A STUDY OF TRAINING PROGRAMS

FOR NATIVE INDIAN TEACHING ASSISTANTS

WITH EMPHASIS ON THE PROGRAM AT LYTTON, B.C.

By

JUDITH ANNE STRINGER

B.A., The University of British Columbia, 1984

A THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF

THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF

MASTER OF ARTS

in

THE FACULTY OF GRADUATE STUDIES Department of Curriculum and Instructional Studies (Centre for the Study of Curriculum and Instruction)

We accept this thesis as conforming

to the required standard

THE UNIVERSITY OF BRITISH COLUMBIA

April 1984

Cc\ Judith Anne Stringer In presenting this thesis in partial fulfilment of the requirements for an advanced degree at the University of British Columbia, I agree that the Library shall make it freely available for reference and study. I further agree that permission for extensive copying of this thesis for scholarly purposes may be granted by the head of my department or by his or her representatives. It is understood that copying or publication of this thesis for financial gain shall not be allowed without my written permission.

Department of .

The University of British Columbia 1956 Main Mall Vancouver, Canada V6T 1Y3

Date (^2^U>37^ /f

DE-6 (3/81) ii ABSTRACT

This study was started after the writer attended a workshop in Lytton at which the teachers and the Native

Indian Teaching Assistants examined their roles in a new and developing program designed to improve the performance of

Indian students in schools by providing Indian adults as role models and as cultural bridges between Indian life and white middle class schools. The writer had been working with teacher aides in multicultural classrooms for seven years outside of Canada and wished to observe similarities and differences in training programs and in acceptance patterns of teacher aides or teaching assistants by school teachers and the school systems.

The study has two parts: 1) a review of the literature on Indian Education, the Training of Native Indian Teachers and the Training of Native Indian Teaching Assistants, and

2) the Teaching Assistant Training Program program in Lytton.

As the literature of the training of Native Indian Teaching

Assistants was sparse, the literature on the training of teacher aides and teaching assistants in multicultural classrooms and on the New Careers for the Poor Movement of the late sixties was correlated with the available material from Native Indian Teaching Assistant Training programs.

Components from programs that were judged helpful, successful or necessary by program participants and researchers were assembled and compared. iii

The Lytton program was followed for two years in irregularly spaced visits. Results from structured interviews, questionnaires, and observations made while leading inservice sessions, and doing document study were compiled.

Programs designed to train teacher aides or teaching assistants were found to be remarkably similar across North

America from 1968-1983. A mini-teacher education course was usually given to the trainees even though in most programs the teaching assistant assumes clerical or tutorial roles.

Very little has been attempted in training sessions to enhance the infusion of different cultural norms in learning styles or behaviors into the traditional middle class North

American school systems.

Although most studies have concluded that the teachers who work with teaching assistants require training and supervision in order to help them learn new roles and teaming skills, few programs had the resources to retrain teachers.

The political nature of school change has been underplayed by the people attempting to increase the presence of Indian adults in the schools. The necessity for a wide and effective communication network in the community to gain and retain support for new programs has been ignored, sometimes deliberately, but ever with peril. Those groups in the community that feel they are being bypassed are able to stop or change programs before they achieve their desired results. iv The introduction of the study of Indian languages and artifacts to the curriculum of schools with large Indian student populations has begun. The study of Indian foods, art, music and dance has been organized in many communities.

The deeper culture of attitudes, consideration of others, relationships with the environment and modes of learning have yet to be studied and implemented. V

TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER

1. INTRODUCTION 1

Background of the Problem 1

The Lytton Situation 8

Research Problem 10

Purpose of Study 12

Terminology 13

2. REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE 17

Overview 17

Indian Education 17

Early History 17

Curriculum Content Change 20

Teachers and Their Roles 25

Community Involvement 28

Indian Teacher Training Programs 30

Native Indian Control 31

Field Centres 32

Cultural Content 33

Academic Accountability 36

Support Services 37

i vi

Paraprofessional Training Programs 38

Community Involvement 40

Purposes and Objectives of Programs 43

Prerequisites 45

Goals for Program Trainees 46

Inservice Content 46

Inservice Organization 48

Assignment to Schools 52

Support Services 53

Findings 57

Training Programs for Indian Teacher Aides 60

Background 60

Community Involvement 62

Purposes and Objectives of Programs 68

Prerequisites 72

Goals for Program Trainees 73

Inservice Content 73

Inservice Organization 83

Assignment to Schools 88

Support Services-Financial 93

Support Services-Personal 95

Support Services-Academic 97

Evaluation by Participants 101

Findings 102 vii

3. METHODOLOGY HO

Summary 110

Instruments 112

Questionnaires 112

Teaching Assistant Questionnaire 112

Teacher Questionnaire 113

Int erviews 114

Observations 114

Document Study 116

Limitations 116

4. LYTTON TEACHING ASSISTANT TRAINING PROGRAM 119

Introduction to the Community 119

The Lytton Teaching Assistant Training Program..122

Community Involvement 122

Purposes and Objectives of Programs 128

Prerequisites 131

Goals for Program Trainees 131

Inservice Content 133

Inservice Organization 147

Assignment to Schools 153 viii

Support Services 158

Home Base 158

Financial Support 160

Program Coordinator 160

Program Manager 162

Academic Support 163

Community Support 165

Findings 166

RESULTS: CORRELATIONS BETWEEN LITERATURE AND LYTTON 173

Problem 173

Purpose 174

Summary of Study 175

Methodology 175

Conclusions 176

Future Challenges For Research and Implementation 190

CONCLUSIONS 197

Summary 197

Conclusions 198

Bibliography 201

Appendices 221 ix

APPENDICES

Appendix A Interview Checklist for Program Leaders 220

Appendix B Interview Checklist for Program Developers 222

Appendix C Teacher Questionnaire 223

Appendix D Teaching Assistant Questionnaire 229

Appendix E The Role of the Teacher Aide (as defined in the B.C.T.F. Handbook)..238

Appendix F Essential Topics Studied in Programs for Teacher-aides in Eastern Kentucky..241

Appendix G Classroom Assistant Training Profile Department of Education, Northwest Territories, Western Arctic Certificate, 2nd Edition 243

Appendix H Sample Performance Objectives, Standards, Activities and Evaluations from the Classroom Assistant Manual, Northwest Territories, Department of Education, 2nd Edition, 1978 246

Appendix I Para Professional Program for Remedial Tutors in Yukon Schools, Yukon Native Brotherhood, Whitehorse, 1979 247

Appendix J Needs Assessment Survey from Dallas Study 248 LIST OF TABLES

TABLE

I. Completion and Drop-out Rates - Estimates for recent years, for B.C. Indian Students normally resident on reserve 3

II. Training Program Timetables 51

III. Inservice Topics for Teacher Assistant Training Programs 80

IV. Afternoon Schedule 133

V. Scheduled Workshops for Lytton 136

VI. Schedule for Lytton Program January-June 1982 ....149 A Study of Training Programs

for Native Indian Teaching Assistants

with Emphasis on the Program at Lytton, B.C,

Chapter One

Introduction

Background of the Problem

Native Indian students have not been graduates of, nor

successful students in, academic programs in North American

schools in proportion to their number. The Hawthorne Report

stated that only twelve percent of Native Indian students were in the same age-grade as their White peers (Hawthorn et al., 1967, p.132). Sixteen years later in 1983, after many attempts by the federal and provincial governments, teachers and parents to improve education for Native Indian students,

Frideres recorded that Native Indian students were on average

two and a half years older than their White classmates.

Siggner & Locatelli (1980) reviewed data prepared by the

Research Branch of the Department of Indian Affairs and

Northern Development. They found that although the retention

rate for Native Indian students from entry to Grade Two

through entry to Grade Twelve increased from eleven percent

in 1966 to seventeen-and-a-half percent in 1971, it then

decreased to sixteen percent in 1976. The retention rate for all Canadian students increased from 50.5% to 75.2% over the 2

same period, 1966-1976.

