men-who- phenomenon. It is a complex dynamic activity involving have-sex-with-other-males (MSM) in the Philippines the consciousness of those who engage in it. – Identities, sexualities, and social mobilities: A formative assessment of HIV and AIDS Participants are engaged in MSM for varied reasons )

vulnerabilities. Acta Medica Philippina. 43(3), 26-36. H such as curiosity, peer pressure, alcohol intoxication, ( watching pornographic sites, sexual pleasure, and 10. Italia, W.F., Oducado, M.F. (2014). Men who have Volume XX Issue II Version I material rewards receive. They have different sex with men (MSM) in Iloilo City, Philippines: perceptions of MSM rooted in how they were brought up Profile, sexual history, level of knowledge about in their family. There are perceived risks classified as HIV/AIDS, and sexual risk-taking behavior. Asia personal and health risks identified by the participants Pacific Journal of Multidisciplinary Research. that give them a certain degree of hesitation in engaging 2(6):125-132. - in MSM. However, despite those risks, they still engaged 11. Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS in MSM. Participants observed certain dynamics as they (UNAIDS). (2019). UNAIDS Action framework: engage in MSM and observe certain ways to protect Universal access for men who have sex with men themselves from the identified potential risks. The and transgender people. 2009. 09.22E – JC1720E. university is like the second home of students is Retrieved from: http://data.unaids.org/pub/report/ 2009/jc1720_action _framework_msm_en.pdf encouraged to find better ways how to reach those engaged in MSM providing avenues for them to freely 12. Matillano B.J. (2013). Sexual networking, sexual discuss this sensitive and confidential matter without the practices, and level of awareness among MSM on fear of being judged and be given the advice to observe HIV/ AIDS. International Journal of Science and

Global Journal of Human Social Science a more positive sexual health practice. Research. 2(8), 428-420.

13. Ogena, N.B, & Kabamalan M.M. (2014) #RegionVIII References Références Referencias youth today: Risk behavior of young people in

Eastern Visayas. Retrieved from https://www.drdf. 1. Aggleton, P., Hilary, H., Jan, M., Stuart, W., & org.ph/sites/default/files/y4presentations/POPCOM Simon, W. (1989). AIDS: Scientific and social issues: %20Region%20VIII%20Aug%2022%20Summary. A resource for health educators. London: Churchill pdf Livingstone. 2. Ajjawi, R., & Higgs, J. (2007). Using hermeneutic 14. Stake, R. (1995). The art of case study research. phenomenology to investigate how experienced Thousands Oaks, CA: Sage, Inc.

15. Vance, C.S. (1999. Anthropology Rediscovers Sexuality: A Theoretical Comment. In: Parker R, Aggleton P. editors. Culture, society, and sexuality. London: UCL Press. 16. Wa-Mbaleka, S.W., & Gladstone, R.K. (2018). Sampling strategies in qualitative research. Qualitative research for senior high school. Cavite, Phil: Oikos Biblios Publishing House. 17. Wong, L.P. (2008). Focus group discussion: A tool for health and medical research. Singapore Medical Journal. 49(3):256-60. Retrieved from https://www. ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18363011. 18. World Health Organization (WHO). (2015) A technical brief. HIV and young men who have sex

2020 with men. WHO Document Production Services, Geneva, Switzerland. Retrieved from http://www. ear

Y unaids.org/sites/default/files/media_asset/2015 _young_men_sex_with_men_en.pdf 28 19. Yazan, B. (2015). Three approaches to case study methods in education: Yin, Merriam, and Stake. The Qualitative Report. 20(2): 134-152. Retrieved from: http://nsu works.nova.edu/tqr/ vol20/iss2/12 20. Yin, R. (2009). Case study research: Design and methods, 4, 2-4. Thousands Oaks, CA: Sage, Inc. Retrieved from https://books.google.com. ) H

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Global Journal of Human Social Science

The Historical Process and Dynamic of Rural Coconut Sugar Industry Development in Banyumas, Central Java, Indonesia By Shinta Prastyanti, Subejo & Muhammad Sulhan University of Gadjah Mada Abstract- For many decades, Banyumas has been a centre of coconut sugar production in Indonesia. There are many aspects of the rural coconut industry in Banyumas that are worthy of further study such as production and distribution methods, government policies and strategy relating to the coconut sugar industry, as well as the role of extension. The study found that rural coconut sugar industry in Banyumas Regency is very much a hereditary industry, and today farmers still use the traditional processes for production. In this regency, there is a unique coconut sugar management model, with some variants based on the agreements between coconut sugar farmer and the coconut tree owners. The transparency of price creates a symbiosis of mutualism between the coconut sugar farmer and the warungs/collectors. Access to new media like mobile phones and the internet, as well as the establishment of a cooperative, have provided opportunities for coconut sugar farmers to expand into international markets. Although this rural industry still faces some problems like low earnings and danger, the coconut sugar farmers remain grateful for the income they earn and are dedicated to their profession. Keywords: hystorical rocess, dynamic, coconut sugar industry, banyumas. GJHSS-H Classification: FOR Code: 160804

TheHistoricalProcessandDynamicofRuralCoconutSugarIndustryDevelopmentinBanyumasCentralJavaIndonesia

Strictly as per the compliance and regulations of:

© 2020. Shinta Prastyanti, Subejo & Muhammad Sulhan. This is a research/review paper, distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-Noncommercial 3.0 Unported License http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/3.0/), permitting all non-commercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

The Historical Process and Dynamic of Rural Coconut Sugar Industry Development in Banyumas, Central Java, Indonesia

α σ ρ Shinta Prastyanti , Subejo & Muhammad Sulhan

Abstract- For many decades, Banyumas has been a centre of government and stakeholders must create innovative coconut sugar production in Indonesia. There are many strategies that focus on strengthening the coconut aspects of the rural coconut industry in Banyumas that are sugar industry to compete in new markets. There is worthy of further study such as production and distribution some debate regarding the success of such initiatives, methods, government policies and strategy relating to the 2020 and many feel that the most destitute and needy are coconut sugar industry, as well as the role of extension. The often excluded from the programs (Hickey & Sam 2005: study found that rural coconut sugar industry in Banyumas ear

851-865). However, despite criticism, there is evidence Y

Regency is very much a hereditary industry, and today farmers that shows government intervention can play a still use the traditional processes for production. In this 29 regency, there is a unique coconut sugar management model, significant role in poverty reduction (Aliber 2003: 473- with some variants based on the agreements between 490), and the rural coconut sugar industry in the coconut sugar farmer and the coconut tree owners. The Banyumas Regency still exists which its interesting transparency of price creates a symbiosis of mutualism dynamic. between the coconut sugar farmer and the warungs/collectors.

Access to new media like mobile phones and the internet, as II. Objectives of the Study well as the establishment of a cooperative, have provided opportunities for coconut sugar farmers to expand into This study examines the history and dynamic of international markets. Although this rural industry still faces the rural coconut sugar industry development in some problems like low earnings and danger, the coconut Ba nyumas Regency, Central Java, Indonesia. sugar farmers remain grateful for the income they earn and are dedicated to their profession. Various extension programs • Investigate the historical process of rural coconut have been implemented to improve the quality and quantity of sugar industry development. coconut sugar produced in the region, and safety measures • )

Identify the portrait of the rural coconut sugar H have been introduced to protect farmers when tapping the industry. ( Volume XX Issue II Version I neera(coconut tree sap). • Analysis the extension programsand government Keywords: hystorical rocess, dynamic, coconut sugar policies on rural coconut sugar industry. industry, banyumas. development.

I. In troduction III. Research Method - n Banyumas Regency, poverty is still a significant issue for many people who struggle to achieve a This study is descriptive and semi-exploratory, good quality of life (Shinta et al. 2018: 124-134). In and it uses a qualitative approach. It was conducted in I contrast, Banyumas has excellent potential to develop Banyumas Central Java Indonesia, and considers the rural coconut sugar industry. Coconut sugar production following 1) Banyumas is one of the centres of the rural is the most important economic activity an hereditary coconut sugar industry in the region and country, 2) the business in Banyumas.The majority of small and coconut sugar industry in Banyumas has become a medium enterprises in this district are related to coconut strategic economic commodity, 3) the coconut sugar sugar (74%). In total, there are around 110,000 industry needs business partners to enhance productivity and expand into new markets, 4) the

employed in the coconut sugar industry (Cilongokkec, Global Journal of Human Social Science 2019). Rural coconut sugar enterprises in the Banyumas availability and quality of internet infrastructure.The data do not need to operate solely to meet the daily needs of were collected through in-depth interviews with coconut the owners or farmers, but they can be turned into sugar farmers, informal leaders, founder of the profitable businesses. That is the reason why the local cooperative, and local government staff. Other data collection techniques used were FGD, participative Author α: Extension and Development Communication, School of observation, and documentation.Source and method Graduate Program, University of Gadjah Mada, Indonesia. triangulation were used for data validity (Patton, 1987), e-mail: [email protected] Authorσ ρ: Dept. of Communication Science, University of Jenderal whileinteractive model was used for data analysis (Miles Soedirman, Indonesia. & Huberman, 2002).

IV. Results and Discussion and foods likegudeg(traditional Javanese dish). Coconut sugar is used by companies as an ingredientin a) The historical process of rural coconut sugar industry other foods like soy sauce, syrup, cakes. Unfortunately, development there is little reliable data about when the rural coconut Banyumas is one of the centres of coconut sugar industry started in Banyumas, as Mr. Mukhayat sugar production, not only in Central Java but also the stated Since he was born fourty four years ago,the country. The coconut trees thrive in Banyumas,and coconut sugar industry already exists. So it's hereditary. there are as many as 1,746,881 trees in an area of The crystal sugar recently comes out. It's only about ten 17,814 ha (BPS Central Java Province, 2017). With a years ago. If shaped one is a long time ago. In line with lifespan aroundfourty five years, the treesare valuable Mr. Mukhayat, Mr. Narsim, a 77- year old community because they can be used from the top to the roots, and leader of Sambirata argued coconut sugar production they do not require special care.One part of the has existed since his great grandfather , it has been coconut tree that has economic value is the flower hereditary until now. (manggar) which can be used to make coconut sugar

2020 The known history of the rural coconut sugar production in Banyumas is shown in below:

ear Milestone of Improvements Y

30 Shaped coconut sugar production, warungs/ rural collectors

Years 1940

2000 Export initiation of coconut sugar

The initiation of the establishment of the Cooperative of Nira Satria as well

2008 as the beginning of the production of crystal coconut sugar )

(

Volume XX Issue II Version I 2009 Organic certificate for crystal coconut sugar

Facebook for promoting coconut sugar, initiation for export to coconut 2010 sugar

- 2011 The establishment of The Cooperative of Nira Satria

2016 PT Integral Mulia Cipta (coconut sugar supplier)

2018 Modernization in coconut sugar production (using plastic for pongkor) (Source: Researcher, 2019) Figure 1: The historical process of the rural coconut sugar industry development in Banyumas, Central Java The above figure shows that the rural coconut Around 2008, a meeting was attended by young sugar industry in Banyumas has been running for people from four villages. They joined together and Global Journal of Human Social Science decades, and it informs that warungs/ rural collectors began to think about what they could do to improve the that oft enact as loan provider, are where coconut sugar economic situation in the area. At the time, they were products are usually sold. In the past, only shaped working in non-agricultural jobs like construction, but coconut sugar was produced, and it was exclusively they decided that the development of coconut sugar marketed to Banyumas and the surrounding area. The production was the solution for the area because the coconut sugar farmers traditionally sold their products to majority of the population in Banyumas were coconut warungs/rural collector and only started to export in the sugar farmers. They initiated production by doing some year 2000. experiments, and then they started to produce coconut

©2020 Global Journals The Historical Process and Dynamic of Rural Coconut Sugar Industry Development in Banyumas, Central Java, Indonesia sugar, but with different variations, not only shaped Cooperative of Nira Satria but also PT Integral Mulia coconut sugar. Cipta. In 2018, plastic pongkor, which are reservoirs to At the beginning of the pre-cooperative collect neera, was introduced to the coconut sugar process, not all crystal coconut sugar produced by the farmers by the Cooperative of Nira Satria and PT Integral farmers couldbe sold on the market, which meant that a Mulia Cipta. However, there are still many coconut sugar lot of coconut sugar waswasted. To avoid losing their farmers in Banyumas who use traditional pongkor made product, the farmers obtained organic certification in of bamboo rather than plastic. 2009, which helped them to grow sales and expand into Coconut sugar production: a portrait new markets. They promoted the business through Plantation products, particularly coconut sugar, social media and with the organic certifications, it are an essential product for the economy of Banyumas. helped enormosly, especially in international market. Coconut trees are spread over an area of 17,814 ha, Although they were promoting through their business and more than 50,000 tons of coconut sugar is well through online media or aligned to a particular produced annually by 20,293 coconut sugar farmers organisation. Then in 2011, the Cooperative of Nira (Lpplsh, 2019). With such a large number of trees and Satria was established in Pernasidi, which make farmers, it is not surprising that Banyumas has become 2020 promotional efforts more organised and productive. The a leading producer of coconut sugar in Indonesia. The cooperative currently has around 300 members from the comparison data about coconut sugar production in ear surrounding villages. Y Central Java (BPS Central Java Province 2014) is shown Since 2016, coconut sugar farmers not only below: 31 sold their produce to warungs/collectors and the Table 1: Coconut sugar production in the Province of Central Java

Production The number of coconut sugar No. Percentage (%) Centers (District) production (ton)

1 Banyumas 52.114,56 23.30 2 Cilacap 48.802,51 21.82 3 Purbalingga 48.795,20 21.82 4 Kebumen 24.054,24 10.75 5 Purworejo 18.655,96 8.34

Total 223.669,35 100 ) H

( Source: Adapted from BPS Central Java 2014 Volume XX Issue II Version I

The interviews with staff in the Office of Industry and Trade and the Cooperatives of Banyumas found that total coconut sugar production in Banyumas increased for the past five years, as well as the - production of crystal coconut sugar. In contrast, shaped coconut sugar production fluctuated for several years. Between 2012-2014 it increased from 59,916.26 kg to 67,742.76 kg, but then decreased again in 2015 to 62,892.88 kg. The decrease continued to 58,473.88 kg in 2016. However, in 2017, it increased again to its highest level since 2012 and reached 69,587.15 kg.More complete data on the volume of production of both shaped and crystal coconut sugar (Dinperindagkop, 2019): Global Journal of Human Social Science

1,20,000

1,00,000

80,000

(Kg) 60,000 Cocot sugar 40,000 Shaped coconut sugar

20,000 Crystal coconut sugar

0 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017

(Year) 2020

ear Figure 2: The improvement of coconut sugar production in Banyumas Y

In line with the fluctuations of the amount of increased each year from 2012 to 2017. Regarding the 32 production of shaped coconut sugar as in the figure total number of coconut sugar industry units, there are above, it turns out that the number of shaped coconut also fluctuations year on year with the highest recorded sugar industry units in Banyumas also fluctuated. In number being in 2017, as shown in the below table: contrast, the number of crystal coconut sugar units Table 2: The number of the industry of coconut sugar unit in Banyumas Types Year (tons) of 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 product Shaped coconut 27.829 27.225 26.178 24.797 23.387 25.726 sugar )

H Crystal

(

Volume XX Issue II Version I coconut 3.358 4.191 5.239 6.549 7.859 7.865 sugar Total 31.182 31.416 31.417 31.346 31.246 33.589 Source: Archives of the Office of Industry, Trade, and Cooperatives of Banyumas Regency, 2019

- Based on the data from the Office of Industry

Trade, and Cooperatives of Banyumas, it is evident that

the coconut sugar produced in Banyumas is not only

sold to local and national markets but also

internationally. The export volume of Banyumas coconut

sugar production has increased each year since 2017.

Although the crystal coconut sugar industry is newer

than the shaped coconut sugar, the export volume is

much higher, and it increased each year. For example, it

rose from 8,413.12 tons/year in 2012 to 25,819, 00

Global Journal of Human Social Science tons/year in 2017. This figure dwarfs that of the shaped

coconut sugar, which rose from 280 tons/year in 2012 to

580 tons/year in 2017 (Dinperindagkop, 2019).

Complete data about the export volume of coconut sugar in Banyumas is shown in figure 3 below:

Coconut sugar Shaped coconut sugar Crystal coconut sugar

2640025819 2442423843 1977519291 1503414631 1143111095 8693 8413

280 336 403 483 580 580

2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017

2020 Source: Archives of the Office of Industry, Trade and Cooperatives of Banyumas (2019)

Figure 3: Export volume of coconut sugar of Banyumas (tons) ear

Y In the term of distribution, coconut sugar case, there is no specific limit on the value of the

33 produced by the farmers is sold in several ways. First, mortgage for each coconut tree or for how long it lasts. the farmers sell directly to neighbours because not all It all depends on the agreement of both parties. During villagers are coconut sugar farmers. Second, coconut the mortgage process, coconut trees are managed by sugar is sold to warungs, who then resell it from their coconut tree farmers who lend money. The mortgaged business. Third, coconut sugar is sold to the coconut trees are returned when the loaned money has Cooperative of Nira Satria, and then the cooperative sell been returned. For complete data about the coconut it to customers within and outside the country. Fourth, sugar management model in Banyumas can be seen in suppliers such as PT. Integral Mulia Cipta (IMC) this below table: purchase sugar product from the farmers in Banyumas and distribute it to national food companies and to companies abroad. Fifth, coconut sugar is sold online by coconut sugar farmers. For sales conducted via the )

internet, the buyers usually order the product first, and H

( then the coconut sugar is sent several days after Volume XX Issue II Version I depending on the size of the order and the ability of the farmer to produce it. In the Banyumas Regency, there are several models of cooperation between tree owners and sugar farmers (penderes). The profit-sharing model in the rural - coconut sugar industry in the Banyumas is called maro. According to this model, the profit-sharing is usually based on days; for example, in the 4:1 model it means four days of coconut sugar production are for the coconut sugar farmer, while the tree owner receives the results of one day of production. The other model uses percentages, for example, 60:40. In this model, the coconut sugar farmer receives 60% out of the result, and 40% is for the tree owners. In this rural coconut sugar industry, there is no standard benchmark for Global Journal of Human Social Science profit-sharing models between tree owners and coconut sugar farmers. Usually, tree owners receive deposits in the form of a quantity of coconut sugar that is mutually agreed between the two parties. For rental models, sugar producers have to pay the tree owner for 100,000 IDR rent for a certain number of trees, and the rent is valid for one year. Coconut sugar farmer can also mortgage coconut trees when they need money. In this

Table 3: The Coconut Sugar Management Model No. Coconut sugar management Profit-sharing model based on the day Own Rent Maro Own Mortgage 5:2 4:1 60:40 70:30

coconut coconut (share coconut (day) (day) (%) (%)

tree tree harve tree

(100,00 sting) and

0 IDR/ tapped tree/ by other year) people

∞ - ∞ - - - ∞ - - 1 ∞ ∞ - ∞ - ∞ - - - 2 - - ∞ - - ∞ ∞ ∞ ∞ 3 ∞ ------4 - - ∞ - - ∞ ∞ ∞ ∞ 5 2020 ∞ - ∞ - ∞ ∞ ∞ ∞ ∞ 6

ear Source: Researcher (2019) Y Note: farmer is not harmed if there are fluctuations in price.

34 − 5: 2: it means five days of coconut sugar This process benefits both parties because the farmers productions are for coconut sugar farmer, while the receive much-needed capital the warung is guaranteed next two days are for coconut tree owner. to receive a specific quantity of coconut sugar. Warungs − 4: 1: it means four days of coconut sugar or collectors of coconut sugar, are usually neighbours productions are for coconut sugar farmer, while the who live in the same village as the coconut sugar next one day is for coconut tree owner. farmers, and they determine the price of the product. If − 60:40:it means the coconut sugar farmer gets 60% prices are reasonable, coconut sugar can reach IDR of the coconut sugar production, while the owner of 12.000-14.000/kg, whereas when prices are low, it is the coconut tree is entitled to 40% of the production only around IDR 6.000-7.000 /kg. Some coconut sugar of coconut sugar. farmers do not switch to producing organic crystal − 70:30: it means the coconut sugar farmer recieves coconut sugar because of the uncertainty regarding 70% of the total production, while the owner of price. According to them, producing organic crystal ) coconut tree is for 30% . coconut sugar is a longer process, although the price is H

( more stable. The coconut sugar farmers can also take Volume XX Issue II Version I In addition to the above models, there are also coconut sugar farmers who interchange the tapping out small loans with the warungs, which is more responsibilities of particular trees. For example, farmer A beneficial than the previous system. The previous collects sap from five coconut trees belonging to farmer system known as ijon meant that farmers received B and vice versa. The advantage of this model is that payment for the product before handing it over, which

- when farmer A is sick and cannot work, then he still gets was more beneficial for the warung. With the new an income from the deposits obtained by farmer B. system, the financial loan is returned in the form of These types of arrangements are not fixed and are the coconut sugar at a fixed price, so the coconut sugar specific details are arranged between the farmers. The farmer is not harmed if there are fluctuations in price. production of coconut sugar is often not decided by the This process benefits both parties because the farmers farmer depends on the agreement with the owner of the receive much-needed capital the warung is guaranteed trees. For coconut sugar farmers in Banyumas, usually, to receive a specific quantity of coconut sugar. two-thirds of the production of sugar is sold, and the The coconut sugar farmers do not invest much remaining third is sent to warungs or the cooperative effort in the packaging of their products as this is left up (Nira Satria). However, some farmers sell directly to to the Cooperative of NiraSatria or the retailers to pack it

Global Journal of Human Social Science warungs or cooperatives, and each warung generally and make it is more attractive to the buyers. The holds coconut sugar products from around ten different marketing of coconut sugar products of Banyumas is coconut sugar farmers. The coconut sugar farmers can not only done at a local and national level, but the take out small loans with the warungs, which is more products are also marketed internationally. The beneficial than the previous system. The previous significant buyers of coconut sugar products in Asia are system known as ijon meant that farmers received Saudi Arabia (228 tons/year), Singapore (144 ton/year), payment for the product before handing it over, which Korea (24 tons/year), and Taiwan (2 tons/year). Outside was more beneficial for the warung. With the new Asia, The Netherlands and the United States of America system, the financial loan is returned in the form of are also large purchasers of Banyumas coconut sugar coconut sugar at a fixed price, so the coconut sugar products with 15 tons/year and 5 tons/year respectively.

