Inside the Huqoq Synagogue Jodi Magness, Shua Kisilevitz, Matthew Grey, Dennis Mizzi, Karen Britt, and Ra‘anan Boustan

Huqoq’s ancient synagogue has yielded magnificent mosaics—some of the most impressive in all of Israel. But it was not mosaics that initially brought me (Jodi Magness) to Huqoq in Israel’s Lower Eastern Galilee. I never expected to make the spectacu- lar discoveries described here. After spending most of my career working in the southern part of the country, I began the excavations at Huqoq, in 2011, in search of answers to questions about synagogue chronology. These questions mainly concern the so-called Galilean type of synagogue buildings. In my opinion, archaeological finds such as coins and pottery indicate that these synagogues (exemplified by the one at Capernaum) date to the later fourth, fifth, and sixth centuries C.E., whereas traditionally they have been dated to the second and third centuries,

WILD WATERS. Bound for Tarshish, the boat carrying the prophet hits turbu- lent waters. After admitting he is to blame for the storm, Jonah instructs the sailors to throw him overboard to calm the waters. They do so hesitantly, and God sends a fish to swallow Jonah. This Biblical scene is captured on this mosaic from Huqoq’s synagogue. At Huqoq, the fish that swal- lows Jonah is swallowed by a larger fish, which is in turn swallowed by an even larger fish. Hybrid women-bird creatures (Harpies and Sirens) appear in the mosaic’s JIM HABERMAN upper left quadrant, and the right side of the mosaic shows men fishing in a boat and wringing out a net.

24 May/June 2019 BIBLICAL ARCHAEOLOGY REVIEW 25 Huqoq Mosaics Huqoq Mosaics GRIFFIN HIGHER PHOTOGRAPHY

HUQOQ’S SYNAGOGUE. With the in the background, the site of Huqoq sits atop a hill, some 4 miles from the lake. Huqoq’s ancient synagogue appears in the center of this photo.

primarily on the basis of stylistic considerations moderate hill surrounded by arable land. Joshua (such as the style of architecture and carved stone 19:34 mentions Huqoq as a village apportioned to decoration). The question of chronology has impor- the tribe of Naphtali after the Israelite conquest of tant historical consequences, as an earlier date would . References in rabbinic sources, as well as mean these synagogues were constructed when Jews several mikva’ot (ritual baths) at the site, indicate lived in a predominantly pagan Roman environment. that Huqoq was a Jewish village in the Roman and A later date, however, would mean they were built Byzantine periods. By the Middle Ages and in the under Byzantine Christian rule, which many scholars Ottoman period, it had become a Muslim village think was oppressive to Jews. I was called Yakuk, which was abandoned during Israel’s hoping that excavations at Huqoq War of Independence in 1948. 0 10 miles would clarify which dating is correct. N I decided on Huqoq because it SYNAGOGUE PLAN. Huqoq’s early fifth-century C.E. syna- was a largely untouched site with gogue consists of a rectangular basilica with a central promising signs of a Galilean-type nave surrounded by aisles, all of which were decorated

Jordan River synagogue. Although other archae- with mosaics. It measures about 65 by 50 feet. Belong- Capernaum Huqoq ologists had documented scattered ing to the Galilean type of synagogue, it was oriented to architectural fragments on the the south (toward Jerusalem) with the main entry in the SEA of Wadi Hamam ground that seemed to belong to a center of its southern wall. A Torah shrine would have GALILEE occupied the nave’s south end. From north to south, the Galilean-type synagogue, before our mosaic panels uncovered in the nave depict: Noah’s ark, Sepphoris Hammath excavations no one knew if there Pharaoh’s soldiers in the Red Sea, a Helios-zodiac cycle, really was a synagogue at Huqoq or Jonah and the fish, and the Tower of Babel. From north Yaphi‘a where it was located. to south, those in the east aisle comprise: the elephant Huqoq lies about 4 miles north- panel, the commemorative panel, and the foxes,

BASE MAP COURTESY OF NORDNORDWEST/CC-BY-SA-3.0 OF COURTESY MAP BASE west of the Sea of Galilee on a and Samson with the Gaza gate. PHOTOGRAPHY HIGHER GRIFFIN

26 May/June 2019 BIBLICAL ARCHAEOLOGY REVIEW 27 Huqoq Mosaics Huqoq Mosaics

FIRE FOXES. To burn the ’ fields, Samson ties torches to pairs of foxes’ tails and sets them loose. Found in the east aisle of Huqoq’s synagogue, this scene comes from Judges 15:4–5. Its surviving portions show part of Samson’s body and two pairs of foxes. Wearing a tunic with a circular medallion, belt, and red cloak, Samson appears as a giant dressed as a Roman soldier.