It is impossible to obtain an accurate picture of the education of all Native Indian students because the students who do not live on their reserve are not included in school statistics of Native Indian students unless they are included in the Master Tuition Agreement (i.e. they or their parents are normally resident on reserve). But Siggner and Locatelli

(1980) observed over thirty-six percent of B.C. Native

Indians were living "off reserve" in 1976 and they predicted that figure was likely to increase. As well, many Canadian school systems are now generally unwilling to keep data separated according to the "racial origin" of their students.

Table I presents school completion rates for Native

Indian students resident on reserves in British Columbia.

However, the table shows the number of Native Indian students in British Columbia covered by the Master Tuition Agreement who entered Grade Twelve in the fall of 1981 was equal to only thirty percent of the group in Grade 1 twelve years before, and by June of 1982 that figure was cut in half. Even if the number of graduates continues to increase as projected it will be the year 2001 before the percentage of Native

Indian students completing Grade Twelve is equal to the B.C. provincial average of graduates in 1976. Table I

COMPLETION AND DROP-OUT RATES - Estimates for recent years,

for B.C. Indian students normally resident on reserve.

YEAR OF ENROLLMENT ITEM 1965 1967 1969 1970 1971

Grade 1 enrollment-Actual 1,739 1,853 1,892 1,716 1,521

Grade 1 enrollment Minus Repeaters-Estimated(1) 1,531 1,355 1,440 1,363 1,230

Grade 12 enrollment (5) 11 Years Later-Actual(2,3) 230 324 384 408 463

Grade 12 Graduation 12 Years Later- E s t imat e (4) 115 162 192 204 231

DROP OUT RATE 92.5% 88% 87% 85% 81%

COMPLETION RATE TO GRADUATION 7.5% 12% 13% 15% 19% (YEAR) (1977) (1979) (1981) (1982) (1983)

(1) Estimated to be equal to actual Grade 2 enrollment the following year. (2) These enrollments are inflated by some students who started school more than 11 years before and who repeated some grades. The enrollments are deflated by students who began exactly 11 years before, who repeated, but who may graduate in a subsequent year. (3) These enrollments are deflated by failure to include students who moved off reserve during their school years and were no longer included in enumerations. (4) Estimated as one-half of those enrolled in Grade 12 in October. (5) Estimate

Source:More,1983, p.3. 4

The persistence of the problem of lack of achievement in schools by Native Indian students causes concern to Native

Indian adults because the future employability of an increasing number of young Native Indians is limited by their continuing low retention rate in schools. Not only are job opportunities fewer for non-graduates but entry to post-secondary training and education is restricted (Siggner

& Young, 1980, pp. 29 ,33). The discouraging drop in the number of Native Indian students enrolled in vocational training between the years 1968 to 1976 is countered by an increase in the number of Native Indian students in university or professional training (i.e.nursing and teaching). However the eight fold increase in students in professional courses resulted in a total number of only 377 students (Siggner &

Locatelli, 1980, p.35). In 1976, if the number of Native

Indian teachers was proportionate to the number of Native

Indian students, B.C. would have been training almost 1300

Native Indian teachers to correct the imbalance in the teaching profession alone, ignoring other professions.

Among attempts by the Federal Government to improve education for Native Indian students was the integration of those students into provincial schools as recommended in the

Hawthorne Report in 1967. In order to improve their record of educating Native Indian students, the Provincial public schools have utilized various methods, four of which are: curriculum change, additional support sevices, responses to the paper "Indian Control of Indian Education" (National 5

Indian Brotherhood, 1972) and special training programs for

Native Indian students at post-secondary institutions.

The most obvious change is an expansion of studies of

Native Indian cultures in British Columbia schools. In social studies curriculum for Year Four, entitled "Early

Cultures of North America" this revised curriculum five

"major understandings" are studied in relation to eleven

"aboriginal culture areas". The guide states that "Culture is a Way of Life" but the concept "Cultures Change" was moved to

Year Five in 1974 (Elementary Social Studies, Year 1-7,

1974).