Although the rural coconut sugar from Banyumas has Accident Compensation for Coconut Sugar Producers in been able to penetrate international markets, the Banyumas. At the start of the program, the Banyumas industry in Banyumas still faces challenges. For government distributed 9.000 Penderes cards to example, limited capital, unstable prices, low salaries, farmers, which has now risen to over 26,000. Along with and changes in the weather all make the job of a the local government, the Cooperative of Nira Satria also coconut sugar farmer difficult and somewhat dangerous provides guarantees for coconut sugar farmers who

(perkebunan.litbang.pertanian, 2019). In the rural experience accidents. The cooperative gives up to coconut sugar industry, women play an essential role. 5,000,000 IDR provided that the farmer is a registered

They are usually responsible for cooking and shaping member. Regarding the compensation payments, there the neera, while the men look for grass for livestock or was a farmer who suffered an accident and sustained firewood. According to Morgen (1998: 515-537); Geist et serious injuries. Based on the rules set by the regional al. (2003), the role of women should not be understated, government, he was entitled to receive 5,000,000 IDR. and they have fantastic potential to improve the industry However, in reality, he only received 500,000 IDR and which should be developed further. had to wait for four months to receive the money.

Another coconut sugar farmer died when he was 2020 b) The extension programs and government policy on tapping the neera, and his family only received rural coconut sugar industry development 1,500,000 IDR rather than the 5,000,000 IDR specified in ear Because coconut sugar is a leading product in Y the legislation. Banyumas, the industry does not escape the attention of 35 the local government, who has tried to improve it by In 2014, the local government introduced a providing extension programs and training on safety belt program to increase the safety for farmers production methods, and by encouraging the tapping the neera (Suaramerdeka, 2019). It was diversification of production to organic crystal coconut expected that all coconut sugar farmers would want to sugar. Compared to conventional coconut sugar, crystal wear the safety belt. According to the village officials, coconut sugar is better because it lasts for up to two around 2016-2017, there was an extension activity years, and the powder form makes it easier to dissolve. concerned with safety procedures for the tapping of Also, it has a more attractive shape, a more distinct neera. At that time, safety belts were distributed to some aroma and taste, it is easier to transport, and the price is coconut sugar producers, although not all received it. higher and more stable (cilongokkec, 2019). To promote Unfortunately, the safety belt was not successful crystal coconut sugar to the farmers, the government because the farmers felt they were cumbersome and also provided equipment and additional assistance. time-consuming to use, and for that reason, the process of tapping neera has not changed for decades. )

However, despite government efforts, it is difficult and H

Furthermore, a new species of tree has been ( time-consuming for many farmers to make the change Volume XX Issue II Version I from producing shaped coconut sugar to crystal sugar. introduced called genjahentok in an attempt to reduce The Office of Industry, Trade, and Cooperatives the number of workplace accidents. This tree is only a of Banyumas hold annual training sessions to help few meters tall, so it is far safer because little or no farmers improve the quality and quantity of their coconut climbing is required. They are so small that they can also be tapped by the females, who do not traditionally sugar. The targets of this program are the coconut - sugar farmers and the labourers (usually women). For tap the larger trees. At the beginning of the program, this training,the Office of Industry, Trade, and 16,500 of the new smaller coconut trees were distributed Cooperatives Banyumas Regency coordinate with to 23 farmer groups. The following year, while other 85 stakeholders like the University of Jenderal Soedirman farmer groups received 85,000 coconut sugar stems, (Unsoed), the Ministry of Industry of Indonesia, and the which grew to 500,000 stems in 2017.In term of credit Bank of Indonesia. In addition to the routine training, the provision, it is a relatively straightforward process

Office of Industry, Trade, and Cooperatives also because it is easy to obtain credit from national and conduct extension programs for coconut sugar farmers. local banks. Farmers are required to present a certificate Unfortunately, because they only have four extension that shows they are a coconut sugar producer, and the credit applications are quickly approved without a staff, it means that the extension program is only Global Journal of Human Social Science implemented when there are requests from other complicated process. stakeholders such as the cooperative. Even though various extension programs and One of that extension program was about the policies to improve the capabilities and safety of the socialization of the Penderes program which aimed to coconut sugar farmers have been implemented by the provide compensation of up to 10,000,000 IDR for local government and related parties, it seems that coconut sugar producers who suffered from accidents these efforts have not made the coconut sugar industry or injuries and up to 5,000,000 IDR for death. The enticing, profitable, or desirable, particularly for young program is implemented under the 2009 Regulation No. people (Lpplsh, 2019). However, farmer regeneration is

4 of the Banyumas Regency and is known as the still the main issue in this industry. The different

programs and policies of the local government and related parties are described in the below table: Table 4: The supporting programs on rural coconut sugar industry development in Banyumas

Type of programs Involved parties Activities Output

Local government, the Providing work accident Some coconut sugar Penderes card Cooperative of Nira Satria insurance for coconut farmers have work accident Program sugar farmers insurance and a small number of them used it Dinperindagkop Banyumas, Training program for Improvement of quality and Unsoed, the Ministry of coconut sugar farmers quantity of coconut sugar Industry, the Bank of and the labor of rural Routine training Indonesia coconut sugar industry to improve quality and

2020 quantity of coconut sugar production

ear

Y Local government, Dissemination and Some coconut sugar Safety belt Dinperindagkop provision of safety belts farmers have safety belt

36 to tap the neera Local government, the Launched the local of the A small number of coconut New variety (Genjah Cooperative of Nira Satria, superior coconut tree to sugar farmers have that new Entok) PT Integral Mulia Cipta reduce the number of variety of coconut tree workplace accidents. the Cooperative of Nira Dissemination of a new Some coconut sugar Plastic pongkor Satria, PT Integral Mulia type of a bucket for farmers have used plastic Cipta placing the neera pongkor Dinperindagkop Banyumas, Providing an extension Knowledge and network The Cooperative of Nira program for coconut improvement of coconut Extension Satria, PT Integral Mulia sugar farmers based on sugar farmers Cipta an invitation from related stakeholders )

H Bank of Republic of Providing loan for Loan for some coconut

( Loan provision Indonesia, Bank of Regional coconut sugar farmers sugar farmers Volume XX Issue II Version I Development Source: Dinperindagkop Banyumas, the Cooperative of Nira Satria and some interview results with coconut sugar farmer in Banyumas Regency , 2019

V. Conclusion programs and policies to improve safety standards and - the quality of coconut sugar. However, despite these This article concludes that the rural coconut policies, coconut sugar farmers are often sceptical and sugar industry in Banyumas has experienced various reluctant to take part in government programs due to a stages of development. The establishment of lack of trust in their effectiveness and implementation. cooperatives and the presence of larger suppliers have allowed producers to expand into overseas markets. References Références Referencias Price transparency means that the system is fairer 1. BPS (Badan Pusat Statistik) Provinsi Jawa Tengah because the warungs no longer determine the price. In [Central Bureau Statistics, Central Java Province]. Banyumas, there is no generic coconut sugar 2017. Provinsi Jawa tengah Dalam Angka 2014 management model in place. The business relationship [Central Java Province in Figures 2017]. Semarang:

Global Journal of Human Social Science between coconut sugar farmers and tree owners BPS–Statistics of Central Java Province. depend on the individual agreements between both 2. BPS (Badan Pusat Statistik) Provinsi Jawa Tengah parties. [Central Bureau Statistics, Central Java Province]. The main problem facing the rural coconut 2017. Provinsi Jawa tengah Dalam Angka 2014 sugar industry in Banyumas is farmer recruitment. [Central Java Province in Figures 2017]. Semarang: Currently, the younger generation is reluctant to work in BPS–Statistics of Central Java Province this business because to become a coconut sugar 3. Cilongokkec. (2018). http://cilongokkec.Banyumas farmer is very risky, and the potential income is limited. kab.go.id/page/14809/gula-kelapa (Coconut Sugar). The government have implemented various extension Accessed 24/1/2019

4. Dinperindagkop (Archive of the Office of Industrial, Trade, and Cooperative of Banyumas Regency) (2019). 5. Geist, M.P.; B.F. Sharf; E.B. Ray. (2003). Communicating Health: Personal, Cultural, and Political Complexities, California: Wadsworth/ Thomson Learning. 6. Hickey, Sam & Bracking, Sarah. (2005). "Exploring the Politics of Chronic Poverty: From Representation to a Politics of Justice?," World Development, Elsevier, 33(6), 851-865. 7. LPPS LH. (2019). http://www.lppslh.or.id/artikel/’ gula-kelapa-banyumas-riwayatmu-kini-dan-nanti’ (Banyumas Coconut Sugar, YourHistory Now-and Later.)/. Accessesd 28/1/2019. 8. Miles, & Huberman. (2002). The Qualitative 2020 Research’s Companian. Sage Publishing. India. ear

https://doi.org/10.4135/9781412986274 Y

9. Morgan, J. (1998). Bound-Risk:The Mujeres De 37 Yucatan Por la Democracia. Sex Roles: A Journal of Research 39 (7-8): 515-537. ttps://doi.org/10. 1023/A:1018835428945 10. Patton, M. Q. (1987). How to use qualitative methods in evaluation. Newbury Park, CA: Sage 11. Perkebunan.litbang (2019). http://perkebunan. litbang.pertanian.go.id/wp-content/uploads/2015/ 09/MU-5-Bupati-Banyumas.pdf. Prosiding Konferensi Nasional Kelapa VIII. Perkembangan Aneka Industri Berbasis Kelapa di Kabupaten Banyumas’ (Proceedings of the National Coconut Conference VIII. The Development of Various )

Coconut Based Industries in Banyumas Regency). . H

(

Accessed 22/1/ 2019. Volume XX Issue II Version I 12. Prastyanti, Shinta, Subejo., M. Sulhan. (2018). Poverty: A Never-Ending Homework in Rural Development. Academic Research International 9 (3), 124-134.

13. Suaramerdeka, 2019. http:/www.suarameredeka. - com. Accessed 20/2/2019 ‘‘

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( Volume XX Issue II Version I -

Global Journal of Human Social Science

Death Territories: Visibility of Juvenile Residents of Porto Alegre who were Victims of Homicide in 2015, 2016, 2017 and 2018 By Ana Paula Motta Costa, Betina Warmling Barros, Giovanna da Silva Araujo & Victória Hoff da Cunha Abstract- The paper aims to map the homicides that victimize individuals residing in Porto Alegre between the years 2015 and 2018, identifying their main characteristics, as well as the neighborhoods where they lived and died. Based on data from the Mortality Information System (SIM) provided by the Municipal Health Department, the paper analyzes the profile of the victims in relation to age, gender and race. The QGis software was used to map the life and death sites of the murdered youth, aged between 15 and 29 years. Thus, it was possible to reaffirm the idea that homicides mainly victimize young black males. However, the age curve showed a peak of victims between 15 and 19 years old, which was not a reality a decade ago. In addition, it was noted the proportional decrease of white victims, as well as a greater women representation. Finally, in relation to life and death places, while there is a strong concentration in the neighborhoods Rubem Berta, Restinga, Santa Tereza, Sarandi and Lomba do Pinheiro, it was also possible to verify a growing territorial homicides spread.

Keywords: youth; homicide; violence; maps; territory.

GJHSS-H Classification: FOR Code: 160899

DeathTerritoriesVisibilityofJuvenileResidentsofPortoAlegrewhowereVictimsofHomicidein201520162017and2018

Strictly as per the compliance and regulations of:

© 2020. Ana Paula Motta Costa, Betina Warmling Barros,Giovanna da Silva Araujo & Victória Hoff da Cunha. This is a research/review paper, distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-Noncommercial 3.0 Unported License http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/3.0/), permitting all non-commercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

Death Territories: Visibility of Juvenile Residents of Porto Alegre who were Victims of Homicide in 2015, 2016, 2017 and 2018

Ana Paula Motta Costa α, Betina Warmling Barros σ, Giovanna da Silva Araujo ρ & Victória Hoff da Cunha Ѡ

Abstract - The paper aims to map the homicides that victimize the homicidal events occurred in the years of 2015, individuals residing in Porto Alegre between the years 2015 2016, 2017 and 2018. and 2018, identifying their main characteristics, as well as the It is important to notice that this research differs neighborhoods where they lived and died. Based on data from from most homicide researches, as it seeks to ascertain the Mortality Information System (SIM) provided by the who were the young homicide victims living in Porto Municipal Health Department, the paper analyzes the profile of 2020 the victims in relation to age, gender and race. The QGis Alegre, where they lived and where they died. Thus, the software was used to map the life and death sites of the largest sample concerns young residents of the city who ear Y

murdered youth, aged between 15 and 29 years. Thus, it was are victims of this type of violent mortality, no matter possible to reaffirm the idea that homicides mainly victimize where the homicidal event occurred. As will be seen, the 39 young black males. However, the age curve showed a peak of vast majority of events also took place in Porto Alegre, victims between 15 and 19 years old, which was not a reality a but there are cases where young residents of the city decade ago. In addition, it was noted the proportional were killed in other municipalities. decrease of white victims, as well as a greater women representation. Finally, in relation to life and death places, The choice for this sample is justified since no while there is a strong concentration in the neighborhoods previous research concerned with assessing the profile Rubem Berta, Restinga, Santa Tereza, Sarandi and Lomba do of homicide victims in Porto Alegre was identified, but Pinheiro, it was also possible to verify a growing territorial only investigations with reference to violent events in the homicides spread. city. Therefore, it was not possible to know if the Keywords: youth; homicide; violence; maps; territory. residents of the city were victims of this type of violent lethality also in the geographic circumscription of the I. Introduction municipality, or if the events violated these territorial

orto Alegre is listed among the most violents limits. Thus, a major innovation of the present study ) H

cities in the world” is the headline of the paper concerns the attempt to evaluate a correspondence ( “P with largest circulation in Rio Grande do Sul, between place of residence and place of death of young Volume XX Issue II Version I in april 2nd, 2017. The report presents research data people, identifying the extent to which residents of Porto conducted by Igarapé Institute and published in the Alegre are murdered in the city itself, or in various other newspaper The Economist. Since the end of 2016, locations, as well as as the spatial distribution of these several news reports gave a scenario of vertiginous occurrences. - increase in the episodes of lethal violence in the state Regarding the risk profile, one hypothesis that capital of Rio Grande do Sul, with emblematic cases guides the present study shows that young men that even caused changes in city administration, for represent the majority of victims of this type of violent example, with the beginning of the work of Nacional death, in addition to the presence of a racial factor that Force in aid to the Military Police since august of 2016 to increases the proportion of blacks in total homicides march of 2018. compared to the racial distribution of the city's There still are many gaps in the comprehension population. Regarding localities, it is also believed that a of the phenomenon of increase in violent mortality in the restricted number of neighborhoods in Porto Alegre will city. Despite the existence of important initiatives, such be identified as a place of death by the majority of youth as the RBS Group electronic platform “X-Ray of homicides. Global Journal of Human Social Science Violence”, there is a lack of research to understand who To fulfill the proposal, the research used data are the individuals most affected by the increasing collected and organized by the Mortality Information number of homicides, and especially their distribution in System (SIM), linked to the Health Department of Porto the city’s territory. Thus, the present article traces some Alegre (SMSPA). To gain access to information, the first considerations about these issues, as it intends to research was conducted for eight months at the UFRGS build the profile of the residents of Porto Alegre who Research Ethics Committee (CEP-UFRGS) and the were victims of homicides, identifying the SMSPA Ethics Committee. The first submission of the neighborhoods in which they lived and the places where project to CEP-UFRGS was on 14/07/2017 and the approval opinion was released on 09/14/2017. After Author α: e-mail: [email protected]

approval by the university committee on the same day, profile of victims of violent lethality in Brazil young, black the SMSPA Committee was included as a co-participant man, residents of deprived areas (MINAYO & SOUZA, institution, with an opinion released on 02/22/2018. Later 2003; LEMGRUBER, 2006), Santos and Russo ratify this on, two amendments were submitted in 06/07/2018 and conclusion in respect to Porto Alegre (2010, p. 213). 04/11/2019, in order to complement the research with According to the authors, in 2006, the city had a data from 2017 and 2018, with the opinion of approval homicide rate of 30.9 per 100,000 inhabitants, published in 07/10/2018 and 05/13/2019. Thus, representing the seventh highest death rate, two researchers were granted access to the database of percentage points below the national average (RUSSO; SIM, that served as the main source of this paper, and SANTOS, 2010, p. 214). was used as it follows. In a specific study on homicides and youth in Brazil published in 2013, it was shown that the city of II. Methodology Porto Alegre, between 2001 and 2011, maintained its homicide rate of the total population in a certain pattern, In order to better establish the recent panorama reaching the minimum rate in 2006 (35.5 homicides per of youth homicides in the city of Porto Alegre, especially 100 thousand inhabitants) and the maximum rate of 2020 its location in the city territory and the more detailed 47.3 in 2007 (WAISELFISZ, 2013, p. 48). The rate of profile of its victims, primary data were sought through change for the period was only 1.3%. However, with ear the Mortality Information System (SIM). The source Y regard to the specific homicide rate of the young used, therefore, is from several studies in the area of population, the variation reached 18.3% in the same

40 violence, as primary data are available nationwide and period, with a rate of 114.4 homicides per 100,000 with standardized cataloging procedures (PROVENZA, inhabitants in 2007 (ibidem, p. 57). et al, 2017, p. 300). Database analysis was performed Regarding the most recent scenario, it is noted using the IBM SPSS (Statistical Package for Social that data published in 2018 by the Public Safety Sciences) program. Yearbook (FBSP, 2018) show that in the city of Porto The database of 2015, which includes all deaths Alegre, in 2015, 744 homicides were committed. In the occurred with residents of Porto Alegre, represent a total same year, the rate of 52.9 Intentional Lethal Violent of 11.454 deaths, from natural or unnatural causes. By Crimes per 100,000 inhabitants is reached. In relation to using the SIM Data Dictionary, it was possible to identify the year of 2016, there is an important divergence. In a the variables and their values. The CIRCOBITO variable first publication, the homicides of the capital of Rio from the SIM database indicates the probable Grande do Sul in 2016 added up to 908 victims (FBSP, circumstance of unnatural death, separating these types 2017). In the following year's publication, there is a ) of violence into five values: accident; suicide; murder;

H revision of the data that reduces the amount to 785

( others and ignored. Homicide deaths were selected, Volume XX Issue II Version I homicides (FBSP, 2018). generating a new database of 678 homicides. In 2016, In 2017, the data indicate the occurrence of 670 the total number of deaths was evaluated in 12.556, homicides, representing the rate of 46,3 Intentional including natural causes and unnatural causes. After the Violent Deaths per 100,000 inhabitants. In 2018, the data selection of homicides, a total of 803 victims were indicated 536 homicides, representing 37,2 Intentional found. In 2017, the total number of deaths reached - Violent Deaths per 100,000 inhabitants (FBSP, 2018; 11.971, of which 661 were classified as homicides. 2019). It is valid to consider that the data source of such Regarding the year of 2018, the total number of deths publication is the State Secretariats of Public Security was 12,209, of which 517 were classified as homicides. and / or Social Defense, the Brazilian Institute of Subsequently, the database was divided into Geography and Statistics (IBGE) and the Brazilian three criteria: age, gender and identification as white or Forum of Public Security, and not the Mortality non-white. The last stage of the research, then, Information System (WAISELFISZ, 2013, p. 15). consisted in the analysis of the place of life and death of Thus, in a primary analysis, it is possible to young people residing in Porto Alegre from the verify an increase in homicides in the city of Porto Alegre construction of cartographic representations indicating in the last decade, quite significantly, especially

Global Journal of Human Social Science such territorial distribution. Before entering the results of compared to other important capitals of the country, the analyzes performed, it is important to return to the such as Rio de Janeiro. In this city, known by common data presented in other researches regarding homicides sense as a place with high rates of violent lethality, it in Porto Alegre. was found a rate of 42.3 homicides/100 thousand In this sense, the idea of making a homicide inhabitants in 2006, that is, well above the 30.9 of the map of the city is not unprecedented, and was also the state capital at the time. However, according to the object of a relevant research published in 2010, in which FBSP, in 2015, the rate for Intentional Violent Deaths of a Social Cartography of Homicides was conducted in the capital of Rio de Janeiro was 19.4 in 2015, 30.0 in Porto Alegre from 2002 to 2006 (RUSSO; SANTOS, 2016, 32.7 in 2017, and 29,7 in 2018 (FBSB, 2017; 2018; 2010). As some studies had already shown to be the 2019). Porto Alegre presented rates of 52.9, 55.8, 46,3

©2020 Global Journals Death Territories: Visibility of Juvenile Residents of Porto Alegre who were Victims of Homicide in 2015, 2016, 2017 and 2018 and 37,2 in the respective years (FBSB, 2017; homicide s in the city of Porto Alegre was 625, while in 2018; 2019). 2016 it was 746 victims. In 2017 there was 601 homicide Given that the data that will be presented and victims of homicide. Finally, in 2018, there was 517 discussed in this paper come from SIM, this research homicides in the municipality. Regarding homicide rates identified some distortions in relation to the data per 100,000 inhabitants, the Population Estimates published by the Public Safety Yearbook. Thus, provided by the Economics and Statistics Foundation according to SIM, in 2015 the absolute number of (FEE, 2015; 2016; 2017) led to the following rates: Table 1: Homicides per 100 thousand inhabitants

Homicides in Porto Population (FEE) Rate per 100 thousand inhabitants Alegre (SIM)

2015 625 1.465.428 42,6 homicides/100 thousand inhabitants 2020

ear 2016 746 1.464.231 50,9 homicides/100 thousand inhabitants Y

2017 601 1.468.301 40,9 homicides/100 thousand inhabitants

As already stated, the objective of this research is to outline the profile of young homicide victims living in Porto Alegre, which is slightly different from the analysis taken up to date. In the next topics, the analysis will be based on the total amount of homicides victimizing youths living in Porto Alegre.