At that time, layers of leveling fill were dumped over the mosaics and collapse, to support the new floor about 3 feet above. The nave and aisles of the synagogue are paved with mosaics decorated with figured scenes arranged in panels. In the following description, we begin with mosaics in the east aisle moving from south to north and then proceed from north to south in the nave. The mosaic panel at the south end of the east aisle portrays an episode from Judges 16:3, in which Samson escapes from Gaza carrying the city gate on

his shoulders after spending the night with a pros- JIM HABERMAN titute. The surviving portions of this scene, which is oriented toward the nave (east), include Samson’s head, neck, hands, left shoulder, and torso, and the city gate, two horses, and two male figures. Samson is depicted with short, wavy, reddish-brown hair. JIM HABERMAN Wearing a white tunic cinched by a thick belt and a red cloak, he holds the city gate on his shoulders with both hands. Horses and riders—perhaps Philis- tines—appear below and to the left of Samson. GATE CHECK. Depicted as a giant with wavy reddish- of the interior, creating a central space (nave) sur- Immediately to the north is another panel depict- brown hair (which is surprisingly short), Samson carries rounded by aisles. Two stone blocks laid end-to-end ing the Biblical hero’s exploits: the episode related the gate of Gaza on his shoulders. This Biblical scene create a step rising from west to east on top of the in Judges 15:4–5, in which Samson takes revenge comes from Judges 16:3. The image above shows Sam- mosaic floor (the Tower of Babel panel) at the south on the Philistines by taking 300 foxes, tying them son’s head and hands, as well as part of his left shoulder end of the nave. Perhaps these are the remains of together in pairs with lighted torches between their and arm. Another surviving portion of the same mosaic a bema (platform) for the Torah Shrine. Altogether tails, and setting them loose to burn down the Phi- shows Samson’s torso and two riders on horses—pre- sumably pursuing him. Samson wears a white tunic, red the building measures about 65 feet long and 50 listines’ agricultural fields. The surviving parts of cloak, and thick belt, which is similar to the attire of a feet wide. the mosaic show Samson’s torso, abdomen, and fifth-century C.E. Roman soldier. Archaeologists uncovered So far there is no evidence of an earlier synagogue thighs, as well as two pairs of foxes. As described this mosaic in the east aisle of Huqoq’s synagogue. or an earlier floor under the mosaics. However, we in Judges 15:4, the foxes are tied tail-to-tail with found part of an earlier (undated) wall of different lighted torches, running in opposite directions. Sam- construction and orientation under the synagogue’s son wears a cream-colored tunic decorated with a Although we have excavated other remains of north stylobate. Pottery and coins from the founda- circular medallion (an orbiculum) and a wide belt Huqoq—including the ancient village, the modern tion trench of the east wall and radiocarbon dating cinched at the waist. A red cloak falls in vertical Ottoman village, and a significant medieval reuse of of a charcoal sample from the bedding of the mosaic the synagogue—here we present only the synagogue floor indicate that the synagogue was constructed in COMMEMORATING CONSTRUCTION. Located in the east and its mosaics discovered through the summer the early fifth century (shortly after 400 C.E.). It is aisle of Huqoq’s synagogue, this mosaic contains a com- of 2017.1 unclear when or why it went out of use, as there are memorative inscription inside a wreath, held aloft by four giants. Each giant stands on a sphere with a human The synagogue is a typical example of the Gali- no signs of destruction by fire. At some point, the face (or mask), supported by two winged cupids. Human lean type: a basilica with the long walls on the east superstructure collapsed—perhaps due to an earth- heads appear in roundels arranged on the wreath around and west, the main entrance (or entrances) in the quake—but only after the building’s abandonment. It the Hebrew inscription, which commemorates the con- JIM HABERMAN south wall (oriented toward Jerusalem), and a sty- appears that at least some of the fallen architectural struction of the synagogue. Although its entirety is not lobate (raised foundation) for columns on pedestals pieces were later removed, most likely when the preserved, the inscription likely celebrated the project’s that wrapped around the east, north, and west sides building was rebuilt and reused in the Middle Ages. donors or those who upheld the Jewish commandments.