Secondly, additional support services have been provided for Native Indian students (More et al, 1983). These include extra counselling as well as special Learning Assistance

Classes and English as a Second Language Classes. In 1976,

282 out of 11,749 Native Indian students were enrolled in full time special classes in B.C. schools, a drop of two percent but still twelve percent of the students (Siggner &

Locatelli, 1980, p.30).

Thirdly, some of the demands voiced by the National

Indian Brotherhood have been met by some school districts.

The document, "Indian Control of Indian Education" (National

Indian Brotherhood, 1972) has become the basis for Native

Indian communities seeking improvement of their children's education. The paper called for improved curricula dealing with the heritage of Native Indian students written by Native

Indian people working with curriculum specialists. It 6 advocated teaching in the Native Indian languages where students were fluent in their language and teaching of the local Native Indian language to preserve it in areas where the use of the language was decreasing. Parental control of schools was identified as a necessary move in order to remove racist textbooks, to correlate educational goals with Native

Indian values, to increase the presence of Native Indian people in the schools to teach culture and languages, and to become counsellors to Native Indian students. Cultural

Education Centres were to be established. Non-Indian teachers were to be prepared to teach Native Indian children by being made more aware of Native Indian culture, language and values. Native Indian paraprofessionals would be trained and hired for both special education and recreation needs. Indian staffing in proportion of one adult to twenty students was requested. Research was to be under supervision of the Indian people.

Finally, in answer to the demands for more Native Indian educators special training programs were created in universities across Canada in the early years of 1970. Many of the programs accepted students with lower academic qualifications than normally required for teacher training programs but all attempted to ensure that graduation standards were equivalent to other education degrees (More,

1980).

Native Indian educators such as Verna Kirkness (1976),

Howard Adams (1975), and Art Blue (1978) attempted to inform 7 the academic and education hierarchies of the Native Indian perspective.

Kirkness accented community involvement in education, adoption of traditional values, retention of Indian culture while learning enough about other cultures to be able to function in the present economic climate of Canada. She called for bilingual education, accurate history lessons, development of communication skills, Indian studies, and materials relevant to Indian students. Education in the community was to be expanded to include adult education and preschool training.

Adams identified a gap between the reality of Native

Indian life and the schools designed to prepare students for life in an industrialized society. He described a white-ideal imbedded in the minds of Native Indian s which glorified things white and which focussed on the preparation for living in a white society. Decolonization, demything White supremacy, was necessary before Native Indian s would become proud of their own developing culture.

Art Blue (1978) tried to explain the Native Indian concept of meaning to educators. He suggested that Native

Indian s looked for correlations rather than cause and effect. He welcomed educators' efforts to improve Native

Indian education and their help, but asked that they examine their vision and recognize their motivation. He suggested that the disadvantaged or minorities were different and that educators should build on their advantages rather than create 8 a scheme for dealing with their disadvantages. He suggested the majority group let Native Indians teach Native Indian culture rather than placing that culture in the "young", 3000 year old, European, mold for Native Indian consumption.

Some Native Indian Bands in B.C. have addressed the education problems of their children by forming their own schools and school districts. The "secondary participation of the community rises and the retention rate for students increases" in Indian controlled schools in Native Indian communities (Frideres, 1983, p.162). Many bands now operate their own pre-schools, some have expanded to running their own elementary schools and high schools and the Nisgha have formed their own school district. Mount Currie, New Aiyansh,

Alert Bay, Chehalis and Bella Bella are sites of some of the established band schools in B.C.

Other Native Indian parents have tried less drastic strategies for improving the education of their children. In some districts the parents and school personnel have created programs to teach local Native Indian languages, legends, crafts, art, music and technology (More et al, 1981, 1983).

Some of these programs are taught by Native Indian paraprofessionals , some by Native Indian volunteers and some by non-Indian but acculturated teachers.

The Lytton Situation

Community-centered Indian education has been a feature 9 in Lytton for at least ten years. In July of 1973 the Lytton

Indian Community and Simon Fraser University offered a four week course to teachers, teacher aides, adult educators and other interested people in the community. Topics included

Thompson Indian culture, problems in Indian education concerning parents, teachers and others, and the role of a school trustee (Ind ian Education Newsletter, 1973).