III. Data Analysis )

H a) Analysis Parameters (2015-2016) (

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i. Age The first parameter of analysis concerns the age of homicide victims residents of the city of Porto Alegre between 2015 and 2018. Limiting to the age group that

corresponds to the legal concept of youth, as provided - by the Youth Statute (Law 12.852 of 2013) in its art. 1, § 1, a first selection was made in order to better investigate how homicide deaths were distributed among people between 15 and 29 years old. The choice for this age group, in addition to respecting the legal definition, was based on an understanding that intends to amplify the idea of youth as much as possible, including the beginning of adolescence and extending the analysis to the onset of adulthood.

Thus, out of a total of 678 homicides in 2015, Global Journal of Human Social Science 351 occured in this age group, representing around 51.80% of the total number of deaths by homicide. In 2016, the representation of youth in all homicides increases to 58.0%, with 466 young people out of a total of 803 homicide victims. In 2017, out of 666 homicides, 361 were young people, representing 54.6% of the total amount. Finally, in 2018, out of 517 homicides, 283 were young people, representing 54.7% of all homicide victims.

Source: SIM/Porto Alegre Health Department; self elaboration. Graph 1: Homicides of young people living in Porto Alegre in 2015 to 2018 As can be seen from the graph above, in (28.7%), followed by the 35 to 49 (24.6%) age group addition to the increase in the proportion of young (RUSSO; SANTOS, 2010, p. 219). Thus, homicides people in relation to total homicides, there are two ages between 15 and 24 years old at the time represented ) in which the increase from one year to the next is 34% of the total number of victims. Ten years later, the H

( substantial. Thus, at the ages of 16 and 18, there was an same age group corresponds to 43.1% of the total Volume XX Issue II Version I increase of more than 20 homicides from one year to amount: the next, a growth that occurred in almost all age groups, except the ages of 14, 17 and 28 years. In 2015, the critical age group remained between 17 and 21

- years old; In 2016, there is a “backward” shift, that is, the critical period starts at 16 and extends to 21 years. In that year, there was also a second problematic range of homicide increases between 25 and 27 years. In 2017, the homicide peaks are at 21, 23 and 28 years, with a significant fall in the age group between 24 and 26 years. Finally, in 2018, the critical period is from 17 to 19 years, with a significant fall in the age group between 24 and 25 years. At the other ages, an alternation in increases and decreases occurs each year, without

Global Journal of Human Social Science being possible to identify a pattern in these occurrences. To perform a temporal comparison, we used the data presented in the study by Santos and Russo (2010). It is noted that the representation of youth in the total amount of violent deaths in the city of Porto Alegre seems, in recent times, to be more important than it was in 2006, when the highest percentage of homicide victims was concentrated in between 25 to 34 years old

Table 2: Age range of homicide victims in Porto Alegre (2006, 2015, 2016 and 2017)

% of total homicides Age range in Porto Alegre

2006* 2015 2016 2017 2018

Up to 14 anos 1,8 2,7 1,7 0,8 1,4

15 to 19 years 12,5 18,7 21,9 18,1 18,8

20 to 24 years 21,5 19,2 21,2 19,5 19 2020 ear

25 to 34 years 28,7 29,6 26,8 29,5 28,8 Y

43 35 to 49 years 24,6 20,3 18,2 23,8 23,4

50 to 59 years 6,2 5,6 5,2 3,9 4,1

More than 60 years 3,9 3,3 4,8 4,6 4,4

Source: SIM/Porto Alegre Health Department; * SANTOS; RUSSO 2010, p. 219

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Source: SIM/Porto Alegre Health Department; * SANTOS; RUSSO 2010, p. 219; self elaboration. Graph 2: Age group of homicide victims in Porto Alegre (2006, 2015, 2016, 2017 and 2018)

The line graph above shows a significant iii. Race change in the distribution of homicides of residents in The difference in lethality between black youth Porto Alegre ten years after the research published by and the rest of the population is not only an old Santos and Russo. In the period analyzed, the normal problem, but one that has increased in the last decade curve of the graph deforms, and starts to show an (CERQUEIRA; COELHO, 2017). Whereas between 2006 important peak in the age group of 15-19 years. Thus, and 2016 there was a 23.1% growth in the black although data show that homicides continue to be more homicide rate, the mortality of non-black individuals representative in the age group between 25 and 34 decreased 6.8% (CERQUEIRA, 2018, p. 33). In 2016, for years, recent years present a new picture that example, the homicide rate of black people was two and anticipates to a much earlier period of occurrence of a half times higher than that of non-black people (16.0% these deaths. against 40.2%) (CERQUEIRA, 2018, p. 40).

ii. Sex Young black males continue to be murdered Regarding the data from 2015, it is clear that every year as if they were in war. At 21 years old, when there was a substantial difference in the frequency of there ir a peak in the chances of a person being 2020 homicides between young men and women. Of the 351 murdered in Brazil, black people are 147% more likely to juveniles living in Porto Alegre who were victims of be victims of homicides (CERQUEIRA; COELHO, 2017, ear

Y homicide, only 18 were female juveniles, representing p. 9). According to the Juvenile Violence Vulnerability

5.1% of the total amount of homicides. Homicides of Index (2017), in 2015, black youth is, on average, 2.71 44 young men living in the city of Porto Alegre amounted to more likely to die from homicide than white youth in the country, and in Rio Grande do Sul the relative risk of 333 cases, corresponding to 94.9% of all deaths by homicide. young black people being victims of homicide, in relation to young white people, is 1.3 (FBSP, 2017, In 2016, there was an increase in the total p. 27). amount of homicide cases in the age group studied - Although Porto Alegre's population is from 351 to 466 cases -, but also maintaining the predominantly white - 79.23% of the population is white, highest incidence of homicides among young men. Only 20.24% black, 0.29% yellow and 0.23% indigenous 33 corresponded to the death of female youth, people - from the analysis of the graphs it is possible to representing 7.1% of all homicides, still much lower than observe that the incidence of homicides among the the representation of male youth, equivalent to 92.9% of young black population is representative, and tends to all homicide cases. grow. In 2015, the percentage of young black residents ) In the following years, there is a certain of the city who were victims of homicide was 36.1%. In H

( decrease in the number of violent deaths in the city. In 2016, the rate reached 40.3%, while in 2017 it reached Volume XX Issue II Version I 2017, out of the 361 youth homicides that occurred, 37 46.5%. Finally, in 2018, the rate was 47,1%. correspond to female juvenile deaths, representing 10.3% of the homicides in the period, which is equivalent to double of the percentage observed in 2015. Among male youth, there were 324 cases of - homicide in 2017, representing 89.7% of all deaths. In 2018, it is possible to further observe the decrease in the amount of violent deaths in general. Of the 283 homicides, 27 victimized female youth, representing 9.5% of all homicides. The number of homicides among young males, in turn, corresponded to 256 cases, representing 90.5% of all deaths.

The victimization of young men in Porto Alegre is partly aligned with the general pattern observed in Brazil, as the absolute majority of homicide deaths in Global Journal of Human Social Science this age group occur among males. The Atlas of Violence of 2018 points out that, of the 33.590 juveniles who were murdered in Brazil in 2016, 94.6% were male, representing a 7.4% increase rate from 2015 (FBSP 2018). The homicide rate among young men per 100,000 juveniles also reflects an increase from 2014: between 2006 and 2013, the rate remained around 70, rising to 93.5 (2014), 97.8 (2015) and 113.4 (2016).

Source: SIM/Porto Alegre Health Department; self elaboration. Graph 3: Percentage of young black and non-black homicide victims Thus, there are two trends verified from the homicide set of young residents of Porto Alegre is collected data expressed in the following graph. The accompanied by a downward curve of male upward curve of black representation in relation to the representation in all victims. ) H

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Graph 4: Profile of homicides of youth living in Porto Alegre

b) Who dies the most being murdered. Such phenomenon is still little explored The higher incidence of homicides in the young and needs further debate. According to the Atlas of population is not really new in the field of brazilian Violence (2018), the increase in the number of women Sociology of Violence. If, as has been shown being murdered can already be understood as a trend extensively, the age group that commits the most lethal in Rio Grande do Sul, with a 90.1% increase in murder violence is young people, it seems possible to cases in just 10 years (2006-2016), with the highest generalize to state that these are substantially young number of cases reported in 2014 (250 cases), 2015 men killing young men (DIRK; MOURA, 2017, p. 4). This (284 cases) and 2016 (308 cases). The same study process of lethal victimization of youth in the brazilian attributes the cause to femicide, highlighting sexual scenario began in 1980, and has gradually established assault followed by death and homicide in domestic itself as one of the main obstacles to the advancement environments. The study, however, does not rule out the of minimum public safety levels in the country existence of other causes to the phenomenon, such as (CERQUEIRA, 2017, p. 25). a greater participation of woman in drug traffic. Thus, the study Map of Violence (2013) already Regarding the race of those who die the most, stated that youth homicide rates did not keep pace with the concentration of deaths affecting the black 2020 advances in violence prevention policies, increasing population undermines the often defended myth of from 42.4 per 100,000 youth in 1998 to 52.4 / 100,000 in “racial democracy”. According to this idea, ear

Y 2013. (WAISELFISZ, 2013, p.11). Of all causes of discrimination by skin color would be something mortality, those called external causes accounted for irrelevant, that would not block opportunities, prohibit 46 73.2% of juvenile deaths in 2011 (ibid., P. 20), with careers or increase the chances of black individuals homicide being the main cause responsible for this being murdered in Brazil (COELHO; CERQUEIRA, 2017, scenario. Thus, only in the Federative Unit of Rio Grande p. 7). According to the Atlas of Violence (2018), in 2006 do Sul, the data shows a 34.5% increase in homicides of the homicide rate of black people per 100 thousand people between 15 and 29 years old, from 2005 to 2015 inhabitants in Rio Grande do Sul was 19.1, showing a (CERQUEIRA, 2017, p. 27). growth over the years, reaching in 2016 a 36.8 rate. The explanations to the phenomenon are many When analyzing the non-black homicide rate per and, as the present study does not intend to state the 100,000 inhabitants, in 2006, Rio Grande do Sul reasons of the phenomenon, but only to present an reported a 17.6 rate, and only a 26.2 rate in 2016 outlook of the profile of homicide deaths in the city of (CERQUEIRA, 2018). Thus, although the population Porto Alegre, it would not fit here to expose all possible from Rio Grande do Sul is predominantly white, the interpretations for such scenario. However, it is increase in homicide deaths in the last decade has )

H noteworthy that the characteristics that compose the concentrated on the black population of the region.

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Volume XX Issue II Version I profile of young homicide victims living in the capital, In the case of homicides of blacks and together with the locality of life and death of such juveniles, it is clear that the differences in lethality victims, enable to trace some indications of possible against African descendants are widened in the youth reasons that explain the increase in youth homicides in period. According to the Youth Vulnerability to Violence Porto Alegre in recent years. Index, in 24 brazilian Federation Units, the chance of a

- Regarding the higher incidence of death among young black man dying is greater than that of a white young men, gender is pointed out in several studies as juvenile (LIMA; et. Al, 2017, p. 28). It is evident how a socio-demographic characteristic that has a higher racial inequality is a key factor in understanding how relationship with the incidence of homicides (SOARES, violence in the youth period manifests itself in Brazil. 2000). Several reasons can be attributed to the higher Sinhoretto and Morais, in a paper on violence number of violent deaths among men compared to and racism in Brazil, state that the analysis of available women, some of them being the premise that men data on the phenomenon of violent death shows that the generally commit more violence than women (SOARES, racialization of black youth operates the dehumanization 2008); or that boys would be subjected to less social of subjects, making their death plausible and control than girls, which would contribute to greater inconsequential (2018, p. 24). Going further, Cerqueira

Global Journal of Human Social Science involvement in crime-related activities (HIRSCHI, 1969); and Moura conclude that the search for explanations of also, due to the “socialization by violence”, man feel the violent deaths in youth cannot neglect racism, claiming need to “neutralize” other man affirm their own that beyond physical extinction there are thousands of masculinity (WALTER-LANG, 2001). symbolic deaths behind the loss of opportunity and The data shows that the ones who still die the personal growth, that many individuals suffer only most are young men. However, this tendency was because the color of their skin (2014, p. 82). They are already expected, given several other studies that have materially and symbolically lost lives in the face of already pointed to the same phenomenon at regional racism in Brazil. and national levels. A less expected trend that deserves attention is the percentage increase in young women

©2020 Global Journals Death Territories: Visibility of Juvenile Residents of Porto Alegre who were Victims of Homicide in 2015, 2016, 2017 and 2018 c) Place of life and death of youth deaths, were disregarded and represented by “0” in the In order to locate youth homicides in the match table, as well as the ignored data. territorial space of the city of Porto Alegre, maps were The result was the production of color gradient developed as illustrative instruments of the maps that reveal the concentration of victims' homes neighborhoods a) where young homicide victims live; b) and homicide sites in each neighborhood of Porto in which homicides occur. The maps were produced Alegre. Such a gradient varies between black and white, using the Open Source Geographic Information System so that each tone represents a concentration, classified (GIS), identified as “QGIS”, a free platform of the Open as low (white), intermediate (light gray), high (dark gray), Source Geospatial Foundation (OSGEO) used to the and very high (black). QGIS software itself defines development of thematic maps through the intersection natural breaks from the use of the jenks system. Natural between shapelife documents and quantitative data. breaks are defined from the numbers of concentrations The maps produced through the program are found. able to geographically demonstrate the incidence of quantitative variables. This study used the shapelife provided by the Porto Alegre City Hall, through its official website, which expresses the spatial limits of the 2020 municipality, and its official division into 94 ear neighborhoods, according to Law 12.112/2016. Y Subsequently, it was possible to cross the shapelife and 47 the quantitative data regarding places of residence and places death by homicide of young people living in the city of Porto Alegre (2015-2018), obtained from the Department of Health. The software allowed the production of a series of maps demonstrating which neighborhoods had the highest and lowest concentrations of residences (living places) of young people murdered, as well as the neighborhoods where there was possible to observe the highest and the lowest incidence of homicides (places of death) in the period studied. It is noteworthy that the indexes used refer only to the distribution of absolute )

numbers of young homicide victims (both in relation to H

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their place of residence and place of death), so that the Volume XX Issue II Version I rates produced that take into account proportion of young people in each territory. Crossing shapelife with quantitative data required the production of a new table (“match table”), through which a common column could be established - between the shapelife “attribute table” and the quantitative data table. This common element was the OBJECTID, which in the shapelife “attribute table” correspondence to the code of each delimited area in the shapelife map. The union between shapelife and quantitative data by matching the OBJECTID code of each map area allowed cross-checking of data that geographically demonstrated the incidence of places of residence and places of death of murdered youth.

The shapelife used had 128 divisions, while Global Journal of Human Social Science quantitative data obtained from the Porto Alegre Health Department were expressed in a division of 94 neighborhoods. Most of the code areas provided in the shapelife corresponded to the neighborhoods indicated in the data, but some adaptations were still needed, especially in relation to the “Arquipélago”, “Jardim Itu- Sabará” and “Protásio” territories. Also, neighborhoods that did not match to any shapelife code areas, and where there were no youth homicide residences or

2020 ear Y

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Image 1: Territories where young homicide victims reside

Table 3: Legend of the territories of Porto Alegre

Aberta Morros 1 Chapéu do Sol 21 Jardim Floresta 41 Partenon 61 São Sebastião 81 Global Journal of Human Social Science

Agrono 2 Cidade Baixa 22 Jardim Isabel 42 Passo das 62 Sarandi 82 mia Areia

Anchieta 3 Costa e Silva 23 Jardim Sabará 43 Passo das 63 Sétimo Céu 83 Pedras

Arquipél 4 Cristal 24 Jardim Leopoldina 44 Pedra 64 Serraria 84 ago Redonda

Auxiliad 5 Cristo Redentor 25 Jardim Lindóia 45 Petrópolis 65 Teresópolis 85 ora

Azenha 6 Espírito Santo 26 Jardim do Salso 46 Pitinga 66 Três Figueiras 86

Bela 7 Extrema 27 Jardim São Pedro 47 Ponta 67 Tristeza 87 Vista Grossa

Belém 8 Farrapos 28 Jardim Itu 48 Praia de 68 Vila Assunção 88

2020 Novo Belas ear

Y Belém 9 Farroupilha 29 Lageado 49 Restinga 69 Vila Conceição 89 Velho

Boa 10 Floresta 30 Lami 50 Rio Branco 70 Vila Ipiranga 90 Vista

Boa 11 Glória 31 Lomba do Pinheiro 51 Rubem 71 Vila Jardim 91 Vista Sul Berta

Bom 12 Guarujá 32 Mario Quintana 52 Santa 72 Vila João 92 Fim Cecília Pessoa

Bom 13 Higienópolis 33 Medianeira 53 Santa 73 Vila Nova 93

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Camaqu 14 Hípica 34 Menino Deus 54 Santa Rosa 74 São José 94 ã de Lima

Campo 15 Humaitá 35 Moinhos de Vento 55 Santa 75 - novo Tereza

Cascata 16 Independência 36 Mon’t Serrat 56 Santana 76

Cavalha 17 Ipanema 37 Morro Santana 57 Santo 77 da Antônio

Cel. 18 Jardim Botânico 38 Navegantes 58 São 78

Global Journal of Human Social Science Aparício Caetano Borges

Centro 19 Jardim Carvalho 39 Nonoai 59 São 79 Geraldo

Chácara 20 Jardim Europa 40 Parque Santa Fé 60 São João 80 das Pedras

As observed, the maps of the places of “Sarandi” and “Lomba do Pinheiro” remain in the residence and places of death of young homicide position of neighborhoods where there is the largest victims change over the time series analyzed. Regarding concentration of murdered youth residences. It is the distribution of victims' homes across the city, 6 possible to verify, however, a higher incidence in relation neighborhoods emerge as the places where most of the to “Bom Jesus” and “Partenon” neighborhoods instead young people lived: “Restinga”, “Santa Tereza”, “Rubem of “Santa Tereza” and “Mario Quintana” Berta”, “Sarandi”, “Lomba do Pinheiro” and “Mario neighborhoods. Quintana”. In 2018, “Restinga, “Rubem Berta”, Table 4: Distribution of residence of young homicide victims in the neighborhoods with the highest incidence

Santa Rubem Sarandi Lomba do Mario % do Restinga Tereza Berta Pinheiro Quintana Total

2015 37 (10,5%) 33 (9,4%) 43 (12,3%) 16 (4,6%) 23 (6,6%) 27 (7,6%) 51 2020 ear Y

2016 51 (10,9%) 23 (4,6%) 43 (9,2%) 35 (7,5%) 23 (4,9%) 26 (5,6%) 42,7

2017 37(10, 2%) 18 (5%) 32 (8,8%) 19 (5,3%) 24 (6,6%%) 22 (6,1%) 41,2

2018 26 (9,2%) 13 (4,6%) 34 (12%) 20 (7,1%) 21 (7,4%) 10 (3,5%) 43,8

The table above shows the absolute numbers of that until then had not been losing so many young young victims of homicide and, in parentheses, the people to violent mortality. To better understand this representation of this number in total homicides. The “new” scenario, it is necessary to observe the city maps “Rubem Berta” neighborhood appears as the main referring to the “ places of death” of these young people, place of residence in 2015 and 2018, and “Restinga” that is, places identified by SIM as the areas of )

neighborhood has the highest rates in 2016 and 2017 occurrence of most part of the violent events. H