28 May/June 2019 BIBLICAL ARCHAEOLOGY REVIEW 29 Huqoq Mosaics Huqoq Mosaics

folds behind his tunic. In both Samson panels, the Biblical hero is depicted as a giant clothed in gar- ments typical of Roman soldiers in the fourth and fifth centuries.2 To the north of the mosaic depicting Samson and the foxes lies a square panel with a Hebrew inscrip- tion encircled by a wreath that contains roundels with heads on three sides of the medallion: two female heads on the sides and a male head at the top, all looking inward to the inscription. Presum- ably a fourth roundel, with a male head (not pre- served), was located below the inscription. In each corner of the panel, four male giants (atlantes) hold up the wreath. With exaggerated pectoral muscles and arms raised overhead to support the wreath, they wear tight-fitting trousers belted at the waist and soft boots. A continuous garland passes over the giants’ shoulders, and they stand on spheres inscribed with human faces or masks held aloft by winged cupids (putti). Although only partially preserved, the inscription likely commemorates the synagogue’s construction by blessing those who adhere steadfastly to all the Jewish commandments (mitzvoth) or, alternatively, those who made charitable donations to the project.* The panel’s composition directs the viewer’s atten- tion to the medallion in the middle, emphasizing the inscription’s centrality. The eastward orientation of this panel and the neighboring elephant panel suggests there was an entrance at this spot in the synagogue’s east wall. The elephant panel3 lies to the north of the commemorative panel. This extraordinary mosaic is divided into three registers (horizontal strips), THE ELEPHANTS IN THE ROOM. The aftermath of a battle. A council. apparently depicting a story that develops from the A meeting of leaders. These three connected scenes appear in a bottom up. mosaic from the synagogue’s east aisle at Huqoq. The bottom register shows men, elephants, and a bull killed in battle. In the middle regis- The bottom register appears to show the after- ter, eight young men—holding swords and dressed in white tunics with math of a battle, including a dead bull and a dead the Greek letter eta (H)—flank a white-haired man seated on a throne. elephant and his rider. The middle register depicts These figures repeat in the top register, which shows the meeting of an arcade (series of arches) framing eight beard- two leaders, both standing in front of their armies. This mosaic may less young men grasping sheathed swords, flank- depict the legendary meeting of the Jewish high priest and Alexander ing a ninth, seated male figure. They are clothed in the Great, an episode from the Maccabean revolt, or the second-cen- elaborate white tunics and mantles decorated with tury B.C.E. Seleucid siege of Jerusalem and ensuing alliance between the Greek letter eta (H)—a symbol of high status in the Hasmonean ruler and high priest John Hyrcanus and the Seleucids. the Roman world. Above each arch is a lighted oil If one of these scenarios, this would be the first representation of a lamp. A bearded, white-haired elderly male holding nonbiblical historic event on an ancient synagogue floor. a scroll sits enthroned in the central arch. The upper register depicts an encounter between two groups of men, each led by a male figure whose importance is indicated by his large size and cen-

tral position. The members of each group halt and JIM HABERMAN gaze expectantly at the dramatic meeting of their * See David Amit, “Mosaic Inscription from a Synagogue at Horvat Huqoq,” Bible History Daily (blog), January 2, 2013.