A Band-operated pre-school class was started in 1972.

Financed by the Band, it has been staffed by the Band members and a certified preschool teacher. It moved into the elementary school in 1980 to make the transition to school even smoother for the students.

Thompson language classes have been a part of the high school curriculum in Lytton since 1974. The language program was expanded into the elementary school in 1982.

These measures were not deemed sufficient to realize the aspirations which the parents of the Lytton Band had for

their children. According to the Education Director for the

Band in 1982, although more students were staying in school longer, there were few high school graduates and still fewer

students going on to post secondary education. There seemed

to be a very low percentage of Native Indian students in the academic courses in comparison to the percentage of Native

Indian students in total enrolment of the school. (61%-1974,

75%-1982)

The Lytton Home-School Coordinator was concerned that

Native Indian students in Kumsheen High School in Lytton were 10 not enrolled in senior math and science courses required for university entrance programs. Her findings were echoed in The

Province newspaper (June 17,1983) which reported a government analysis of B.C. school districts done in 1978. A failure rate of eighty-five to ninety percent by Native Indian students in British Columbia schools was revealed. In one district with a high Native Indian student population, low

Grade Eight math scores were recorded. In the same district the Grade Twelve math scores were the highest in the province. However no Native Indian students were enrolled in those Grade Twelve math classes. This district is not necessarily the one which the Lytton students attend.

In 1980 the Lytton Review/Action Committee was established by the Lytton area Indian Bands (Kanaka, Lytton,

Nicomen, Siska, Skuppah) and the South Cariboo School

District. The Committee agreed that one possible way to improve the learning situation of their students was the introduction of more adult Native Indian s onto the school, this time as teaching assistants In the classrooms. It was anticipated that eventually these teaching assistants would become fully qualified teachers, or that students would see that teaching was a profession to which they could progress.

Research Problem

The problem with which the present study is concerned is the need to improve the academic achievement and retention 11

rate of Native Indian students in schools through increased participation of Native Indian adults in the schools, the implementation of more culturally relevant curricula, and the introduction of more Native Indian teachers to schools.

One way in which culturally relevant curricula and

Native Indian teachers have been introduced into schools has been through the use of Native Indian paraprofessionals to teach Native Indian languages and cultural activities. More recently, training programs have been designed for Native

Indian paraprofessionals to become more effective as teaching assistants to improve the academic achievement of Native

Indian students. These more recently trained teaching assistants have no formal role in introducing Native Indian languages, cultures or crafts.

Descriptions or evaluations of Native Indian paraprofessional training programs are not readily available.

Those obtained from Arizona, Virginia, the North West

Territories of Canada and in British Columbia from the

College of New Caledonia, Cariboo College, and the University of British Columbia are compared, in the present study, to

training programs of the sixties in the U.S.A. designed for multicultural classrooms in New York, California and

Kentucky. Teacher aides were introduced into U.S. schools in many places in an effort to provide role models for children and to provide community liason personnel in areas where a wide divergence in class and culture was perceived between

the teachers and their students. Urban schools in areas with 12 large immigrant populations from other countries or migrants from rural America, rural schools in the hills of Kentucky, bilingual classrooms for Hispanic children, all tried to solve some of the cross-cultural problems by introducing teacher aides from the relevant minority group. The period from 1957 to about 1967 was the one Goodlad (1983) identified as the time of the only serious efforts at school reform in the United States of America.

Purpose of Study

The purpose of the study was to identify congruencies in program design and development between the Lytton program for training Native Indian teaching assistants and training programs for paraprofessionals in cross-cultural situations elsewhere.