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(both in relation to the absolute number and Volume XX Issue II Version I proportionally). There was also a considerable decrease in the concentration of youth residence over the years: if in 2015 the 6 territories together represented 51% of all young people murdered, demonstrating a spatially concentrated social phenomenon, in 2017, this number - falls to 41.2%, later increasing in 2018 to 43,8%. Thus, although there is over the years a concentration of murdered youth residences in the “Restinga”, “Rubem Berta”, “Sarandi” and “Lomba do Pinheiro” neighborhoods, in 2018, the spatial dynamics changed to include among the neighborhoods with the highest concentration of residences also “Bom Jesus” and “Partenon” neighborhoods. As has been shown, even though there is a very significant concentration in certain territories, the places Global Journal of Human Social Science of residence of the victimized youth are spreading to other territories, which seems to be an indicative of some new explanatory factor of lethal youth violence, still lacking in understanding. Thus, the indication of the decrease in the total amount of young homicide victims in 2018 is accompanied by a map of the city, in which the residences of such subjects, although in large part are still located in neighborhoods known for their high rates. of lethal violence, are also distributed in spaces

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Image 2: Territories where homicides of young residents of Porto Alegre occurred

Regarding the incidence of homicides of young Regarding occurrences outside Rio Grande do Sul, Global Journal of Human Social Science residents, it is clear that the majority of these occurred in there were no records in 2015. In 2016, 1 case was Porto Alegre: in 2015, 92.2% of cases occurred in the registered in Osasco (SP). In 2017, 1 case in Vilhena city, with an increase to 92.9% in 2016, and a decrease (RO) and 5 cases in cities of Santa Catarina, to 90.9% in 2017 and to 88% in 2018. The other proportional to 0.9% of homicides in the period. In 2018, homicides were registered in places outside the city, in only 1 case in in Santa Catarina was verified. The other the metropolitan region, mountains, the coast of Rio homicides were recorded in cities of Rio Grande do Sul, Grande do Sul, and even in other states of the country. as shown in the map below:

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Image 3: Distribution of homicides of youths residing in Porto Alegre in the state of Rio Grande do Sul

Most of these occurred in the metropolitan deaths (1.5%), while “Viamão” maintained the average region of Porto Alegre, in the cities of “Alvorada”, of other years (2.1%). In 2018, there is a decrease in the “Gravataí” and “Viamão”. In 2015, 9 homicides were frequency of homicides in “Gravataí” and “Alvorada”, rehistered in “Alvorada” (1.3%), 3 in “Gravataí” (0.4%) amounting, respectively, to only 2 (0.7%) and 6 (6.1%) and 15 in “Viamão” (2.2%). In 2016, there was an homicides. while “Viamão” registered 14 homicides increase in cases in “Alvorada”, with 21 reported deaths (4.9%). (2.6%), while “Gravataí” and “Viamã”o recorded a slight Regarding the occurrences recorded in the city decrease in proportional distribution (0.2%; 1.6%) of of Porto Alegre, 7 neighborhoods emerge as the places cases. In 2017, there was a decrease in the frequency of with the highest concentration of homicides: “Rubem homicides in “Alvorada”, which had 10 homicides Berta”, “Bom Fim”, “Cristo Redentor”, “Restinga”, (1.5%), and an increase in “Gravataí”, with 10 reported “Santa Tereza”, “Lomba do Pinheiro” and “Sarandi”. Table 5: Distribution of homicides among young people in neighborhoods with higher incidence

Rubem Cristo Santa Lomba do Bom Fim Restinga Sarandi % total 2020 Berta Redentor Tereza Pinheiro ear Y

2015 35 (10%) 39(11,1%) 28 (8%) 25(7,1%) 27 (7,7%) 19 (5,4%) 13 (3,7%) 53 59

2016 47(10,1%) 33 (7,1%) 33 (7,1%) 30 (6,4%) 22 (4,7%) 21(4,5%) 24 (5,2%) 45

2017 28 (7,8%) 20 (5,5%) 23 (6,4%) 28 (7,8%) 18 (5%) 16 (4,4%) 15 (4,2%) 41

2018 32 (11,3%) 16 (5,65%) 16 (5,65%) 11 (3,9%) 9 (3,2%) 19 (6,7%) 15 (5,3%) 41,7%

The table above shows in absolute numbers the “Rubem Berta”, “Sarandi”, “Lomba do Pinheiro”. Among ) H number of homicides in each neighborhood and, in these, we highlight the “Rubem Berta neighborhood”, ( Volume XX Issue II Version I parentheses, the representation of this number which, over all the years studied, had the highest regarding the total amount of homicides in the city. concentration of murdered residents (152) and the Given these data, it is possible to observed that the highest amount of homicides among young people neighborhood “Bom Fim” appears as the main (142) in absolute numbers. Immediately thereafter, the

homicide site in 2015, while the neighborhood “Rubem highest concentration of murdered residents (151) and - Berta” has the highest rates in 2016, 2017 and 2018, the highest incidence of homicides (94) occurs in both in absolute numbers and proportionally. Restinga. Thus, it is clear that these two spaces emerge It turns out that the 39 cases of homicides in in the spatial context of the city of Porto Alegre as “Bom Fim” in 2015 were registered in the hospital. The Territories of Death, as they have the largest same occurred in relation to the “Cristo Redentor” concentration of places of life and death of young neighborhood, regarding its 28 recorded cases. The people who were murdered in the years studied. pattern was repeated over the next three years (all deaths in both neighborhoods occurred in the hospital). IV. Conclusion Thus, a first relevant issue concerns the registration Initially, the research sought to demonstrate the

standards used in the death certificates. A significant Global Journal of Human Social Science profile of homicide victims living in the city of Porto number of homicide cases were reported to have Alegre, identifying the criteria that make an individual occurred in the hospital neighborhoods where the more vulnerable to suffer this type of lethal violence. victims were treated, which produces a distortion in SIM From the analysis of the obtained data, three criteria data. These are events that end up having their location were identified as most relevant: (i) age; (ii) sex; and (iii) unknown, making the territorial analysis of homicides in race. A first possible conclusion, therefore, confirms the city difficult. other studies already conducted, in which it was found Compared to the places of residence, 5 of them that the profile of homicide victims consists of three also appear among the places with the highest basic characteristics: male, young, black. incidence of homicides: “Restinga”, “Santa Tereza”,

Regarding the city of Porto Alegre, it was found neighborhoods, the concentration of events in these 5 that more than half of the homicide victims are young, territories was not less than 30% in the four years aged between 15 and 29 years. The year of 2016 had studied, which shows a very strong focus the largest representation of youth in all homicides, neighborhoods victimized by violent deaths in the city. It corresponding to 58%. Moreover, in the four years seems evident that there is a need to concentrate public analyzed, a higher concentration of victims aged policy efforts for better assistance in these places, between 15 and 19 years was observed, which was not already marked by very precarious levels of social the reality shown in the researches conducted in the city development. in 2006 (RUSSO; SANTOS, 2010). Thus, it seems Also noteworthy is the fact that the “Mario apparent that the victims are increasingly young, which Quintana” neighborhood in the first three years studied reveals a panorama of the first phase of adolescence had significant rates of young homicide victims who very exposed to homicidal violence. lived there, with an average of 6.5% in relation to the Regarding gender distribution, it is clear that the other neighborhoods in the city. However, the homicide absolute majority of youth homicides involved male rate in the neighborhood remained close to 3%, individuals. The proportional concentration of homicides indicating that young people living in Mario Quintana 2020 among men is evident, and remained around 90% over ended up being murdered elsewhere. One possible all the years studied. However, there was a decrease in explanation for this distortion may be in the identification ear

Y the concentration of events among young men over the of many death events in the neighborhoods “Bom Fim” years and the consequent increase in the number of and “Cristo Redentor”, since these are the hospital 60 cases among young girls. This scenario seems to locations where victims were taken to. indicate a greater importance of femicide cases in the Another noteworthy circumstance is the “shift” total amount of violent deaths in the city, as well as the in the spatial dynamics of residential and homicide reconfiguration of homicidal events reaching more girls distribution. This has been the case in 2018, observed, or women. for example, in the residence concentration decrease Regarding the racial profile of murdered youth, verified in “Mario Quintana” and “Santa Tereza” it is clear that, although the population in the city of neighborhoods, to the detriment of the growth observed Porto Alegre is predominantly white - 79.23% of white in “Bom Jesus” and “Partenon” neighborhoods. The people, compared to only 20.24% of black people -, the “Vila Nova” neighborhood also appears in 2018 as a percentage of young black people murdered was 36.1% place with higher incidence of homicides, amounting to in 2015, increasing to 40.3% in 2016, reaching the level the same frequency and same percentage verified in of 46.5% in 2017, and increasing to 47,1% in 2018. This “Santa Tereza” neighborhood. Further studies should be )

H represents a percentage increase of 11% over the years conducted in the coming years to see if these trends

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Volume XX Issue II Version I studied. The upward trend in mortality rates among can be verified. black youth, and the decrease in white youth, shows the Finally, it is worth reinforcing the argument substantial difference in the life trajectories faced by previously presented that the present research does not each of these groups: it is as if they lived “in different seek to point out causal factors of homicides in the city cities” or, in in other words, in a territory that makes of Porto Alegre, but rather to indicate important

- them vulnerable to racial criteria. Such criterion is the characteristics of the victims' profiles, as well as to only one that shows a significant upward curve and, present a spatial representation of the places of life and therefore, seems to be one of the most relevant to be death of these events. In spite of the possible relevant observed in the fight against mortality and violence factors in explaining the increase in homicides, and their among young people. greater dispersion throughout the city - such as the Regarding the places of life and death of young reconfiguration of drug trafficking that took place in the people in Porto Alegre, it is found that the absolute and city in 2016 (CIPRIANI, 2017) - more in-depth qualitative proportional majority of homicides - around 90% over research would be needed to clarify the complexity of the years studied - are concentrated in the city of Porto these events. Thus, it is expected that the present Alegre, followed by the metropolitan region (Alvorada, research will contribute as a first analysis of the

Global Journal of Human Social Science Gravataí and Viamão). Regarding the city of Porto scenario, but that new social investigations on the Alegre, 6 neighborhoods emerge as the places where subject will also be carried out, attentive to the reality of the most murdered youths reside, 5 of these also the state capital. appearing as places where most part of young residents of Porto Alegre died. These 5 territories in common - References Références Referencias “Rubem Berta”, “Restinga”, “Santa Tereza”, “Sarandi” 1. CERQUEIRA, Daniel. et al. Atlas da Violência 2018. and “Lomba do Pinheiro” - are therefore the most risky Rio de Janeiro: Fórum Brasileiro de segurança places for young people in the city of Porto Alegre. pública., 2018. Thus, although there is an increasing dispersion of the places of life and places of death in the city's

2. ______. Atlas da Violência 2017. Rio 16. ______. Mapa da Violência 2013: de Janeiro: Fórum Brasileiro de segurança pública, Homicídios e Juventude no Brasil. Bras ília, 2017. FLACSO/CEBELA, 2013. WALTER-LANG, 2001 3. CERQUEIRA, Daniel; COELHO Danilo Santa Cruz. 17. Fórum Brasileiro de Segurança Pública. Anuá rio Democracia racial e homicídios de jovens negros na Brasileiro de Segurança Pública. 11º Edição. São cidade partida. Brasília: IPEA, 2017. Paulo: Fórum Brasileiro de Segurança Pública, 4. DE CASTRO CERQUEIRA, Daniel Ricardo; DE 2017. MOURA, Rodrigo Leandro. Vidas perdidas e 18. ______. Anuário racismo no Brasil. Publicatio UEPG: Ci ências Brasileiro de Segurança Pública. 12º Edição. São Sociais Aplicadas, v. 22, n. 1, p. 73-90, 2014. Paulo: Fórum Brasileiro de Segurança Pública, 5. CIPRIANI, Marcelli. Segregação Sócio-espacial e 2018. territorialidades do tráfico de drogas: as “facções 19. ______. Anuário criminais” diante do espaço urbano. Revista Brasileiro de Segurança Pública. 13º Edição. São Conversas e Controvérsias, Porto Alegre, v. 3, n. 2, Paulo: Fórum Brasileiro de Segurança Pública, p. 5–28, 2017. 2019. 2020 6. DIRK, Renato; MOURA, Lílian de. As motivações ear

nos casos de letalidade violenta da Região Y Metropolitana do Rio de Janeiro. Cadernos de 61 Segurança Pública, v. 9, n. 08, 2017. 7. FEE, Fundação de Economia e Estatística. Estimativas Populacionais (Revisão 2018). Acesso em: 14.01.2019. Disponível em: HIRSCHI, 1969. 8. LEMGRUBER, Julita. “Os nu ́meros da violência”. In: MENDES, Candido & FEGHALI, Jandira. Reflexões sobre a violência urbana: (in)segurança e (des)esperanças. Rio de Janeiro: Mauad X, 2006. 9. LIMA, Renato Sérgio. et al. Índice de Vulnerabilidade Juvenil à Violência 2017. São Paulo: Fórum )

Brasileiro de Segurança Pública, 2017. H

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10. MINAYO, Maria Ceci liá de Souza. “A violência Volume XX Issue II Version I dramatiza causas”. In: MINAYO, Maria Ceci ́lia de Souza & SOUZA, Edinilsa Ramos de. (orgs.). Violência sob o olhar da sau ́de: a infrapoli ́tica da contemporaneidade brasileira. Rio de Janeiro:

Editora Fiocruz, 2003. - 11. PROVENZA, M. M.; et al. Homicídio Doloso na Cidade do Rio de Janeiro: Uma comparação entre as bases da se gurança e da saúde. Dilemas, vol. 10, n. 2, 2017. 12. RUSSO, Mauricio Bastos; SANTOS, José Vicente

Tavares Dos. Cartografia Social dos Homicídios em Porto Alegre (2002-2006). O público e o privado. v.

15, p. 211–237, 2010. 13. SINHORETTO, Jacqueline; MORAIS, Danilo de Global Journal of Human Social Science Souza. Violência e racismo. novas faces de uma

afinidade reiterada. Revista de Estudios Sociales, n.

64, p. 15-26, 2018. SOARES, 2000

14. SOARES, Gláucio Ary Dillon. Não matarás: desenvolvimento, desigualdade e homicídios. Rio de Janeiro: Ed. FGV, 2008. 15. WAISELFISZ, J.J. Mapa da Violência 2011: Os jovens do Brasil. São Paulo /Brasília, Instituto San- gari/MJ, 2011.

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Conflicts and Resolutions on Religions Differences as means of Acquiring Slaves in the African Gulf of Guinea during the Slave Trade Period: The Case of Nigeria and Cameroon in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries By Suh Hillary Sama University of Dschang Abstract- Within the Gulf of Guinea yesterday and today we could find out that the existed and still in existence many kinds of Religions, these varieties of believes at first was a threat to one another each conflicting or fighting for supremacy and hegemony. Some of these religions that pose a threat to one another (humanity) were Christianity and Paganism (traditional belief), Muslims and Paganism, paganism versus paganism, Islam for the Muslim and Christian for Christianity. But with the passing of time other noted religion or faith has developed and grown to a wider dimension and their existences are also widely acknowledged like others. The aforementioned religions that surfaced in the community of Nigeria and Dahomey (Benin Republic) and Cameroon, it is generally noted that they all open ways for slaves ushered during the transatlantic slave trade transaction and in the aftermath eras. Keywords: yesterday, today, religions, conflicting, christianity, islam, paganism, transatlantic, resolutions, consequences, nigeria, cameroon, gulf of guinea. GJHSS-H Classification: FOR Code: 220499

ConflictsandResolutionsonReligionsDifferencesasmeansofAcquiringSlavesintheAfricanGulfofGuineaduringtheSlaveTradePeriodTheCaseofNigeriaandCameroonintheNineteenthand TwentiethCenturies

Strictly as per the compliance and regulations of:

© 2020. Suh Hillary Sama. This is a research/review paper, distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution- Noncommercial 3.0 Unported License http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/3.0/), permitting all non-commercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

Suh Hillary Sama

1 Abstract - Within the Gulf of Guinea yesterday and today we or Sub Saharan territories . In Southern Yoruba land 2020 could find out that the existed and still in existence many kinds some authors such as Osifekunde who can be of Religions, these varieties of believes at first was a threat to ear

supplemented by Samuel Johnson who was a Yoruba Y one another each conflicting or fighting for supremacy and historian lived in Ibadan and it close vicinities from 1858 hegemony. Some of these religions that pose a threat to one 63 another (humanity) were Christianity and Paganism (traditional to 1901 gave us facts on the conflicts and wars that led belief), Muslims and Paganism, paganism versus paganism, to slavery, slaving and slave trade activities within the Islam for the Muslim and Christian for Christianity. But with the Gulf of Guinea, through Oral tradition on the Yoruba land passing of time other noted religion or faith has developed and wars in 1870s via 1897. Due to political instability in the grown to a wider dimension and their existences are also Oyo heartland that went ahead and redirected trade into widely acknowledged like others. The aforementioned religions non-Oyo areas. An area where slave trade was booming that surfaced in the community of Nigeria and Dahomey erupted another that also expanded the level and

(Benin Republic) and Cameroon, it is generally noted that they amount of slaves captured. The animosity came as a all open ways for slaves ushered during the transatlantic slave result of the changed and opening of new slave routes trade transaction and in the aftermath eras. Furthermore, due to conflictual views, hence paving the way for the growth and that passed through Central Yoruba land linking Ilorin to increased in slaves’ captivity of some Africans found around Owu, Ife, Ondo and Ijebu and through the Lagoon to the Gulf of Guinea. Amongst several mentions is the most Lagos, near the Owu-Ife border where the New North- notable Yoruba religion that evoked our Centre of focus and South route crossed the East-West Yoruba route from ) H concentration is the Orisha religion. It should also be noted Ile-Ife to Ibadan emerged the market town of Apomu ( Volume XX Issue II Version I that these above mention religions at one time and another in where slaves including many Oyo captives were bought conflicts brought some Resolutions as consequences in the by Ijebu traders in exchange for cowries, foodstuff, entire regions of Nigeria and Cameroon in the Gulf of Guinea. textiles, and after 1820, firearms and tobacco”2 Calabar, To bring out these historical facts, some numbers of Bonny, Warri, Benue and Mamfe not leaving out Victoria Contextual Analysis, Methods or sources, Theories, Results,

(Limbe) in the 1950s experienced conventions in slavery - and other related aspects were contacted and used, which is from (documentary) written, Oral and Internet sources. and slave trade Nigeria-Cameroon. A lot of petitions like that of the Native High Court on March 36th 1955 and Keywords: yesterday, today, religions, conflicting, 1957, banned slavery and slave trade in Nigeria christianity, islam, paganism, transatlantic, resolutions, which the federated law officers respected3. With consequences, nigeria, cameroon, gulf of guinea. the application of law, many of the Latin Americans

I. Introduction 1 A.F.C Ryder, Portuguese and Dutch in West Africa before 1800, In A ndeed, the act of slavery, slaving and slave trade Thousand Years of West African History, edited by J.F Ade Ajayi and activities was highly felt at the Gulf of Guinea: Bight of LanEspie, Nelson/IUP, 1968, PP. 220-222. 2 Olatunji Oji, The slave ship Manuelita and the story of a Yoruba

Benin, Bight of Biafra, Fernando Po, Rio del Rey to Global Journal of Human Social Science I community, 1833-1834, Department of History, Brock University, St. the Congo Basin. Areas like the Island of Sào Tome, Catherine, Canada, 03 march 2017, PP. 124-125. Principe, Cape Verte in the Atlantic Gulf with it extension 3 Suh Hillary Sama, some Historical Essentials : From the slave trade to to Angola was engaged in conflicts, wars in pluralism Present and Past legacies and memories in Eastern Nigeria and forms depending the area were the activities took place, Cameroon from 1800 to 1914, Gulf of Guinea First Edition, Maryland publishers Bamenda, Cameroon, December 2017, pp. 50-70. (The with the Transatlantic Gulf of Guinea South returnees mostly resided in the Lagos colony, with substantial populations in Abeokuta and Ibadan. Some also settled in Calabar, Port Harcourt and other cities in the Niger Delta. Though many were originally dedicated Anglophiles in Nigeria, they later adopted an Author: University of Dschang, West Region, Cameroon. indigenous and patriotic attitude on Nigeria affairs due to a rise in e-mail: [email protected] discrimination and were known as cultural nationalist. The wave some

ret urnees or Amaros started migrating to Africa after consolidated southeastern Nigeria into a confederation slavery was abolished. No exception was Nigeria, she that dominated that region. The Oyo and the Aro received returnees who came and settled in Nigeria for confederations were major trading partners of the slave cultural, missionary and economic reasons which the traders from Europe and North America, these two often greater majorities were Yoruba’s, Efik, Igbos, Hausas war with one another which slaves are often gottened. 4 and Nupe not leaving out the Krio population . In the Gulf of Guinea are found many kinds of Conflicts on Religion as means of Acquiring slaves in Religions, these varieties of believes at first was a threat the Gulf of Guinea during the slave trade period. to one another. Some of these religions that pose a The Ijaw, who occupied the tidal area in threat to one another were Christianity, Peganism proximity to the Igbo, had wrested a frugal living from (traditional belief), Muslims(Islam), and Christian for the sale of dried fish and sea salt to the inland Christianity. But with the passing of time other noted communities for centuries before the rise of the slave religion or faith has developed and grown to a wider trade. Traditionally, they had lived in federated states or dimension and their total existences are also widely groups of villages with the head of the ranking village acknowledged like others. It is generally noted that they