30 May/June 2019 BIBLICAL ARCHAEOLOGY REVIEW 31 Huqoq Mosaics Huqoq Mosaics

leaders. This is the focal point of the top register as apart from other scenes in ancient synagogue art. In well as the climax of the larger narrative depicted all other synagogues, narrative scenes always depict in the panel. The left-hand group originally con- stories from the . In contrast, the sisted of eight young men holding swords led by elephant panel seems to portray a historical event, a bearded, white-haired elderly male, all wearing either real or invented, from the late Classical or white tunics and mantles—the same figures depicted Hellenistic periods (fourth–first centuries B.C.E.). in the middle register. The leader commands atten- The Greek king is likely Alexander the Great or tion by pointing directly up at what, in the context one of his successors. Possible interpretations of the of the scene, must be the sky overhead. He holds story told in this panel include the depiction of a an object, perhaps a coin or sword in his left hand, scriptural narrative, either from the Hebrew Bible which he offers to the opposing large figure. or as retold elsewhere in Jewish or Christian tra- The leader of the group on the right-hand side ditions; events from the period of the Maccabean wears the dress and insignia of a king or emperor on revolt, especially the Maccabean martyrdom tradi- a military campaign, namely, a cuirass (breastplate), tions; the legendary meeting between Alexander the purple chlamys (cloak), and diadem. With his right Great and the Jewish high priest; or the Seleucid hand, the king gestures toward a bull whose horn siege of Jerusalem under Antiochus VII Sidetes and he grasps with his left hand. A phalanx of armed the subsequent military alliance between the Seleu- soldiers and two battle elephants accompany him. cids and the Hasmonean high priest John Hyrcanus. The phalanx, battle elephants, and diadem identify The mosaics in the nave are oriented toward the the right-hand leader as a Greek king, not a Roman south. After entering through a main door in the emperor. However, in keeping with Late Antique center of the synagogue’s south wall, a viewer would artistic conventions of “contemporization,” he is have seen them while looking toward the hall’s north depicted in the garments of a contemporary emperor ANIMAL PARADE. Two by two, animals walk toward rather than those of an earlier Greek king, just as in Noah’s ark, represented as a large wooden box on legs. the other panels where Samson is shown dressed

The animals include ostriches, foxes, leopards, lions, HABERMAN JIM like a Roman soldier. snakes, sheep, bears, donkeys, camels, and elephants. Although there are no inscriptions identifying the Behind the ark sits a building with a red-tiled roof. Based end. There is an elaborate border composed of rect- SWALLOWED BY THE SEA. Pharaoh’s soldiers and horses story represented in the elephant panel, the battle on Genesis 6:11–7:10, the mosaic was found in the nave angular panels depicting animal chase scenes alter- drown as the parted waters of the Red Sea collapse elephants and Greek king in the upper register set it of Huqoq’s synagogue. nating with squares of a geometric meander motif around them and engulf their chariots. Based on Exodus (or Greek key pattern) rendered to give the appear- 14:1–15:21 with some midrashic elaborations, the above ance of depth. Inside the border are five large pan- mosaic shows fierce fish attacking the Egyptians, who wear the attire of Roman soldiers. els depicting, from north to south, pairs of animals arrayed around Noah’s ark; Pharaoh’s soldiers drown- ing in the Red Sea; a Helios-zodiac cycle; Jonah driver and being attacked or devoured by ferocious being swallowed by a succession of three fish; and fish. The depiction recalls the archaic Song of the the building of the Tower of Babel. Smaller panels at Sea (Exodus 15:1–19, 21), in which Pharaoh’s rid- the northern and southern ends of the nave contain ers, horses, and chariots are cast into the sea. The lions, eagles, and an inscription enclosed by a wreath. human, fish, and animal figures are scattered across The northernmost large panel depicts Noah’s ark the panel in a chaotic arrangement that evokes the surrounded by pairs of animals arranged in rows violent turmoil of the event. The predatory fish likely facing the center (Genesis 6:11–7:10). The identifiable embody the sea’s power to consume the drowning animals include donkeys, elephants, bears, camels, soldiers—a midrashic element that embellishes the leopards, lions, snakes, sheep, foxes, and ostriches. Biblical story. The only surviving fragment of the ark is visible The center of the synagogue nave is decorated near the center, depicted as a wooden box on legs. with a large square panel containing a Helios-zodiac To the right (east) of the ark is a partially preserved cycle—a motif found in eight other Late Antique building with a red-tiled roof. The relationship Palestinian synagogues as well as in the fifth-century between the ark and this building is unclear, as a ‘Ein Gedi synagogue inscription. The Huqoq pre- later pit damaged the connecting section of mosaic. sentation differs from most other depictions. The The panel to the south of the Noah’s ark mosaic usual arrangement of two concentric circles, with

JIM HABERMAN is an unusual depiction of the parting of the Red the inner circle containing Helios and the outer cir- Sea (Exodus 14:1–15:21). The Egyptians, dressed like cle containing the zodiac signs, equally distributed Roman soldiers, are shown tumbling from wheeled in 12 wedge-shaped segments, has been replaced chariots pulled by teams of horses steered by a at Huqoq by interlacing roundels—an arrangement