Common training components, implementation practices, support facilities are sought following the lead of the

International Council of Educational Development (ICED) Guide to Case Studies:

...in contrast to trying to give an overall "success" rating to each case, it would be far more useful to try to discover what concrete factors within each program and its environment had helped or hindered the achievement of its objectives, and to what extent similar positive and negative, factors turned up repeatedly in different program contexts. (Coombs, 1980, p.3)

A collection of those "concrete factors" is then presented for the consideration of program developers and participants in teaching assistant training programs as those program 13

developers and participants attempt to improve the delivery of the education system to Native Indian students and to improve the success rate of the Native Indian students in that education system.

Terminology

The introduction of additional adults to classrooms to work with teachers means that teachers and those adults have to learn the skills of teaming. In teaming the teacher retains responsibi1ity for planning and designing learning activities but the additional adult assumes supervisory, tutoring, and evaluation tasks under the guidance of the teacher. Teaming involves team work between the professional teacher and paraprofessiona1 personnel. Cross-cultural teaming occurs when one of the members of the team is a representative of a minority culture. In British Columbia

Native Indian communities the cross-cultural team is usually a non-Indian teacher working with Native Indian teacher aides but in some cities the teacher may be a member of a minority group while the teacher aide is from the dominant culture group.

The terms Native, Native Indian and Indian are used to describe indigenous peoples of North America by writers in the literature of Indian Education. In this study the three terms will be used interchangeably. 14

In the literature and in practice, the use of terms to describe paraprofessionals (i.e. persons working in the school who are not qualified, university trained teachers) are many, only some of which denote specific task orientation. The most general terms are paraprofessional and auxiliary (Klopf et al., 1969, Educational Services Bureau,

1966) and building aide (Brown et al., 1975). More specific are the terms teacher assistants, teacher aides and teacher associates which are commonly used to describe for a non-professionally trained person working as a helper to a professionally trained teacher in a team situation in a classroom. Still more specialized terms are used to denote tasks done by the paraprofessional: reading assistants, tutors, laboratory assistants, playground aides, clerical aides, library aides, dormitory aides, home-school coordinators and community-school workers. 1

Teacher aides is the most commonly used term in both

Canada and the United States of America. It is used by Steere et al.(1965), Brown et al.(1975), Canadian Education

Association (1967), Clough and Clough (1978), DaSilva and

Lucas (1974), Educational Service Bureau (1966), Esbensen

1 The two positions of home-school coordinator and community-school worker are commonly filled in communities in British Columbia with large Native Indian student populations but the role and training for those positions are outside the limits of the present study. 15

(1966), King (1975), National Indian Brotherhood (1973),

Shank and McElroy (1970), Wright (1969), Center for Applied

Linguistics (1976) in training manuals and reports. The

Cariboo College and the Department of Indian Affairs in

Ontario ran Indian Teacher Aide Programs in 1972-73. In Bella

Bella the people call themselves teacher aides.

The British Columbia Teachers' Federation Handbook defined the term teacher aide by the limits placed on the role of a teacher aide in British Columbia school classrooms

(See Appendix E of this study.).

The Yukon Native Brotherhood designed a program for

Remedial Tutors in Yukon Schools in 1979. The duties of the tutors are similar to those of teacher aides:

1. Supervision of the majority group in a classroom while the teacher works with a small group of special needs children. 2. Work with an individual or small group of children within the classroom in a practice or teaching activity based on the teacher's diagnosis of the children's needs. 3. Work with a child or small group of children outside the classroom, but only when exceptional circumstances dictate removal to a less distractable learning place.

(Yukon Native Brotherhood, 1979, p.2)

Various terms have been used to name cross-cultural paraprofessionals but the job descriptions for the paraprofessionals are similar to those for teacher aides. The program in New South Wales, Australia, utilized the term

Teaching Assistants (More, 1978), even though teacher aide is used in other states in Australia. The similar tasks and roles are:

1. to assist teachers in certain aspects of 16

instruction; 2. to facilitate communication between teachers and children and between parents and teachers. 3. to instruct in literacy skills; 4. to provide 'identification models' for the children, who might otherwise see themselves as strangers in a white-dominated environment.