2020 presiding over general assemblies attended by all the all open ways for slaves usher to the Americas during males. During the heyday of the slave trade in the the transatlantic and trans Saharan slave trade

ear eighteenth century to the twenty first centuries, the major transactions that was a booming business at the time Y

Ijaw villages grew into cities of 5,000 to 10,000 due to conflictual religious views hence paving the way

64 inhabitants ruled by local strongmen allied with the Aro. for the growth and increased in captivity of some Their economies were based on the facilities they Africans found around the Gulf of Guinea. The most offered to slave traders. They were entrepreneurial notable Yoruba religion that evoked our Centre of focus communities, receiving slaves from the Aro for resale to and concentration is the Orisha religion. European agents. Personal wealth rather than status within a lineage group was the basis for political power and social status. Government typically was conducted by councils composed of leading merchants and headed by an amanyanabo (chief executive), an office that in time became hereditary. By the end of the eighteenth century to the twentieth and aftermath, the area that was to become

) Nigeria and Cameroon was far from a unified country. H

( Furthermore, the orientation of the north and the south Volume XX Issue II Version I was entirely different. The savanna states of Hausaland and Borno had experienced a difficult century of political insecurity and ecological disaster but otherwise continued in a centuries-long tradition of slow political and economic change that was similar to other parts of - the savanna and Cameroon. The southern areas near the coast, by contrast, had been swept up in the transatlantic slave trade. Political and economic change had been rapid and dramatic. By 1800 Oyo governed much of southwestern Nigeria and neighboring parts of the modern Republic of Benin, while the Aro had

Global Journal of Human Social Science people called the Saros or Creols in Nigeria during the nineteenth century and early twentieth century, were freed slaves who migrated to Nigeria in the beginning of the 1830s. They were known locally as Saros or Amaros migrants from Brazil and Cuba and chief or captain James PinsonLabul Davies and his wife, Princess Sara Forbes Bonetta were some of the most prominent Saros in Victorian Nigeria (Saro Nigeria-wikipedia.org consulted 11-09-2019 at 10:25 AM) 4 Peter F. Cohen, Orisha Journeys: The Role of Travel in the Birth of Yoruba-Atlantic Religions, In Archeologie de science sociale de Religion, Columbia University, New York, EHESS, Paris, Janvier-Mars 2002, PP, 17-18

Source: Authors Research Maps Map 1: A reas of Muslim and Christian Occupation. Map 2: The Gulf of Guinea in Africa. a) The Orisha Religions in Western Nigeria The emergence of Orisha religious traditions in

This religion originated from the Yoruba vicinity several localities around the Atlantic basin is correlated of Western Nigeria in the town of Lagos, Porto Novo, with similar and interrelated historical processes Badagry and Ibadan. While in Dahomey we could sight involving people from a particular region of Africa. an area like Porto Novo. According to the citation below Enough work has now been done on the local level to by Peter F. Cohen, we see the insight of the migration justify an attempt at synthesizing of the various histories into the Atlantic slave trade; and an exploration of their similarities and difference, as 5 ) “In recent years the Array of Orisha traditions well as of their historical interrelationships”. H

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associated with the Yoruba speaking peoples of West In context to the citation cited the Christian Volume XX Issue II Version I Africa has largely broken free of the category of Yoruba and the Hausa Muslim had the notion of One African traditional religion and began to gain God worship which is one “God” and “Allah” recognition as a nascent world religion in its own right. respectively to the different world of religions. Other While Orisha religions are today both trans-national traditional associations or society in the Yoruba land

and pan-ethnic, they are nonetheless the historical such as the Ekhengbo, the important of these - precipitate of the actions and interactions of particular associations monopolized the Benin-Akure route which individuals. At their human epicenter are the hundreds the most high-ranky, the Oba and others protected their of thousands of Yoruba speaking people who left their commercial activities or religions focus clashes with one country during the first half of the 19th century in one of another thus slaves were born or delivered for the the most brutal processes of insertion into the world transatlantic slave trade6. During the war period, each economy undergone by any people anywhere; the state at the lead request the others to pay tributes from Atlantic slave trade. the vassals to the York state hence worship it gods and follow all royal instruments from the York state gods. While the journey of the Middle Passage is well Thus emanated into conflicts and wars that created known, other journeys undertaken freely by Africans

chances for the enormous civil wars hence birth to Global Journal of Human Social Science during the period of the slave trade-in a variety of enslavement and exportation of slaves. The African base directions, for a multiplicity of reasons, often a great (the Orisha tradition in the 19th century Atlantic world expense and sometimes at great personal risk- are less reveals certain significant parallels and interconnections so. These voyages culminated in a veritable transmigration involving thousands of Yoruba-speaking faced to other religions that was geared to the people and several points on both sides of the Atlantic. dramatically with the decline of the Oyo Empire after It is within this migratory complex broadly shaped by but 1789. The Oyo slaves revolts of Afonja in 1824, the Owu not limited to the slave ships that they contemporary 5 K B C Onwubiko, History of West Africa 1800 -present Day…, P. 101. Orisha religions took form… 6 Ibid.

war and Dahomeys succession from Oyo control in 1821, the revolt of Afonja in 1824, the Egba war in 1825, the Ife-Ondo war in 1829, the Ilorin Jihad and the final collapse of old Oyo annual 1835 were all part of a regional disintegration with or on religious notion on direct cultural and religious repercussions in the New World. In the New World it causes a chaos as of contact with the West religions hence emanating revolts of all sorts. They as such invited a spectrum of analysis in the sense of both an expanded geographical field and a corresponding expansion of the temporal domain to embrace the views. This jungle of religious notions assisted the production of slaves from conflicts or wars in diverse reasons as stipulated by the quotation. 32 “the increase in supply of Yoruba captives coincided 2020 with an increase in New World demand. The

ear elimination by the Haitan Revolution of the world’s Y

single largest sugar producer from the world economy

66 after 1791 propelled Cuba and Brazil into a Sugar Boom”. This, combined with the export trade in tobacco and cotton, brought some 416, 000 captives to the New World from the Bight of Benin between 1770 and 1851, with another 15,000 arriving clandestinely until as late as 1870”7. The expansion of Oyo collided with other obstacles in the cosmogonic of gods and religion was closely associated with the growth of slave exports across the Atlantic as the demand was very high so too supply has to match to rich equilibrium as explain explicitly by the demand and supply curves below. It

) should be noted that amongst the several causes for H

( slave growth was that of Religious Wars and conflicts Volume XX Issue II Version I especially within the African Gulf of Guinea. This Christian, Muslim, and traditional gods precipitated collusion among the people as an abuse or assault to each one religion. -

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7 Peter F. Cohen,Orisha Journeys : The role of Travel in the Birth of Yoruba-Atlantic Religions … P. 19

DD DD S

2 S 1 S D S D

High Demand is

Supply is

2020 0 SS 0 SS ear

Low

S DD DD D S S 4 D 3 D S D ) H

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0 SS 0 SS Equal or Equilibrium

Source: Author Diagrams - Graphs Here the principle of capture and “Recapture” is as such supply equated demand for the Transatlantic applied. The Oyo Calvary pushed southward along a slave trade supply activities. But as time keeps evolving natural break in the forest known as the Benin Gap and event keep passing with time, the supply mutation which is an opening in the forest where the savanna spray and added until it realized an equal stage or stretches to the Bight of Benin hence gained access to equilibrium hence this shows and explains the manner in the coastal ports. This religious conflicts and wars which the demand and supply of slaves provoked coupled with antagonism in other perspectives in the religious conflict along the African Gulf of Guinea. eighteenth century directly related to the success as a major slave exporter. The Demand and Supply at stage b) Traditional gods (believes) in The Niger Delta and Global Journal of Human Social Science Cross Rivers Zonesto Cameroon (1) was low and at stage 2 it demand increases due to collision of different religions conflicts which was caused In the Niger Delta region stretching and extending to the Cross-River zone on the frontiers zone by different vassals rising with different religion and falling giving rise to other paving way for slave capture between Nigeria and Cameroon, the existed actually at and “Recapture” for the transatlantic slave trade. While this cross section of the Gulf of Guinea, some the stage (3) deals with those at the Gulf of Guinea worshippers of the god Aros, Ekpe and Obasinjom in struggling and having much slaves by creating more the Igbo land and Mamfe respectively. The Oracles are religious groups within the ethnic groups thus said to be the chief priest that stands as intermediary to combustion of ideas leading to the greater slave capture explain the words of the gods. He was known as the

“Godman” or “Child of Chuku”. The Arochuku in the of these slaves were sold for the transatlantic slave Igbo country provides another case of a system of trade10. alliance under religious aegis used to promote slaving. The Fulani Jihad that was led by Usman Dan This religion came from the town called Arochuku which Fodio in the Central Sudan that is Northern Nigeria and is settlements, large and small extending the south Northern Cameroon was the most successful of the Esatern Nigeria and the South West Cameroon. The Aro Islamic revolution of the 19th century. What is important was also diagnosed of military strength which gave him here for us to note was the vital role this religion played strength and success in the slave trade8. to subdue the pagans population which if not, the It is potential tounderst and here that the Aro Atlantic slave trade supply should have been very limited were heavily involved in the integration, supply and thus the work supply; skilled and unskilled workers wholesale aspects of the delivery system, agreement emerged which they worked in the American and cooperation with various groups, movements, and plantations. Before 1804 Uthman Dan Fodio neighbouring communities hence facilitating the trade (Ousmandan Fodio), he got his first victory over Yunta, on slaves. The Ekpe society of Calabar and Mamfe was Gabir at Tabkin Kwatto which it was tremendous. The a secret society that deals with the gods and was Jihad was a racial and religious war hence in 1805 the 2020 actually engaged and in charged to regulate and leader in the Fulani communities in North came to Usuman Dan Fodio, which he gave flags as symbols of ear imposed sanctions on the religion that goes against the Y norms of the slave trade business. Also it could destroy authority to each of the leaders enabling and enjoying him to conquer unbelievers wherever he want to 68 people’s property thus could bring troubles that can lead to war. Misunderstanding resurfaced everywhere establish Islam as a result or consequences, some so too was the various religions and the gods9. areas like Kebbi, Zaria, Katsina, Gobir and Kano fell to Also in Cameroon, the existed some gods the Fulani Jihadist between 1805 to 1808 which this which falls in the cultural realms of the people. Found at conquest was almost complete. Before he headed the Gulf of Guinea, these gods or societies like the authority to his predecessors he got more than 1,700, Takumbeng, in Mankon and Bafut, the Manjong, 000 slaves as history of the time indicates or predicts. Nkwifon, Nigiri which all chiefdoms connected to the His son Muhammad Bello and his brother Abdullahi to Tikar country such as the Bamilike, Nso, Bamoun and continue Jihad, which it was extended to pagan areas some of the tribes or villages in Bamenda acquired the outside Hausa land where there existed considerable name Paraphernalia of the society of Rifum. This concentrations of the Fulani11. Areas such as Nupe, societies also sale slaves for the Transatlantic middle Llorin, Bornu, Adamawa under the leadership of passage or the triangular trade on slaves. They fought MallamDenndo (teacher) 1810, Abdussalami 1871, )

H against witches and wizards in the society which many Ibrahim Zaki (flag bearer) 1811 but later driven away,

(

Volume XX Issue II Version I slaves were gotten since they were judged and found Adamawa, ModibboAdama (flag bearer) received from guilty. When the need of slaves were needed at the New ShehuUsuman respectively. Modibbo easily overcame World these were the ones that were sold and “resold” the weak pagan tribes of the area. He established the for the merchants at the coastal Gulf of Guinea. emirates of Yola and Muri which the Jukun Empire Generally, we also have the Iwebo, obas regalia, the disappeared hence paving the way for many slaves

- Iwegunae, the Ibiwe, Iyashere, Ebohon, the captured that was sold for the Transatlantic and Trans OOlogboshere and Bende as stipulated and brought Saharan slave trade. This religious war on the pagans out by Paul NchojiNkwi in element of the history of the was to establish an ideal Islamic society in Hausa land Western Grassfield. We could also find this in Abaloya predominated. To erased decadent, corruption, institute document Ekpe society in Aro Chukwu and Bende, and religious reforms to propagate and promulgate peace Nicolas Argenti, in his Air Youth Performance, violence and tranquility, against oppressive governments. In this and the state of Cameroon found in the Journal of the process much slave were registered but stopped in the Royal Anthropological institute. The spread of Islam, an Southern Cameroon12. efforts to execute prophet Mohammed religion by Gradually, Islam has been peacefully expanding Ousman Dan Fodio in Northern Nigeria and Madibo in the sub-Saharan region, Asia, Europe and America

Global Journal of Human Social Science Adama in Northern Cameroon also resulted to conflicts and in Wumbumland in Cameroon, our Centre of focus that slaves were got and when the demand arise, some within the Gulf of Guinea. According to Simon Tata Ngenge in his article, pierce of work Chamba-Fulani

8 The Aros were not politically Organized although given their success in trade and commerce, they could have attempted to create a 10 Ibid, pp. 36-37(In Cebtral Africa, Congo, Gabon, Congo Democratic territorial empire. Republic and Equatorial Guinea conflicts arise and slaves were got. 9 Suh Hillary Sama, some Historical Essentials : some Historical 11 K B C. Onwubiko, History of West Afica, 1800-Present Day…, PP, 14- Essentials : From the slave trade to Present and Past legacies and 15. Roland Oliver and Anthony Atmore, Africa since 1800, Fourth memories in Eastern Nigeria and Cameroon from 1800-2014,Gulf of Edition, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1986, PP, 53-57. Guinea first Edition Dec. Maryland publishers, Bamenda, December 12 Ibid, PP, 17-18 (The Jihad brought Unity in Northern Nigeria and 2017, pp. 38-41. 2017. Northern Cameroon)

©2020 Global Journals Conflicts and Resolutions on Religions Differences as means of Acquiring Slaves in the African Gulf of Guinea during the Slave Trade Period: The Case of Nigeria and Cameroon in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries slave raiders in Wimbumland Bamenda Grassfields of Muslims and Christians had been having some minor Cameroon CA. 1780-1900, lay emphasis on “The and major conflict externally that also impacted activities demand of slaves in Europe, America, Saudi Arabia, from the Dahomey, Nigeria to Cameroon, Gabon, and other Asia minor states between 16th and 19th Congo Democratic Republic and Congo Brazaville not centuries transformed slavery and slave trade into a leaving out the Island of Sâo Tome and Fernando Po trans-continental transaction”13. Slaves taken to the (Malabo) as seen in the second map above. During other continent through these religious raids were some of the religious war fought millions of slaves were exported to the extent of America, Europe and Asian captured, some displaced and today find themselves in continents. But what should also be noted here is the other continents such as the continent of America. Well, fact, the Wimbum constituted of three clans with a to others religion believes are not so much sources of population according to 2006 census to be 236,000 conflict as major hope force in civil society and key people and is made up of three clans; Warr, Tang and provider of belief and development for the various civil Yar which each is divided into independent polities with societies for the needy particularly given the widespread thirty four Fondoms. Yar supplied slaves after some reality of failed states and collapsing government battles fought and several war soldiers died. When the services16. 2020 Yar were defeated, their chief, FonMforambo, his wives, Some Resolutions on Religions differences as means of children and a good number of Yar peoples were taken acquiring slaves in the Gulf of Guinea during the slave ear into slavery. The Fulani chambaraid was a religious Y

trade period. conflict against the traditional group of Wimbumland in 69 the North West region of Cameroon. Other of such wars a) Through Revolutions raids swept other cross section of that region, like Bali- As solutions to all the above religious that led to Kumbat, Bali-Nyonga, Santa but some section has been conflicts; wars and raids, it started from a growing peacefully settled by the Muslim population today14. movement against the slave trade after the Haitan During the period of raids, the Kom soldiers will raid as Revolutions. Initially, the Americans with the quarkers far distances as Bafut, Mankon, Bambili, Babanki, Esu in “society of friends” never turn down any oof the the Western Grassfields thus a mean where slaves were doctrine, religions but activated and promoted by capture for the transatlantic slave trade for the Americas. promulgation of the Christians, Muslims and African While other tribes among the aforementioned traditions culture in Americas. As a mother of all do same to the others when in need of slaves. Each at cultures, civilization all is well acknowledged and this level struggling to put his or her religion in state thus practically enforced in the worldly continents with no tantamounting to expanding or establishing an exception in a peaceful manner as variety is one of the key to development. Particularly, in industrialised Great ) expansionist policy of religion and it believes at the H

Britain, these religions has culminated in 1808 in a policy ( same time. These religions clashes also culminated to Volume XX Issue II Version I of “recapture” like that of (Orisha) journeys: The role of acquiring slaves that was transported during the transatlantic slave trade to the America. By each Travel in the Birth of Yoruba-Atlantic Religions. The Yoruba term for Orisha is Orisa, Orisha in the British struggling to established her religions hegemony and cultural affinity plunges into catastrophes. Many people Caribbean, Orixa in Brazil and Oricha in Cuba-denotes

entities often described as “gods” or “saints” as well as - also in addition lost their lives hence making the whole and entire system “vivre en temour” that is fears, timid the traditions devoted to their worship. This conflict that and unsure for tomorrow intention because all was provided slaves for the transatlantic slave trade was expose for victimisation15. It should be noted that the combated by the British Navy, began seizing slave ships, on the high seas in the Atlantic Gulf of Guinea from Sierra Leone to Southern Gulf of Guinea17.