32 May/June 2019 BIBLICAL ARCHAEOLOGY REVIEW 33 Huqoq Mosaics JIM HABERMAN JIM

CRACKED ZODIAC. In the center of Huqoq’s synagogue in panels encircling the Helios medallion. lies a zodiac calendar. The various months are repre- Surrounding the medallion were 12 interlacing sented by a young man and zodiac sign within a roundel, roundels containing the months and zodiac signs. such as the roundel for the month of Tevet with Capricorn The preserved months are personified as clean- shown as a hybrid fish-goat. The roundels with the 12 shaven young men, each labeled in Hebrew and months encompass a central medallion, which shows the accompanied by the corresponding zodiac symbol. sun god Helios driving his chariot pulled by four white Tevet stallions across the sky. Although Helios himself has not On the west side of the panel, the month is been preserved, remnants of the horses and chariot, depicted with a sea-goat with a fish tail (Capricorn) along with sun rays, stars, and a crescent moon, survive. behind him. The next roundel below (south) pre- In the mosaic’s four corners, the four seasons—personi- serves only part of the name of the month Kislev. fied as winged young men—appear. Dressed like a man- Below this is the figure of the month Marheshvan ual laborer in a short tunic, the representation of Autumn with a large scorpion (Scorpio) in front. The next (Tishrei) holds the horns of a gazelle, a grape cluster, and roundel preserves the figure of Tishrei accompanied a shepherd’s crook (see above). by a small human figure holding scales, a personifi- cation of Justice (Libra). paralleled only in the roughly contemporary Yaphi‘a Personifications of the Seasons are depicted in the synagogue mosaic. corners of the panel. Tishrei (Autumn), located in the The Helios medallion at the center of the Huqoq southwest corner—the only fully preserved Season— mosaic preserves a crescent moon, stars, sun rays, is depicted as a winged male figure holding a bunch and a four-wheeled chariot and four white stallions of grapes and crook in one hand and grasping the standing on a series of uneven horizontal gray and horns of a gazelle in the other, accompanied by two black lines. Damage to the Helios figure in the char- figs. He wears a short tunic typical of manual labor- iot makes it impossible to determine whether he was ers. The depiction of a male Season in a synagogue depicted as a personification of the Greco-Roman is unparalleled; in other synagogues, the Seasons are sun god (as in the mosaics at Hammath Tiberias, female and usually not winged. Beth Alpha, and Na‘aran) or was represented ani- The panel to the south of the zodiac cycle presents conically, by a sun disk (as at Sepphoris). Fragmen- the episode from the story of Jonah in which the tary inscriptions, apparently in Hebrew, are visible CONTINUED ON PAGE 38 JIM HABERMAN

BIBLICAL ARCHAEOLOGY REVIEW 35 Huqoq Mosaics Huqoq Mosaics

CONSTRUCTION DELAYS. Located in the nave of Huqoq’s synagogue, this mosaic shows the construction of the Tower of Babel, based on Genesis 11:1–9. People of various races quarry, transport, and lift stones with a pulley system; do woodworking; and build the tower—while some fight and others fall to their doom. IMAGE BY JIM HABERMAN