13 Releasing about 12,765 slaves thus their captives at Simon Tata Ngenge, Chamba-Fulani slave Raiders in Wimbumland, Freetown in Sierra Leone but this reduce the demand for BamendaGrassfields of Cameroon CA. 1780-1900, In Pan Tikar Journal of History, vol 1, N° 1, Department of History, Higher Teacher Training slaves trading centres in Yoruba land but in later period University of Bamenda College, Bamenda, Bambili, March 2013, P.10. other issues stimulated the trade rather than a deterrent. 14 Ibid, PP. 13-16 (The Wimbum of the Nkambe Plateau in the

To this an ambiguity result was released immigrating of Global Journal of Human Social Science Bamenda Grasslands were not spared from the inhuman traffic during the Trans-Saharan and Transatlantic slave trade inspite of the 1833 the “Recaptive” as soldiers or for tertiary movements to Abolition Act that forbade slavery and slave trade in the British the West Indies or remain in the colony and became colonies, slave rfaids and trade continued in the hinterlands unabated. subject to an active program of evangelization and This was the case of the Nkambe plateau that fell prey to Chamba and mission education and many became voluntarily by Fulani raids. The Chamba raids in the area began in Ca 1780 and ended in 1827. The Fulani raids came on the heels of the Chamba raids in Ca 1840 and stretch intermetently up to 1900”. Simon Tata. recently of ethnic and sectarian bloodshed in Nigeria, where hundreds PP. 10-11. of Muslims and Christians have been killed. 15 To some outside observers, this is a vola tile religious fault line-the 16 In Tolerance and Tension : Islam and Christianity in Sub-Saharan site, for example, of al-Qaeda’s first major terrorist strike, the bombing Africa, April 15 2010. (Demographic study) Pew Research Center. of the US embassies in Kenya and Tanzania in 1998, and more 17 Peter F. Cohen, Orisha Journeys… P.19

themselves, missionaries who carried out evangelic movements as most slave “recaptured” moved to the crusades and some learn crafts and trades, and others sugar producing areas of Bahia and Cuba altered by the did commercialisation of legitimate goods. Some British efforts to thwart the slave trade, voluntary hundreds and thousands raised money to buy the contacts were promulgated that stopped in conflict in a seized ships, vessels, canoes that were captured as radiating manner in Africa and some between Nigeria dealing objects for the slave trade. These merchandises and Cameroon migrated to America, Europe and other were auctioned by the British at organised bargain parts in Africa respectively. It demands for slaves was points in cheap prices which they use to trade along the ended then religious conflicts will also end. The Yoruba ports from which they had been sold. According to Peter Africans began returning home as all these took place in Cohen. the 19thand to aftermath 20thcentury. In the 1900 which th “Those who joined the British West Indies Regiment was the onset of the 20 century, the religious were sent throughout the Caribbean and Africa. landscape of Sub-Saharan Africa has changed Composed of emancipated West Indians and dramatically but both Muslims and Christians were recaptured Africans, the Regiment counted over relatively small minorities in the region. Greater majority 12,000 recaptives by 1840… One British observer practically lay on the bare footing of African traditional 2020 stated in 1837 that the whole of our African corps, and religion which the aforementioned made up just less than a quarter of the population, according to historical ear a great part of our West Indies, are supplied from the 19 Y estimates from the world religion Data base .

liberated Africans at Sierra Leone… service in the Since then, however the number of Muslims 70 Regiment opened a new channel of contact between Africans in Sierra Leone, the West Indies and Yoruba living between the Sahara Deserts and the Cape of land. In 1865 the Regiment was sent to Abeokuta, and Good Hope has increased more than 20 fold, rising some soldiers made contact with their hometown… from an estimated 11 million in 1900 to approximately 234 million in 2010. The number of Christians has grown Those who were sent to the Carribean as indentured even faster, soaring almost 70 fold from about 7 million laborers replaced the emancipated slaves who had to 470 million. Sub-Saharan Africa now is home to about deserted the plantations after abolition, producing one-in-five of all the Christians in the world (21%) and sugar for sale in direct competition with their enslaved more than one-seven of the world’s Muslims (15%)20 . compatriots in Brazil and Cuba. Although liberated As greatly noted, cultural matters keep arising Africans had begun migrating to the British West which brought intermarriages amongst the various Indies around 1834, with approximately 3,200 arrivals religious groupings making them to throw away conflicts by 1840…, it was the influx of 36.120 recaptives from and embraced tolerances and peace? Today, we fine ) Sierra Leone and St. Helena between 1841 that and

H peace pact with the American Head of State Donald

( 1867 that brought significant influx of Yoruba speakers

Volume XX Issue II Version I Trump and the Islamic world. They had decided to open to Trinidad, British Guyana and Jamaica with smaller trade links with one another diplomatically and numbers going to St. Vincent, St. Kitts, St. Lucia, economic Developments. It should be worth noticing Dominica, Tobago and Grenada after 1848. that the two faiths are roughly balanced from the United

The British also (as a solution more to regulate the Nations population estimates survey reports21. Since

- religious conflicts or discouraged it from its roots) Northern Africa is heavily Muslims and Southern Africa is began recapturing slave ships in the Carribbean after heavily Christians, the great meeting place is in the 1846, by 1808 and releasing their captives in Cuba. middle, a 4000-mile swath from Somalia in the east to While only 1.056 recaptives had entered Cuba by Senegal in the West down to the Gulf of Guinea. (See 1846, by 1860 the number had jumped to 11,000. table) Although an indeterminate number were re-enslaved in Cuba, most blended into the Urban population of free and enslaved Africans… The mixed commissions (international anti-slaving courts) in Rio and Havama sent 893 recaptives to British Guyana, 687 to Jamaica, and 879 to Trinidad… During the… over half Global Journal of Human Social Science of the recaptives in Sierra Leone were Yoruba…”18 From the above citation, we take note of the recognised facts and evidence that in Cuba and Brazil practical abolition took place in 1886 and 1888 19 Ibid. respectively. In the years 1990s and 2000s conflicts 20 Religion and Public life, Demographic study, Tolerance and Tension: between the Moslem and Christians has resurfaced in Islam and Christianity in Sub-Saharan Africa Pew Research Center several folds, this gave way for forced demographic April 15, 2010, P. 2 21 Pew forum on Religion and Public life, April 2010 with 400 million to 500 million followers each. 18 Peter F Cohen, Orisha Journeys… P 20

Sources: Authors Research Table Traditional African Religions, Muslims and lasting development which should be enlarged geared Christians due to the tolerance of the United States and toward growth in the gulf of Guinea like Nigeria and the United Nations Organisations that came up after the Cameroon23. fall of the League of Nations has allowed different religions, in their varieties to exist like the African traditional, Muslims and Christian religions, with their mixture nowadays that was not permitted in the long past years. Other faith from Latin and North America continue to infiltrate in the Gulf of Guinea which should be more concentrated to create soft mine of the people ) H in the Gulf to embrace development. (see table for of ( Latin and North American religions). Those found at the Volume XX Issue II Version I Gulf of Guinea viewed sub-Saharan themselves within the conglomeration of the religion in their lives and societies which the question has also been addressed by Pew Research Center Forum on Religion and Public life with generous funding from the Pew charitable Trusts - and the John Templeton Foundation22. Many of those involved within the two doctrines has yet continue to practice elements of traditional African religions. More so, many support democracy today at the Gulf of Guinea like Nigeria that was first ones a military state country. It has been confirmed of it goodness, people from other religions are able to practice their faith freely, which they wish to make the Bible or Sharia law the official law of the land but the supreme world body organization has brought more concrete resolution by Global Journal of Human Social Science accepting the different religion existence for better and

22 This foundation conducted findings which more 25 000 interviews in 23 about 60 languages or dialects in 19 countries making 75% of the It should be noted that both that both Muslims and Christians population was diagnosed. From Louis Lugo and Cooperman in recognize positive attributes in one another, tension lie close to the Growth of Islam and Christianity in Sub-Saharan Africa since 1900. surface.

Table: Some Religious Bodies in the America

Place of Year Worship Membership Number No. Religious Body Reported Reported (Thousand) of Clergy 1 African Methodist Episcopal Church 1999 -1 2500 7741 2 African Methodist Episcopal Zone Church 2002 3226 1431 3252 3 American Baptist Association 1998 1760 275 1740 4 Amish Old Order 1993 898 227 3592 5 American Baptist Churches U S A 1998 3800 1507 4145 Antiochian Orthodox Christian Archdiocese of North 6 1998 220 65 263 America 7 American Apostolic Church 2010 153 1000 200 8 Assemblies of God 2009 12371 2914 34504 9 Baptist Bible Fellowship International 1997 4500 1200 -1

2020 10 Baptist General Conference 1998 876 141 -1 11 Baptist Missionary Association of America 1999 1334 235 1525

ear 12 Buddhism 2001 -1 1082 -1 Y

13 Christian and Missionary Alliance. The 1998 1964 346 1629

72 14 Christian Brethren (Plymouth Brethren) 1997 1150 100 -1 15 Christian Church (Disciples of Christ) 1997 3818 879 3419 16 Christian Churches and Churches of Christ 1998 5579 1072 5525 17 Christian Congregation.Inc.The 1998 1438 117 1436 18 Christian Methodist Episcopal Church 1983 2340 719 -1 19 Christian Reformed Church in North America 1998 733 199 -1 20 Church of God in Christ 1991 15300 5500 28988 21 Church of God of Prophecy 1997 1908 77 2000 22 Church of God (Anderson, IN) 1998 2353 234 3034 23 Church of God (Cleveland, Tennessee) 1995 6060 753 3121 24 The Chuech of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints 2005 12753 5691 38259 25 Church of the Brethren 1997 1095 141 827 26 Church of the Nazarene 1998 5101 627 4598

) 27 Churches of Christ 1999 15000 1500 14500 H

( 28 Conservative Baptist Association of America 1998 1200 200 -1 Volume XX Issue II Version I 29 Community of Christ 1998 1236 140 19319 30 Coptic Orthodox Church 2003 200 1000 200 31 Cumberland Presbyterian Church 1998 774 87 634 32 Episcopal Church 1996 7390 2365 8131 33 Evangelical Covenant Church.The 1998 628 97 607 - 34 Evangelical Free Church of America. The 1995 1224 243 1936 35 Evangelical Lutheran Church in America 1998 10862 5178 9646 36 Evangelical Presbyterian Church 1998 187 61 262 37 Free Methodist Church of North America 1998 990 73 -1 38 Full Gospel Fellowship 1999 896 275 2070 39 General Association of General Baptists 1997 790 72 1085 40 General Association of Regular Baptist Churches 1998 1415 102 -1 41 U S Conference of Mennonite Brethren Churches 1996 368 82 590 42 Grace Gospel Fellowship 1992 128 60 160 43 Greek Orthodox Archdiocese of America 1998 523 1955 596 44 Hinduism 2001 -1 766 -1 Global Journal of Human Social Science 45 Independent Fundamental Churches of America 1991 659 62 -1 46 International Church of the foursquare Gospel 1998 1851 238 4900 47 International Council of Community Churches 1998 150 250 182 48 International Pentecostal Holiness Church 1998 1716 177 1507 49 Islam 2001 -1 1104 -1 50 Jainism -1 -1 50 -1 51 Jehovahs Witnesses 2011 11876 1200 -1 52 Judaism 2006 3727 6452 -1 53 Lutheran Church-Missouri Synod.The 1998 6218 2594 5227

54 Mennonite Church U S A 2005 943 114 -1

National Association of Congregational Christian 55 Churches 1998 416 67 534

56 National Association of Free Will Baptist 1998 2297 210 2800

57 National Baptist Convention of America Inc 1987 2500 3500 8000

58 National Baptist Convention U S A Inc 1992 33000 8200 32832

59 National Missionary Baptist Convention of America 1992 -1 2500 -1

60 Orthodox Church in America 1992 625 1000 700

61 Pentecostal Assembly of the World. Inc 1998 1750 1500 4500

62 Pentecostal Church of God 1998 1237 104 -1

63 Pentecostal Church International United 2008 28351 4037 22881

64 Presbyterian Church in America 1997 1340 280 1642

65 Presbyterian Church (U S A) 1998 11260 3575 9390

Progressive National Baptist Church Convention. 66 1995 2000 2500 -1 Inc

Source: Statistics from the American Bureau for States Census 2020

b) Reaction from the United Nations know each side religion so well some thought that as ear Y

The United Nations has given her own point of the paradox denotes, the Muslims faith was violent view under the United Nation Charter, Chapter IX, titled, which Muslims are significantly more positive in their 73 International Economic and Social cooperation in or assessment of Christians than Christians are in their under article 55 and 56 as stated; assessment of Muslims25. In spite of the dominance of Article 55; Christianity and Islam, whether or not this entails “With a view to the creation of condition of healers, reincarnation and other elements of typical stability and well-being which are necessary for peaceful African religions where the chief priest or the king is and friendly relations among nations based on respect work upon as an Intermediary, the majority say it is good for the principle of equal rights and self-determination of to maintain their religion as seen by the Graph below. peoples, the United Nations shall promote: a) Higher standards of living full employment and conditions of economic and social progress and development; b) Solutions of International economic, social, health ) H

and related problems, and international cultural and ( Volume XX Issue II Version I educational cooperation and c) Universal respect for and observance of human rights and fundamental freedoms for all without distinction as to race, sex, language, or religion.

Article 56; - All members pledge themselves to take joint and separate action in co-operation with the organization for the achievement of the purpose set forth in Article 55” 24. The United Nation Charter and the International Court of Justice is aware that religion contributed in all round activity of the world. Therefore, the degree of concern in the Gulf of Guinea about religious conflict varies from country to country but tracks closely with the

degree of concern about ethnic conflict in many Global Journal of Human Social Science countries, suggesting that they are often related. To bring peace, the United Nations addressed this in article 55 and 56 so as to avoid conflict on religion, forester development in employment, cooperation in the social, economic and race, sex and languages since they are angles of development promotion. But since some don’t

24 Charter of the United Nations and status of the International Court of 25 About 40% of more in a dozen according to the Pew forum on Justice, PP. 37-38 (United Nation, PP. 37-38 New York). Religion and Public life, April 2010.

Source: Authors Research Bar chart Bar Chart 1: Religions Practices should not be forceful but Voluntary free will ) H

( Either the Bible or Koran countries surveyed say religion, political or other opinion, national or social

Volume XX Issue II Version I that they believe in one God and in heaven and hell as origin, property, birth or other status… such Christians and Muslims believe in the Littoral truth Furthermore, no distinction shall be made on of their scripture. They, the Christians pray every day the basis of the political, jurisdictional or International and attend service ones a week while Muslim pray five status of the country or territory to which a person times a day and fast during the holy periods of belongs, whether it be independent trust, non-self-

- Ramadon or lent which they gave religion alms as such governing or under any other limitation, of sovereignty. tithing for Christians, Zakat for Muslims. All these Article 3 worships are very good and important in the lives of the Everyone has the right to life, liberty and people found at the Gulf of Guinea. security of person. c) The United Nations in the Universal Declaration of Article 4 Human Rights. No one shall be held in slavery or servitude, Furthermore, according to the work of the slavery and the slave trade shall be prohibited in all their Organization under the United Nations in the Universal forms. Declaration of Human Rights. Article 5

Global Journal of Human Social Science “Article 1 No one shall be subjected to torture or to cruel, All human beings are born free and equal in inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment.”26 dignity and rights. They are endowed with reasons and From the above laws, slavery and slave trade conscience and should act towards one another in a characteristics could be seen within lines as examine. spirit of brotherhood. Slave were tortured, has no liberty and no freedom. They had no right to life due to cruel and inhuman degrading Article 2 Everyone is entitled to all the rights and 26 Universal Declaration of Human Rights, United Nations Department freedoms set forth in this Declaration, without distinction of Public Information by BrotosGhali, Secretary General (former) of any of any kind, such as race, colour, sex, language Introduction Notes. Reprint December 2006, P.7

©2020 Global Journals Conflicts and Resolutions on Religions Differences as means of Acquiring Slaves in the African Gulf of Guinea during the Slave Trade Period: The Case of Nigeria and Cameroon in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries treatment that often go with punishment. This is some of are; Cameroon 81% and Senegal 93% at the Gulf of the decency in religious focus that has been adopted Guinea only 28. and made legal internationally. We can allocate the percentage of how importance religion is to people of d) The conventions on the Abolition of slavery and slave some countries in the Gulf of Guinea. Senegal 98%, trade and other related aspects or issue close to Guinea Bissau 90%, Ghana 88%, DR Congo 82%, slavery give an account on the abolition of slavery. Nigeria 87%, Liberia 87%, Chad 86%, DR Congo 82%, Furthermore, with the Resolutions adopted in Mali 93%, found in the sub-Saharan region of Africa. The the conventions on the Abolition of slavery and slave United States has been one and the leading countries.27 trade and other related aspects or issue close to slavery Belief in the protective powers of sacrifices to spirits or give an account on the abolition of slavery. With all these Ancestors in percentage at the Gulf of Guinea, All laws enforced some important personalities, countries 27% Christians 25%, Muslims 30% in the entire Cameroonian-Americans were known after a DNA test Africa. But in the Gulf we have Mali 59%, Senegal 58%, and some have visited their ancestral land of Bimbia. Cameroon 42%, Guinea Bissau 41%, Chad, 41%, Liberia Among the millions of them are, Naomi Achu, Anthony 31%, Ghana 26%, DR Congo 21%, Nigeria 11%, and Anderson, Jasmyne Cannick, Sheryle Lee Ralph, Zambia 11%, while the faith has been handed down Condolezza Rice, Chris Rock, Tony Rock, Theoson 2020 from generation to generation through Oral traditions, Siebatcheu, Trey Sonze, Jem Spexctar, Jeremy ear

Myths, rituals, festivals, shrines, art and symbols and it Ebobisse, Roberta Flack, Peter J. Gomes, Michael Y has no formal creeds or sacred texts comparable to the Hancok (Colorado Politician), Quincy Jones Rashida 75 Bible and Koran. This is lapsed social responsibilities or Jones, YaphetKotto, ArieKouanddjio, Cyrus Kouanjio, violation of taboos end up in hardship, suffering and NasJoakim Noah, Nde Parker, Les Payne, John Punchi illness for individuals or communities and must be (slave of 1640), EtchuTabe, J.P Tchani, J.P Tokoto, counted with ritual acts, to seek order, harmony and Chris Tucker, Blair Underwood, Jessica Williams well-being. Religious divinity has been the gold of the (Actress),. (see picture of some of the above African tradition. The percentage of those who accepted personalities) India Arie (Artist) that religion is something very good to be freely practice

) H

( Volume XX Issue II Version I

Picture: India Arie Picture: Condolezza Rice - So u rc e: India Arie Performs at Majic 1075/975. Source: E S D Fomin, Achas Safari Magazine, No 002, july-September 2016.p, 60.

Global Journal of Human Social Science

Picture 61: Shelton Jackson(Spike Lee) Picture: Quincy Jones Quincy Jones Source: E S D Fomin, Achas Safari Magazine, No 002, July-September 2016.p, 60.

27 US data : 2009 survey by the Pew Forum on Religion and public life 28 Ibid. (The accusation of Religious hostilities on religion is reciprocal) and the Pew Research for the people and the Press and 2007, 2008 and 2009 Pew Global attitudes Projects.

Other methods to reduced religious conflicts Another Resolution on religious conflict was the which was a way most Africans were taken prey to the practically enforcement of conventions to all acts th U.S.A were the diversity immigrant lottery that has been contrary to William Wilberforce which later on 26 of made effective for about three decades. Many countries April 1955 D.G cudmore (sgd) in his annual report in the world including Africa and the Gulf of Guinea has assessment influence some notables role in slavery and rd found themselves today in America through this means slave trade. Also on 3 July 1957 those who called not to work as slaves but also to home “White colar others as slaves were requested to stop hence on the th jobs”. This method does not involve bad treatment of 26 of July 1957 laws were made applicable to Nigeria the Black though racism still exists in the America and and the Federated law officers to fight against the trade. everywhere in the world.29 This was also applied in Mamfe, under code decision 195/75 D.O Mamfe, 21st September 1957. E-Other Dimensions or Levels Furthermore, some Christians missionaries’ who Another conference or worship was organized had been at the Gulf of Guinea cannot be left out in and held in Yaounde -Cameroon on the team “les site et many Christians and Muslims communities. Some la mémoire de l’esclavage au Cameroun” in Ecole liberty villages has also been created by colonial

2020 Nationale Supérieure Polytechnique on the 25-26 July administrators like Lord Lugard which still exist till date. 2019 that participant came from Great Britain, France, Muslims laws has also been reshaped which ear Kenya, Cameroon and others from diverse fields of Y accompanied with missionaries activities slaves works. This project was to show evidence that slave escaped from their masters while some reclaimed their 76 trade actually existed as the sites, places are found rights from their masters, Lamidos and became runaway dotted all over the territory in Cameroon. This heritages to the missionaries and administrations in 1955, 1957 to that it has undergone several stages of development 1961. The routes of some laws on Nigeria criminal code within the entire Gulf of Guinea. Centre D’etudes et du 369,371,384 and 269 was grossly enforced hence Recherches Pluridisciplinairess sur l’esclavage et la helped reduced slavery and slave trade within the Gulf traite en Afrique (CERPETA),30. This workshop was of Guinea, by 1961 was enforce in British Cameroon organized by a number of Organization and Institution which this area now need to be develop32. amongst which are CERPETA, Bath SPA, University of Yaounde I, University of Maroua, University of Côte II. Conclusion d’Azur, Nice, France, Institute of Research for Development, SLAFNET, (slavery in Africa: a dialogue Conflicts on Religion as means of Acquiring between Europe and Africa. In this seminar the slaves in the Gulf of Guinea during the slave trade

) University of Yaounde I, University of Maroua and the period.Some Resolutions on Religions differences as H

( study committee and of pluridisciplinary Research on means of acquiring slaves in the Gulf of Guinea during Volume XX Issue II Version I slavery and the slave trade in Africa (CERPETA) the slave trade period have been put forth. Nigeria and Cameroon were represented. At the opening of the Cameroon kept its important position in the slave trade conference the equip of the people or team addressed throughout the great expansion of the transatlantic trade the participants and observers in the personage of word after the middle of the seventeenth century. Slightly of welcome from Ahmadou Séhou (University of Maroua more slaves came from the Nigerian and Cameroonian - and Coordinator-general of (CERPETA), Presentation of coast than from Angola in the eighteenth century, while the project was done by Marie-Pierre Ballarin in the nineteenth century perhaps 30 percent of all (coordinatrice and the principal Investigator, URMIS- slaves sent across the Atlantic came from Nigeria and MSHS, University of Côte d’Azur, Nice, France. part from Western part or section of the Cameroon. Over Keynotes comes from Olivate Otale (Bath Spa the period of the whole trade, more than 3.5 million University, UK) A word from the Rector University of slaves were shipped from Nigeria and Cameroon to the Americas. Most of these slaves were Igbo and Yoruba, Maroua and a speech from the (Rector) Vice Chanccellor University of Yaounde I. This conference Bamendas, Mamfe, Bkwerians, Doualas, Bakundus, brought out the various sites of slavery and slave trade Bakossians Bangwa, Bassossis, Ejakham, and the

for development purposes in the nearest future31. Tikars groups from Banyo and Nkambe Bansos with Global Journal of Human Social Science significant concentrations of Hausa, Ibibio, and other ethnic groups The people of Calabar were Efik, a subsection of Ibibio, while Bonny and Elem Kalabari were Ijaw towns. But with the creation of effective 29 United States Informaation office DV lottery in http://www.state international and National bodies for peace respect of 30 Center for the Plurisdisciplinary studies and Research on slavery and the slave trade in Africa.(CERPETA). 32 Suh Hillary Sama, The suppression of slavery and slave trade in 31 See archieves of CERPETA and participants. Representatives and British Cameroons 1916-1961, In Nka ? lumiere Numero 19, 1st participants came from all works of life like the Marine Meseum and Art semester 2018 Dschang, University of Dschang, 2018, PP, 290-293. and Architecture. (Under UNSUC of 1958)

©2020 Global Journals Conflicts and Resolutions on Religions Differences as means of Acquiring Slaves in the African Gulf of Guinea during the Slave Trade Period: The Case of Nigeria and Cameroon in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries each religion has surfaced thus the need for this area to and the Press and 2007, 2008 and 2009 Pew Global be developed that goes with The French President attitudes Projects. Francois Hollan Speech in 2012.Therefore what 14. United States Informaation office DV lottery in measures could be taken to apply directly by World http://www.state bodies, organisation to development Nigeria and 15. Center for the Plurisdisciplinary studies and Cameroon? Research on slavery and the slave trade in Africa. (CERPETA). Bibliography 16. See archieves of CERPETA and participants. Representatives and participants came from all 1. Fomin E S D, Achas Safari Magazine, No 002, July- September 2016. works of life like the Marine Meseum and Art and Architecture. 2. Oliver Roland and Atmore Anthony, Africa since 1800, Fourth Edition, Cambridge University Press, 17. Statistics from the American Bureau for States Census. Cambridge, 1986. 3. Tata Ngenge Tata Simon, Chamba-Fulani slave Raiders in Wimbumland, Bamenda Grassfields of 2020 Cameroon CA. 1780-1900, In Pan Tikar Journal of ear

History, Vol 1, N° 1, Department of History, Higher Y Teacher Training University of Bamenda College, 77 Bamenda, Bambili, March 2013. 4. Ryder A F C, Portuguese and Dutch in West Africa before 1800, In A Thousand Years of West African History, edited by J.F Ade Ajayi and Lan Espie, Nelson/IUP, 1968. 5. Oji Olatunji, The slave ship Manuelita and the story of a Yoruba community, 1833-1834, Department of History, Brock University, St. Catherine, Canada, 03

march 2017. 6. Sama Suh Hillary, Some Historical Essentials : From the slave trade to Present and Past legacies and memories in Eastern Nigeria and Cameroon from )

1800 to 1914, Gulf of Guinea First Edition Maryland H

(

publishers Bamenda, Cameroon, December 2017. Volume XX Issue II Version I 7. Cohen F Peter, Orisha Journeys: The Role of Travel in the Birth of Yoruba-Atlantic Religions, in Archeologie de science sociale de Religion, Columbia University, New York, EHESS, Paris, Janvier-Mars 2002. - 8. In Tolerance and Tension: Islam and Christianity in Sub-Saharan Africa, April 15 2010. (Demographic study) Pew Research Center. 9. Religion and Public life, Demographic study, Tolerance and Tension: Islam and Christianity in Sub-Saharan Africa Pew Research Center April 15,

2010, P. 2. 10. Pew forum on Religion and Public life, April 2010 with 400 million to 500 million followers each.

11. Charter of the United Nations and status of the Global Journal of Human Social Science International Court of Justice, PP. 37-38 (United Nation, PP. 37-38 New York. 12. Universal Declaration of Human Rights, United Nations Department of Public Information by Brotos Brotos Ghali, Secretary General (former) Introduction Notes. Reprint December 2006, P.7 13. US data: 2009 survey by the Pew Forum on Religion and public life and the Pew Research for the people

Global Journals Guidelines Handbook 2020

www.GlobalJournals.org

Memberships

Introduction

FSSRC/ASSRC is the most prestigious membership of Global Journals accredited by Open Association of Research Society, U.S.A (OARS). The credentials of Fellow and Associate designations signify that the researcher has gained the knowledge of the fundamental and high-level concepts, and is a subject matter expert, proficient in an expertise course covering the professional code of conduct, and follows recognized standards of practice. The credentials are designated only to the researchers, scientists, and professionals that have been selected by a rigorous process by our Editorial Board and Management Board.

Associates of FSSRC/ASSRC are scientists and researchers from around the world are working on projects/researches that have huge potentials. Members support Global Journals’ mission to advance technology for humanity and the profession.

FELLOW OF SOCIAL SCIENCE RESEARCH COUNCIL is the most prestigious membership of Global Journals. It is an award and membership granted to individuals that the Open Association of Research Society judges to have made a 'substantial contribution to the improvement of computer science, technology, and electronics engineering. The primary objective is to recognize the leaders in research and scientific fields of the current era with a global perspective and to create a channel between them and other researchers for better exposure and knowledge sharing. Members are most eminent scientists, engineers, and technologists from all across the world. Fellows are elected for life through a peer review process on the basis of excellence in the respective domain. There is no limit on the number of new nominations made in any year. Each year, the Open Association of Research Society elect up to 12 new Fellow Members.

I Benefit

To the institution Get letter of appreciation Global Journals sends a letter of appreciation of author to the Dean or CEO of the University or Company of which author is a part, signed by editor in chief or chief author.

Exclusive Network Get access to a closed network A FSSRC member gets access to a closed network of Tier 1 researchers and scientists with direct communication channel through our website. Fellows can reach out to other members or researchers directly. They should also be open to reaching out by other.

Career Credibility Exclusive Reputation

Certificate Certificate, LoR and Laser-Momento Fellows receive a printed copy of a certificate signed by our Chief Author that may be used for academic purposes and a personal recommendation letter to the dean of member's university.

Career Credibility Exclusive Reputation

Designation Get honored title of membership Fellows can use the honored title of membership. The “FSSRC” is an honored title which is accorded to a person’s name viz. Dr. John E. Hall, Ph.D., FSSRC or William Walldroff, M.S., FSSRC.

Career Credibility Exclusive Reputation

Recognition on the Platform Better visibility and citation All the Fellow members of FSSRC get a badge of "Leading Member of Global Journals" on the Research Community that distinguishes them from others. Additionally, the profile is also partially maintained by our team for better visibility and citation. All fellows get a dedicated page on the website with their biography.

Career Credibility Reputation

II Future Work Get discounts on the future publications Fellows receive discounts on future publications with Global Journals up to 60%. Through our recommendation programs, members also receive discounts on publications made with OARS affiliated organizations.

Career Financial

GJ Account

Unlimited forward of Emails Fellows get secure and fast GJ work emails with unlimited forward of emails that they may use them as their primary email. For example, john [AT] globaljournals [DOT] org.

Career Credibility Reputation

Premium Tools Access to all the premium tools To take future researches to the zenith, fellows receive access to all the premium tools that Global Journals have to offer along with the partnership with some of the best marketing leading tools out there. Financial

Conferences & Events Organize seminar/conference Fellows are authorized to organize symposium/seminar/conference on behalf of Global Journal Incorporation (USA). They can also participate in the same organized by another institution as representative of Global Journal. In both the cases, it is mandatory for him to discuss with us and obtain our consent. Additionally, they get free research conferences (and others) alerts.

Career Credibility Financial

Early Invitations Early invitations to all the symposiums, seminars, conferences All fellows receive the early invitations to all the symposiums, seminars, conferences and webinars hosted by Global Journals in their subject.

Exclusive

III

Publishing Articles & Books Earn 60% of sales proceeds To take future researches to the zenith, fellows receive access to all the premium tools that Global Journals have to offer along with the partnership with some of the best marketing leading tools out there.

Exclusive Financial

Reviewers Get a remuneration of 15% of author fees Fellow members are eligible to join as a paid peer reviewer at Global Journals Incorporation (USA) and can get a remuneration of 15% of author fees, taken from the author of a respective paper.

Financial

Access to Editorial Board Become a member of the Editorial Board Fellows may join as a member of the Editorial Board of Global Journals Incorporation (USA) after successful completion of three years as Fellow and as Peer Reviewer. Additionally, Fellows get a chance to nominate other members for Editorial Board.

Career Credibility Exclusive Reputation

And Much More Get access to scientific museums and observatories across the globe All members get access to 5 selected scientific museums and observatories across the globe. All researches published with Global Journals will be kept under deep archival facilities across regions for future protections and disaster recovery. They get 10 GB free secure cloud access for storing research files.

ASSOCIATE OF SOCIAL SCIENCE RESEARCH COUNCIL is the membership of Global Journals awarded to individuals that the Open Association of Research Society judges to have made a 'substantial contribution to the improvement of computer science, technology, and electronics engineering. The primary objective is to recognize the leaders in research and scientific fields of the current era with a global perspective and to create a channel between them and other researchers for better exposure and knowledge sharing. Members are most eminent scientists, engineers, and technologists from all across the world. Associate membership can later be promoted to Fellow Membership. Associates are elected for life through a peer review process on the basis of excellence in the respective domain. There is no limit on the number of new nominations made in any year. Each year, the Open Association of Research Society elect up to 12 new Associate Members.

Benefit

Exclusive Network Get access to a closed network A ASSRC member gets access to a closed network of Tier 2 researchers and scientists with direct communication channel through our website. Associates can reach out to other members or researchers directly. They should also be open to reaching out by other.

Career Credibility Exclusive Reputation

Certificate

Certificate, LoR and Laser-Momento Associates receive a printed copy of a certificate signed by our Chief Author that may be used for academic purposes and a personal recommendation letter to the dean of member's university.

Career Credibility Exclusive Reputation

Designation Get honored title of membership Associates can use the honored title of membership. The “ASSRC” is an honored title which is accorded to a person’s name viz. Dr. John E. Hall, Ph.D., ASSRC or William Walldroff, M.S., ASSRC. Career Credibility Exclusive Reputation

Recognition on the Platform Better visibility and citation All the Associate members of ASSRC get a badge of "Leading Member of Global Journals" on the Research Community that distinguishes them from others. Additionally, the profile is also partially maintained by our team for better visibility and citation.

Career Credibility Reputation

Future Work Get discounts on the future publications Associates receive discounts on future publications with Global Journals up to 30%. Through our recommendation programs, members also receive discounts on publications made with OARS affiliated organizations.

Career Financial

GJ Account

Unlimited forward of Emails Associates get secure and fast GJ work emails with 5GB forward of emails that they may use them as their primary email. For example, john [AT] globaljournals [DOT] org.

Career Credibility Reputation

Premium Tools Access to all the premium tools To take future researches to the zenith, fellows receive access to almost all the premium tools that Global Journals have to offer along with the partnership with some of the best marketing leading tools out there. Financial

Conferences & Events Organize seminar/conference Associates are authorized to organize symposium/seminar/conference on behalf of Global Journal Incorporation (USA). They can also participate in the same organized by another institution as representative of Global Journal. In both the cases, it is mandatory for him to discuss with us and obtain our consent. Additionally, they get free research conferences (and others) alerts.

Career Credibility Financial

Early Invitations Early invitations to all the symposiums, seminars, conferences

All associates receive the early invitations to all the symposiums, seminars, conferences and webinars hosted by Global Journals in their subject.

Exclusive

VII

Publishing Articles & Books Earn 60% of sales proceeds Associates can publish articles (limited) without any fees. Also, they can earn up to 30-40% of sales proceeds from the sale of reference/review books/literature/publishing of research paper. Exclusive Financial Reviewers Get a remuneration of 15% of author fees Associate members are eligible to join as a paid peer reviewer at Global Journals Incorporation (USA) and can get a remuneration of 15% of author fees, taken from the author of a respective paper.

Financial

And Much More Get access to scientific museums and observatories across the globe All members get access to 2 selected scientific museums and observatories across the globe. All researches published with Global Journals will be kept under deep archival facilities across regions for future protections and disaster recovery. They get 5 GB free secure cloud access for storing research files.

VIII

All members get access to 2 selected scientific museums and observatories across the globe. All researches published with Global Journals will be kept under deep archival facilities across regions for future protections and disaster recovery. They get 5 GB free secure cloud access for storing research files.

Associate Fellow Research Group Basic

$4800 $6800 $12500.00 APC lifetime designation lifetime designation organizational per article

Certificate, LoR and Momento Certificate, LoR and Certificates, LoRs and GJ Community Access 2 discounted publishing/year Momento Momentos Gradation of Research Unlimited discounted Unlimited free 10 research contacts/day publishing/year publishing/year 1 GB Cloud Storage Gradation of Research Gradation of Research GJ Community Access Unlimited research Unlimited research contacts/day contacts/day 5 GB Cloud Storage Unlimited Cloud Storage Online Presense Assistance Online Presense Assistance GJ Community Access GJ Community Access

Preferred Author Guidelines

We accept the manuscript submissions in any standard (generic) format. We typeset manuscripts using advanced typesetting tools like Adobe In Design, CorelDraw, TeXnicCenter, and TeXStudio. We usually recommend authors submit their research using any standard format they are comfortable with, and let Global Journals do the rest. Alternatively, you can download our basic template from https://globaljournals.org/Template.zip Authors should submit their complete paper/article, including text illustrations, graphics, conclusions, artwork, and tables. Authors who are not able to submit manuscript using the form above can email the manuscript department at [email protected] or get in touch with [email protected] if they wish to send the abstract before submission. Before and during Submission Authors must ensure the information provided during the submission of a paper is authentic. Please go through the following checklist before submitting: 1. Authors must go through the complete author guideline and understand and agree to Global Journals' ethics and code of conduct, along with author responsibilities. 2. Authors must accept the privacy policy, terms, and conditions of Global Journals. 3. Ensure corresponding author’s email address and postal address are accurate and reachable. 4. Manuscript to be submitted must include keywords, an abstract, a paper title, co-author(s') names and details (email address, name, phone number, and institution), figures and illustrations in vector format including appropriate captions, tables, including titles and footnotes, a conclusion, results, acknowledgments and references. 5. Authors should submit paper in a ZIP archive if any supplementary files are required along with the paper. 6. Proper permissions must be acquired for the use of any copyrighted material. 7. Manuscript submitted must not have been submitted or published elsewhere and all authors must be aware of the submission. Declaration of Conflicts of Interest It is required for authors to declare all financial, institutional, and personal relationships with other individuals and organizations that could influence (bias) their research. Policy on Plagiarism Plagiarism is not acceptable in Global Journals submissions at all. Plagiarized content will not be considered for publication. We reserve the right to inform authors’ institutions about plagiarism detected either before or after publication. If plagiarism is identified, we will follow COPE guidelines: Authors are solely responsible for all the plagiarism that is found. The author must not fabricate, falsify or plagiarize existing research data. The following, if copied, will be considered plagiarism: • Words (language) • Ideas • Findings • Writings • Diagrams • Graphs • Illustrations • Lectures

X • Printed material • Graphic representations • Computer programs • Electronic material • Any other original work Authorship Policies Global Journals follows the definition of authorship set up by the Open Association of Research Society, USA. According to its guidelines, authorship criteria must be based on: 1. Substantial contributions to the conception and acquisition of data, analysis, and interpretation of findings. 2. Drafting the paper and revising it critically regarding important academic content. 3. Final approval of the version of the paper to be published. Changes in Authorship The corresponding author should mention the name and complete details of all co-authors during submission and in manuscript. We support addition, rearrangement, manipulation, and deletions in authors list till the early view publication of the journal. We expect that corresponding author will notify all co-authors of submission. We follow COPE guidelines for changes in authorship. Copyright During submission of the manuscript, the author is confirming an exclusive license agreement with Global Journals which gives Global Journals the authority to reproduce, reuse, and republish authors' research. We also believe in flexible copyright terms where copyright may remain with authors/employers/institutions as well. Contact your editor after acceptance to choose your copyright policy. You may follow this form for copyright transfers. Appealing Decisions Unless specified in the notification, the Editorial Board’s decision on publication of the paper is final and cannot be appealed before making the major change in the manuscript. Acknowledgments Contributors to the research other than authors credited should be mentioned in Acknowledgments. The source of funding for the research can be included. Suppliers of resources may be mentioned along with their addresses. Declaration of funding sources Global Journals is in partnership with various universities, laboratories, and other institutions worldwide in the research domain. Authors are requested to disclose their source of funding during every stage of their research, such as making analysis, performing laboratory operations, computing data, and using institutional resources, from writing an article to its submission. This will also help authors to get reimbursements by requesting an open access publication letter from Global Journals and submitting to the respective funding source. Preparing your Manuscript Authors can submit papers and articles in an acceptable file format: MS Word (doc, docx), LaTeX (.tex, .zip or .rar including all of your files), Adobe PDF (.pdf), rich text format (.rtf), simple text document (.txt), Open Document Text (.odt), and Apple Pages (.pages). Our professional layout editors will format the entire paper according to our official guidelines. This is one of the highlights of publishing with Global Journals—authors should not be concerned about the formatting of their paper. Global Journals accepts articles and manuscripts in every major language, be it Spanish, Chinese, Japanese, Portuguese, Russian, French, German, Dutch, Italian, Greek, or any other national language, but the title, subtitle, and abstract should be in English. This will facilitate indexing and the pre-peer review process. The following is the official style and template developed for publication of a research paper. Authors are not required to follow this style during the submission of the paper. It is just for reference purposes.

XI Manuscript Style Instruction (Optional) • Microsoft Word Document Setting Instructions. • Font type of all text should be Swis721 Lt BT. • Page size: 8.27" x 11'”, left margin: 0.65, right margin: 0.65, bottom margin: 0.75. • Paper title should be in one column of font size 24. • Author name in font size of 11 in one column. • Abstract: font size 9 with the word “Abstract” in bold italics. • Main text: font size 10 with two justified columns. • Two columns with equal column width of 3.38 and spacing of 0.2. • First character must be three lines drop-capped. • The paragraph before spacing of 1 pt and after of 0 pt. • Line spacing of 1 pt. • Large images must be in one column. • The names of first main headings (Heading 1) must be in Roman font, capital letters, and font size of 10. • The names of second main headings (Heading 2) must not include numbers and must be in italics with a font size of 10. Structure and Format of Manuscript The recommended size of an original research paper is under 15,000 words and review papers under 7,000 words. Research articles should be less than 10,000 words. Research papers are usually longer than review papers. Review papers are reports of significant research (typically less than 7,000 words, including tables, figures, and references) A research paper must include: a) A title which should be relevant to the theme of the paper. b) A summary, known as an abstract (less than 150 words), containing the major results and conclusions. c) Up to 10 keywords that precisely identify the paper’s subject, purpose, and focus. d) An introduction, giving fundamental background objectives. e) Resources and techniques with sufficient complete experimental details (wherever possible by reference) to permit repetition, sources of information must be given, and numerical methods must be specified by reference. f) Results which should be presented concisely by well-designed tables and figures. g) Suitable statistical data should also be given. h) All data must have been gathered with attention to numerical detail in the planning stage. Design has been recognized to be essential to experiments for a considerable time, and the editor has decided that any paper that appears not to have adequate numerical treatments of the data will be returned unrefereed. i) Discussion should cover implications and consequences and not just recapitulate the results; conclusions should also be summarized. j) There should be brief acknowledgments. k) There ought to be references in the conventional format. Global Journals recommends APA format. Authors should carefully consider the preparation of papers to ensure that they communicate effectively. Papers are much more likely to be accepted if they are carefully designed and laid out, contain few or no errors, are summarizing, and follow instructions. They will also be published with much fewer delays than those that require much technical and editorial correction. The Editorial Board reserves the right to make literary corrections and suggestions to improve brevity.

XII Format Structure It is necessary that authors take care in submitting a manuscript that is written in simple language and adheres to published guidelines. All manuscripts submitted to Global Journals should include: Title The title page must carry an informative title that reflects the content, a running title (less than 45 characters together with spaces), names of the authors and co-authors, and the place(s) where the work was carried out. Author details The full postal address of any related author(s) must be specified. Abstract The abstract is the foundation of the research paper. It should be clear and concise and must contain the objective of the paper and inferences drawn. It is advised to not include big mathematical equations or complicated jargon. Many researchers searching for information online will use search engines such as Google, Yahoo or others. By optimizing your paper for search engines, you will amplify the chance of someone finding it. In turn, this will make it more likely to be viewed and cited in further works. Global Journals has compiled these guidelines to facilitate you to maximize the web- friendliness of the most public part of your paper. Keywords A major lynchpin of research work for the writing of research papers is the keyword search, which one will employ to find both library and internet resources. Up to eleven keywords or very brief phrases have to be given to help data retrieval, mining, and indexing. One must be persistent and creative in using keywords. An effective keyword search requires a strategy: planning of a list of possible keywords and phrases to try. Choice of the main keywords is the first tool of writing a research paper. Research paper writing is an art. Keyword search should be as strategic as possible. One should start brainstorming lists of potential keywords before even beginning searching. Think about the most important concepts related to research work. Ask, “What words would a source have to include to be truly valuable in a research paper?” Then consider synonyms for the important words. It may take the discovery of only one important paper to steer in the right keyword direction because, in most databases, the keywords under which a research paper is abstracted are listed with the paper. Numerical Methods Numerical methods used should be transparent and, where appropriate, supported by references. Abbreviations Authors must list all the abbreviations used in the paper at the end of the paper or in a separate table before using them. Formulas and equations Authors are advised to submit any mathematical equation using either MathJax, KaTeX, or LaTeX, or in a very high-quality image.

Tables, Figures, and Figure Legends Tables: Tables should be cautiously designed, uncrowned, and include only essential data. Each must have an Arabic number, e.g., Table 4, a self-explanatory caption, and be on a separate sheet. Authors must submit tables in an editable format and not as images. References to these tables (if any) must be mentioned accurately.