36 May/June 2019 BIBLICAL ARCHAEOLOGY REVIEW 37 Huqoq Mosaics

continued from page 35 All these colorful, populated mosaics are cer- prophet, having fled aboard a ship from his divinely tainly precious in their own right—as unique works appointed mission of announcing the destruction of of art and a testimony to ancient craftsmanship. the city of Nineveh, is cast into the sea by his ship- But the historical significance of the Huqoq syna- mates (Jonah 1:1–2:1). The scene is surrounded by gogue extends beyond the narrow confines of art numerous marine and maritime images, including history. The Huqoq excavations provide evidence vignettes drawn from daily life: a small fishing boat of a rural Jewish community in Lower Eastern with a man casting a net on the right-hand (east) Galilee that constructed a monumental synagogue side and two men in loincloths wringing out a fish- building paved with magnificent mosaics. Our dis- ing net. Prominently represented in the center of coveries contradict the impression conveyed by the panel is a large sailing ship manned by five sail- textual sources that Jews suffered under Byzan- ors, two of whom are climbing the mast. A bearded, tine Christian rule. Apparently at least some Gali- partially balding, gray-haired man in the center of lean Jewish settlements flourished in the fifth the ship—perhaps the captain—lowers a rope with a and sixth centuries. The similarities between the loop at the end. Immediately below the rope, Jonah’s Huqoq mosaics and those in the nearby synagogue legs and feet can be seen dangling from the mouth at Khirbet Wadi Hamam—including depictions of of a large fish, which is being swallowed by two Samson, Pharaoh’s soldiers drowning in the Red successively larger fish. The depiction of three fish Sea, and the building of the Tower of Babel— swallowing Jonah is another example of a midrashic suggest that Jewish congregations in this part of embellishment to the Biblical story. Lower Eastern Galilee found these stories particu- In the sky to the left of the ship, three hybrid larly meaningful. creatures, each with the thighs, torso, and head of At the same time, our discoveries raise a host of a woman and the wings, rump, and feet of a bird, new questions, including how the Huqoq villagers stand on a storm cloud. The trio is dancing and could afford to construct such a large and richly playing musical instruments (a flute and a lyre), decorated building, and when and why the syna- attracting the attention of a sailor who points at gogue was abandoned. Perhaps continuing excava- them from the top of the ship’s mast. The combi- tions will provide some answers. In the meantime, nation of their hybrid form, the storm cloud, and the site of Huqoq is closed to the public. The mosa- the musical performance leaves no doubt that these ics have been removed for conservation, and the bird-women represent Harpies (Greek mythological excavated areas are backfilled. Hopefully the site personifications of the storm winds) and Sirens (as will be developed for tourism after our excavations in Homer’s Odyssey). Although the story of Jonah are completed.4 a was popular in early Christian art, this is the first 1 For interim reports, see Jodi Magness et al., “Huqoq (Lower definite depiction of the narrative discovered in an Galilee) and Its Synagogue Mosaics: Preliminary Report on ancient Jewish context. the Excavations of 2011–2013,” Journal of Roman Archaeology 27 (2014), pp. 327–355; Jodi Magness et al., “The Huqoq The panel to the south of the Jonah scene shows Excavation Project: 2014–2017 Interim Report,” Bulletin of the the construction of the Tower of Babel (Genesis 11:1– American Schools of Oriental Research 380 (2018), pp. 61–131. 9) and God’s punishment of the people for building Also visit the excavation’s website at huqoq.web.unc.edu. 2 For a discussion of Samson’s significance, see Matthew a tower intended to reach to heaven. At the center J. Grey, “ ‘The Redeemer to Arise from the House of Dan’: of the scene, a square tower is under construction. Samson, Apocalypticism, and Messianic Hopes in Late Various aspects of the process, including the quarry- Antique Galilee,” Journal for the Study of Judaism 44 (2013), pp. 553–589. ing of stone, woodworking, and an elaborate pulley 3 See Karen Britt and Ra’anan Boustan, The Elephant Mosaic system, appear around the tower. The workmen are Panel in the Synagogue at Huqoq: Official Publication and Ini- tial Interpretations, Supplementary Series 106 (Portsmouth, differentiated by hairstyles and facial hair, clothing, RI: Journal of Roman Archaeology, 2017). and even skin color in an attempt to portray differ- 4 The following institutions are consortium members of the ent peoples. Amid the ongoing work, divine punish- Huqoq Excavation Project: the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill; Austin College (TX); Baylor University; ment for constructing the tower is represented by Brigham Young University; and the University of Toronto. the deaths of some of the workmen, who are shown We gratefully acknowledge the funding provided during the falling headlong from the scaffolding and the ropes 2011–2017 excavation seasons by the consortium members; the Kenan Charitable Trust; the National Geographic Society of the pulley, as well as by a violent fight between Expeditions Council and Waitt Grants Program; the Loeb workmen. The chaos and violence throughout the Classical Library Foundation; the Carolina Center for Jewish panel serve as graphic depictions of the punish- Studies; the International Catacomb Society; Dumbarton Oaks; the Memorial Foundation for Jewish Culture; the ment that God exacted from the builders for their Foundation for Biblical Archaeology; and numerous indi- act of hubris. vidual donors.

38 May/June 2019