XIII Figures Figures are supposed to be submitted as separate files. Always include a citation in the text for each figure using Arabic numbers, e.g., Fig. 4. Artwork must be submitted online in vector electronic form or by emailing it. Preparation of Eletronic Figures for Publication Although low-quality images are sufficient for review purposes, print publication requires high-quality images to prevent the final product being blurred or fuzzy. Submit (possibly by e-mail) EPS (line art) or TIFF (halftone/ photographs) files only. MS PowerPoint and Word Graphics are unsuitable for printed pictures. Avoid using pixel-oriented software. Scans (TIFF only) should have a resolution of at least 350 dpi (halftone) or 700 to 1100 dpi (line drawings). Please give the data for figures in black and white or submit a Color Work Agreement form. EPS files must be saved with fonts embedded (and with a TIFF preview, if possible). For scanned images, the scanning resolution at final image size ought to be as follows to ensure good reproduction: line art: >650 dpi; halftones (including gel photographs): >350 dpi; figures containing both halftone and line images: >650 dpi. Color charges: Authors are advised to pay the full cost for the reproduction of their color artwork. Hence, please note that if there is color artwork in your manuscript when it is accepted for publication, we would require you to complete and return a Color Work Agreement form before your paper can be published. Also, you can email your editor to remove the color fee after acceptance of the paper. Tips for writing a good quality Social Science Research Paper Techniques for writing a good quality homan social science research paper: 1. Choosing the topic: In most cases, the topic is selected by the interests of the author, but it can also be suggested by the guides. You can have several topics, and then judge which you are most comfortable with. This may be done by asking several questions of yourself, like "Will I be able to carry out a search in this area? Will I find all necessary resources to accomplish the search? Will I be able to find all information in this field area?" If the answer to this type of question is "yes," then you ought to choose that topic. In most cases, you may have to conduct surveys and visit several places. Also, you might have to do a lot of work to find all the rises and falls of the various data on that subject. Sometimes, detailed information plays a vital role, instead of short information. Evaluators are human: The first thing to remember is that evaluators are also human beings. They are not only meant for rejecting a paper. They are here to evaluate your paper. So present your best aspect. 2. Think like evaluators: If you are in confusion or getting demotivated because your paper may not be accepted by the evaluators, then think, and try to evaluate your paper like an evaluator. Try to understand what an evaluator wants in your research paper, and you will automatically have your answer. Make blueprints of paper: The outline is the plan or framework that will help you to arrange your thoughts. It will make your paper logical. But remember that all points of your outline must be related to the topic you have chosen. 3. Ask your guides: If you are having any difficulty with your research, then do not hesitate to share your difficulty with your guide (if you have one). They will surely help you out and resolve your doubts. If you can't clarify what exactly you require for your work, then ask your supervisor to help you with an alternative. He or she might also provide you with a list of essential readings. 4. Use of computer is recommended: As you are doing research in the field of homan social science then this point is quite obvious. Use right software: Always use good quality software packages. If you are not capable of judging good software, then you can lose the quality of your paper unknowingly. There are various programs available to help you which you can get through the internet. 5. Use the internet for help: An excellent start for your paper is using Google. It is a wondrous search engine, where you can have your doubts resolved. You may also read some answers for the frequent question of how to write your research paper or find a model research paper. You can download books from the internet. If you have all the required books, place importance on reading, selecting, and analyzing the specified information. Then sketch out your research paper. Use big pictures: You may use encyclopedias like Wikipedia to get pictures with the best resolution. At Global Journals, you should strictly follow here.

XIV 6. Bookmarks are useful: When you read any book or magazine, you generally use bookmarks, right? It is a good habit which helps to not lose your continuity. You should always use bookmarks while searching on the internet also, which will make your search easier. 7. Revise what you wrote: When you write anything, always read it, summarize it, and then finalize it. 8. Make every effort: Make every effort to mention what you are going to write in your paper. That means always have a good start. Try to mention everything in the introduction—what is the need for a particular research paper. Polish your work with good writing skills and always give an evaluator what he wants. Make backups: When you are going to do any important thing like making a research paper, you should always have backup copies of it either on your computer or on paper. This protects you from losing any portion of your important data. 9. Produce good diagrams of your own: Always try to include good charts or diagrams in your paper to improve quality. Using several unnecessary diagrams will degrade the quality of your paper by creating a hodgepodge. So always try to include diagrams which were made by you to improve the readability of your paper. Use of direct quotes: When you do research relevant to literature, history, or current affairs, then use of quotes becomes essential, but if the study is relevant to science, use of quotes is not preferable. 10. Use proper verb tense: Use proper verb tenses in your paper. Use past tense to present those events that have happened. Use present tense to indicate events that are going on. Use future tense to indicate events that will happen in the future. Use of wrong tenses will confuse the evaluator. Avoid sentences that are incomplete. 11. Pick a good study spot: Always try to pick a spot for your research which is quiet. Not every spot is good for studying. 12. Know what you know: Always try to know what you know by making objectives, otherwise you will be confused and unable to achieve your target. 13. Use good grammar: Always use good grammar and words that will have a positive impact on the evaluator; use of good vocabulary does not mean using tough words which the evaluator has to find in a dictionary. Do not fragment sentences. Eliminate one-word sentences. Do not ever use a big word when a smaller one would suffice. Verbs have to be in agreement with their subjects. In a research paper, do not start sentences with conjunctions or finish them with prepositions. When writing formally, it is advisable to never split an infinitive because someone will (wrongly) complain. Avoid clichés like a disease. Always shun irritating alliteration. Use language which is simple and straightforward. Put together a neat summary. 14. Arrangement of information: Each section of the main body should start with an opening sentence, and there should be a changeover at the end of the section. Give only valid and powerful arguments for your topic. You may also maintain your arguments with records. 15. Never start at the last minute: Always allow enough time for research work. Leaving everything to the last minute will degrade your paper and spoil your work. 16. Multitasking in research is not good: Doing several things at the same time is a bad habit in the case of research activity. Research is an area where everything has a particular time slot. Divide your research work into parts, and do a particular part in a particular time slot. 17. Never copy others' work: Never copy others' work and give it your name because if the evaluator has seen it anywhere, you will be in trouble. Take proper rest and food: No matter how many hours you spend on your research activity, if you are not taking care of your health, then all your efforts will have been in vain. For quality research, take proper rest and food. 18. Go to seminars: Attend seminars if the topic is relevant to your research area. Utilize all your resources. Refresh your mind after intervals: Try to give your mind a rest by listening to soft music or sleeping in intervals. This will also improve your memory. Acquire colleagues: Always try to acquire colleagues. No matter how sharp you are, if you acquire colleagues, they can give you ideas which will be helpful to your research. 19. Think technically: Always think technically. If anything happens, search for its reasons, benefits, and demerits. Think and then print: When you go to print your paper, check that tables are not split, headings are not detached from their descriptions, and page sequence is maintained.

XV 20. Adding unnecessary information: Do not add unnecessary information like "I have used MS Excel to draw graphs." Irrelevant and inappropriate material is superfluous. Foreign terminology and phrases are not apropos. One should never take a broad view. Analogy is like feathers on a snake. Use words properly, regardless of how others use them. Remove quotations. Puns are for kids, not grunt readers. Never oversimplify: When adding material to your research paper, never go for oversimplification; this will definitely irritate the evaluator. Be specific. Never use rhythmic redundancies. Contractions shouldn't be used in a research paper. Comparisons are as terrible as clichés. Give up ampersands, abbreviations, and so on. Remove commas that are not necessary. Parenthetical words should be between brackets or commas. Understatement is always the best way to put forward earth-shaking thoughts. Give a detailed literary review. 21. Report concluded results: Use concluded results. From raw data, filter the results, and then conclude your studies based on measurements and observations taken. An appropriate number of decimal places should be used. Parenthetical remarks are prohibited here. Proofread carefully at the final stage. At the end, give an outline to your arguments. Spot perspectives of further study of the subject. Justify your conclusion at the bottom sufficiently, which will probably include examples. 22. Upon conclusion: Once you have concluded your research, the next most important step is to present your findings. Presentation is extremely important as it is the definite medium though which your research is going to be in print for the rest of the crowd. Care should be taken to categorize your thoughts well and present them in a logical and neat manner. A good quality research paper format is essential because it serves to highlight your research paper and bring to light all necessary aspects of your research. . Informal Guidelines of Research Paper Writing Key points to remember: • Submit all work in its final form. • Write your paper in the form which is presented in the guidelines using the template. • Please note the criteria peer reviewers will use for grading the final paper. Final points: One purpose of organizing a research paper is to let people interpret your efforts selectively. The journal requires the following sections, submitted in the order listed, with each section starting on a new page: The introduction: This will be compiled from reference matter and reflect the design processes or outline of basis that directed you to make a study. As you carry out the process of study, the method and process section will be constructed like that. The results segment will show related statistics in nearly sequential order and direct reviewers to similar intellectual paths throughout the data that you gathered to carry out your study. The discussion section: This will provide understanding of the data and projections as to the implications of the results. The use of good quality references throughout the paper will give the effort trustworthiness by representing an alertness to prior workings. Writing a research paper is not an easy job, no matter how trouble-free the actual research or concept. Practice, excellent preparation, and controlled record-keeping are the only means to make straightforward progression. General style: Specific editorial column necessities for compliance of a manuscript will always take over from directions in these general guidelines. To make a paper clear: Adhere to recommended page limits.

XVI Mistakes to avoid: • Insertion of a title at the foot of a page with subsequent text on the next page. • Separating a table, chart, or figure—confine each to a single page. • Submitting a manuscript with pages out of sequence. • In every section of your document, use standard writing style, including articles ("a" and "the"). • Keep paying attention to the topic of the paper. • Use paragraphs to split each significant point (excluding the abstract). • Align the primary line of each section. • Present your points in sound order. • Use present tense to report well-accepted matters. • Use past tense to describe specific results. • Do not use familiar wording; don't address the reviewer directly. Don't use slang or superlatives. • Avoid use of extra pictures—include only those figures essential to presenting results. Title page: Choose a revealing title. It should be short and include the name(s) and address(es) of all authors. It should not have acronyms or abbreviations or exceed two printed lines. Abstract: This summary should be two hundred words or less. It should clearly and briefly explain the key findings reported in the manuscript and must have precise statistics. It should not have acronyms or abbreviations. It should be logical in itself. Do not cite references at this point. An abstract is a brief, distinct paragraph summary of finished work or work in development. In a minute or less, a reviewer can be taught the foundation behind the study, common approaches to the problem, relevant results, and significant conclusions or new questions. Write your summary when your paper is completed because how can you write the summary of anything which is not yet written? Wealth of terminology is very essential in abstract. Use comprehensive sentences, and do not sacrifice readability for brevity; you can maintain it succinctly by phrasing sentences so that they provide more than a lone rationale. The author can at this moment go straight to shortening the outcome. Sum up the study with the subsequent elements in any summary. Try to limit the initial two items to no more than one line each. Reason for writing the article—theory, overall issue, purpose. • Fundamental goal. • To-the-point depiction of the research. • Consequences, including definite statistics—if the consequences are quantitative in nature, account for this; results of any numerical analysis should be reported. Significant conclusions or questions that emerge from the research. Approach:

o Single section and succinct. o An outline of the job done is always written in past tense. o Concentrate on shortening results—limit background information to a verdict or two. o Exact spelling, clarity of sentences and phrases, and appropriate reporting of quantities (proper units, important statistics) are just as significant in an abstract as they are anywhere else. Introduction: The introduction should "introduce" the manuscript. The reviewer should be presented with sufficient background information to be capable of comprehending and calculating the purpose of your study without having to refer to other works. The basis for the study should be offered. Give the most important references, but avoid making a comprehensive appraisal of the topic. Describe the problem visibly. If the problem is not acknowledged in a logical, reasonable way, the reviewer will give no attention to your results. Speak in common terms about techniques used to explain the problem, if needed, but do not present any particulars about the protocols here.

XVII The following approach can create a valuable beginning:

o Explain the value (significance) of the study. o Defend the model—why did you employ this particular system or method? What is its compensation? Remark upon its appropriateness from an abstract point of view as well as pointing out sensible reasons for using it. o Present a justification. State your particular theory(-ies) or aim(s), and describe the logic that led you to choose them. o Briefly explain the study's tentative purpose and how it meets the declared objectives. Approach: Use past tense except for when referring to recognized facts. After all, the manuscript will be submitted after the entire job is done. Sort out your thoughts; manufacture one key point for every section. If you make the four points listed above, you will need at least four paragraphs. Present surrounding information only when it is necessary to support a situation. The reviewer does not desire to read everything you know about a topic. Shape the theory specifically—do not take a broad view. As always, give awareness to spelling, simplicity, and correctness of sentences and phrases. Procedures (methods and materials): This part is supposed to be the easiest to carve if you have good skills. A soundly written procedures segment allows a capable scientist to replicate your results. Present precise information about your supplies. The suppliers and clarity of reagents can be helpful bits of information. Present methods in sequential order, but linked methodologies can be grouped as a segment. Be concise when relating the protocols. Attempt to give the least amount of information that would permit another capable scientist to replicate your outcome, but be cautious that vital information is integrated. The use of subheadings is suggested and ought to be synchronized with the results section. When a technique is used that has been well-described in another section, mention the specific item describing the way, but draw the basic principle while stating the situation. The purpose is to show all particular resources and broad procedures so that another person may use some or all of the methods in one more study or referee the scientific value of your work. It is not to be a step-by-step report of the whole thing you did, nor is a methods section a set of orders. Materials: Materials may be reported in part of a section or else they may be recognized along with your measures. Methods:

o Report the method and not the particulars of each process that engaged the same methodology. o Describe the method entirely. o To be succinct, present methods under headings dedicated to specific dealings or groups of measures. o Simplify—detail how procedures were completed, not how they were performed on a particular day. o If well-known procedures were used, account for the procedure by name, possibly with a reference, and that's all. Approach: It is embarrassing to use vigorous voice when documenting methods without using first person, which would focus the reviewer's interest on the researcher rather than the job. As a result, when writing up the methods, most authors use third person passive voice. Use standard style in this and every other part of the paper—avoid familiar lists, and use full sentences. What to keep away from:

o Resources and methods are not a set of information. o Skip all descriptive information and surroundings—save it for the argument. o Leave out information that is immaterial to a third party.

XVIII Results: The principle of a results segment is to present and demonstrate your conclusion. Create this part as entirely objective details of the outcome, and save all understanding for the discussion. The page length of this segment is set by the sum and types of data to be reported. Use statistics and tables, if suitable, to present consequences most efficiently. You must clearly differentiate material which would usually be incorporated in a study editorial from any unprocessed data or additional appendix matter that would not be available. In fact, such matters should not be submitted at all except if requested by the instructor. Content:

o Sum up your conclusions in text and demonstrate them, if suitable, with figures and tables. o In the manuscript, explain each of your consequences, and point the reader to remarks that are most appropriate. o Present a background, such as by describing the question that was addressed by creation of an exacting study. o Explain results of control experiments and give remarks that are not accessible in a prescribed figure or table, if appropriate. o Examine your data, then prepare the analyzed (transformed) data in the form of a figure (graph), table, or manuscript. What to stay away from:

o Do not discuss or infer your outcome, report surrounding information, or try to explain anything. o Do not include raw data or intermediate calculations in a research manuscript. o Do not present similar data more than once. o A manuscript should complement any figures or tables, not duplicate information. o Never confuse figures with tables—there is a difference. Approach: As always, use past tense when you submit your results, and put the whole thing in a reasonable order. Put figures and tables, appropriately numbered, in order at the end of the report. If you desire, you may place your figures and tables properly within the text of your results section. Figures and tables: If you put figures and tables at the end of some details, make certain that they are visibly distinguished from any attached appendix materials, such as raw facts. Whatever the position, each table must be titled, numbered one after the other, and include a heading. All figures and tables must be divided from the text. Discussion: The discussion is expected to be the trickiest segment to write. A lot of papers submitted to the journal are discarded based on problems with the discussion. There is no rule for how long an argument should be. Position your understanding of the outcome visibly to lead the reviewer through your conclusions, and then finish the paper with a summing up of the implications of the study. The purpose here is to offer an understanding of your results and support all of your conclusions, using facts from your research and generally accepted information, if suitable. The implication of results should be fully described. Infer your data in the conversation in suitable depth. This means that when you clarify an observable fact, you must explain mechanisms that may account for the observation. If your results vary from your prospect, make clear why that may have happened. If your results agree, then explain the theory that the proof supported. It is never suitable to just state that the data approved the prospect, and let it drop at that. Make a decision as to whether each premise is supported or discarded or if you cannot make a conclusion with assurance. Do not just dismiss a study or part of a study as "uncertain."

XIX Research papers are not acknowledged if the work is imperfect. Draw what conclusions you can based upon the results that you have, and take care of the study as a finished work.

o You may propose future guidelines, such as how an experiment might be personalized to accomplish a new idea. o Give details of all of your remarks as much as possible, focusing on mechanisms. o Make a decision as to whether the tentative design sufficiently addressed the theory and whether or not it was correctly restricted. Try to present substitute explanations if they are sensible alternatives. o One piece of research will not counter an overall question, so maintain the large picture in mind. Where do you go next? The best studies unlock new avenues of study. What questions remain? o Recommendations for detailed papers will offer supplementary suggestions. Approach: When you refer to information, differentiate data generated by your own studies from other available information. Present work done by specific persons (including you) in past tense. Describe generally acknowledged facts and main beliefs in present tense. The Administration Rules Administration Rules to Be Strictly Followed before Submitting Your Research Paper to Global Journals Inc. Please read the following rules and regulations carefully before submitting your research paper to Global Journals Inc. to avoid rejection. Segment draft and final research paper: You have to strictly follow the template of a research paper, failing which your paper may get rejected. You are expected to write each part of the paper wholly on your own. The peer reviewers need to identify your own perspective of the concepts in your own terms. Please do not extract straight from any other source, and do not rephrase someone else's analysis. Do not allow anyone else to proofread your manuscript. Written material: You may discuss this with your guides and key sources. Do not copy anyone else's paper, even if this is only imitation, otherwise it will be rejected on the grounds of plagiarism, which is illegal. Various methods to avoid plagiarism are strictly applied by us to every paper, and, if found guilty, you may be blacklisted, which could affect your career adversely. To guard yourself and others from possible illegal use, please do not permit anyone to use or even read your paper and file.

XX CRITERION FOR GRADING A RESEARCH PAPER (COMPILATION) BY GLOBAL JOURNALS Please note that following table is only a Grading of "Paper Compilation" and not on "Performed/Stated Research" whose grading solely depends on Individual Assigned Peer Reviewer and Editorial Board Member. These can be available only on request and after decision of Paper. This report will be the property of Global Journals

Topics Grades

A-B C-D E-F

Clear and concise with Unclear summary and no No specific data with ambiguous appropriate content, Correct specific data, Incorrect form information Abstract format. 200 words or below Above 200 words Above 250 words

Containing all background Unclear and confusing data, Out of place depth and content, details with clear goal and appropriate format, grammar hazy format appropriate details, flow and spelling errors with specification, no grammar unorganized matter Introduction and spelling mistake, well organized sentence and paragraph, reference cited

Clear and to the point with Difficult to comprehend with Incorrect and unorganized well arranged paragraph, embarrassed text, too much structure with hazy meaning Methods and precision and accuracy of explanation but completed Procedures facts and figures, well organized subheads

Well organized, Clear and Complete and embarrassed Irregular format with wrong facts specific, Correct units with text, difficult to comprehend and figures precision, correct data, well Result structuring of paragraph, no grammar and spelling mistake

Well organized, meaningful Wordy, unclear conclusion, Conclusion is not cited, specification, sound spurious unorganized, difficult to conclusion, logical and comprehend concise explanation, highly Discussion structured paragraph reference cited

Complete and correct Beside the point, Incomplete Wrong format and structuring References format, well organized

XXI

Inde x

A P

Abolished. · 63 Panorama · 38, 59 Abolition · 69, 74 Penderes · 34, 35 Anxious · 16 Perceived · 22, 24, 25, 26 Plausible · 45 Precarious · 59

C Predominantly · 42, 45, 59

Primitive · 19

Clashes · 64, 68 Combustion · 17, 19, 66 Conservative · 25 R Cumbersome · 34

Relevant · 1, 38, 58, 59

Reluctant · 35 D Resonance · 1, 22 Revoked · 18

Desirable · 35 Deterrent · 69 S

E Scenario · 37, 38, 44, 52, 59

Endowed · 73 Exhaust · 19 T

H Territory · 2, 37, 38, 45, 59, 73, 75 Triangulation · 22, 28

Hereditary · 28, 29, 63 Homicide · 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 59 Hostage · 1, 2 V

Veritable · 64

I Vulnerable · 58, 59

Immigrant · 75 Impregnate · 23 W Indicative · 52 Inevitable · 17 Warungs · 28, 29, 30, 32, 33, 35 Insertive · 24, 25

Judicial · 1

Legislator · 2 Lethality · 37, 38, 42, 45