(Griffin, undated, p.l, in More, 1978)

The structure of a career development ladder has been outlined in which a trainee becomes an aide, then an assistant, an associate, an apprentice or student teacher, a teacher or other professional such as counselor or librarian and finally a master teacher or training coordinator (Klopf et al.,1969). More prepared a working draft for such a career ladder for B.C.'s "community-bound people in relatively isolated communities" in 1980.

In the present study the term used by the program participants is quoted. Differences in roles and tasks are noted. In most cases the term is "teacher aide" except for

Lytton in which "teaching assistant" is used. The participants in that program were most adamant that they were not "Band Aides" but that they were "Teaching Assistants". 17

Chapter Two

Review of the Literature

Overview

This chapter examines studies that have been done to determine ways to improve the academic progress of Indian students in schools of Canada and the U.S.A. First a brief history of Indian Education including comments on curriculum development, changes in teacher roles and community involvement will be presented. Then, the special programs for

Native Indian teacher education, the programs for training paraprofessionals for employment in schools and the Native

Indian teacher assistant training programs are reviewed. The components of those training programs for classroom paraprofessiona1s are categorized.

Indian Education

Early History

Residential Schools (vividly described by Louise Lyons in Moore-Eyman, 1977), Indian Day Schools and provincial integrated schools have all been utiliized as places to improve the education of Native Indian students. Most educators and government officials have had to agree with

Indian parents that these places and their curricula have not 18 been sites of successful learnings by Indian students. Their language has been deprecated; their culture has been unrecognized and unappreciated; their people's knowledge has been ignored and their history has been misrepresented. All have been identified as causes for students' loss of self-esteem and desire for learning (Frideres, 1983, Adams,

1975, Smith, 1977, National Indian Brotherhood, 1972,

Hawthorne et al., 1967).

The First Report of the Canada Auxiliary Mission Society

(Indian Affairs, Education Division, 1965) stated in the first half of the 19th Century that Native Indian teachers were teaching their people to read the scriptures in their own tongue. The Native Indian religions were being replaced by Christianity but the languages were not yet lost.

By the end of the century the minimal progress in educating Indian children was blamed on poor attendance and lack of parental support. Teaching the children English became one of the major goals while suppression of Indian languages became more prominent from about 1890 and continued until 1964 (Indian Affairs, Education Division, 1965).

Residential schools resolved the attendance problems. They were designed to "acculturate the Indian into the society of the new dominant population" (Smith, 1977). Not only were children in residential schools separated from their families, they were cared for by non-Indians, spoken to only in English or French, fed European food and taught European subjects and skills. They were not allowed to speak their 19

Indian languages even during playtime or worktime. Punishment for using Indian languages was not rare (Adams, 1975,

Frideres, 1983). The schools' goals were to "Christianize,

... and agrarianize" (Gue quoted in -Thomson, 1978 , p.45).

In his report to the Methodist Church in 1906 the

Reverend Thompson Ferrier recommended that the Methodist

Schools for Indian children concentrate on making the students into successful farmers as the professions were overcrowded in Canada. He emphasized that the European civilization had "wantonly" destroyed the Indians means of self-support (Ferrier, 1906). Ferrier was keeping pace with the Macdonald-Robertson Movement (1900-1913) which promoted manual training, and particularly agricultural training, for all students in the public schools of Canada (Sutherland,

1978).

The training of Indian teachers became less and less common. As one official protested, an Indian should not teach

Indian children as they needed a white teacher to teach the

"Indianness" out of them. This example of bureaucratic racism is illustrated in a letter dated 1918 reprinted in Indians

Without Tipis (Sealey & Kirkness, 1975).

The conflict between the values held by Indian communities and parents, and the schools the children attended was clearly illuminated in a Quance Lecture given by

Father Andre Renaud. (1971). He regretted that although the schools "eliminated parental models", they did not replace them with adult models culturally acceptable to the students' 20

"Indianness". This absence of models has been addressed by

The National Indian Brotherhood's policy paper, Indian

Control of Indian Education published in 1972.

Curriculum Content Change

A major change in materials used in Canadian schools was demanded by the Indian peoples during the time of the curriculum revision in the seventies.

The National Indian Brotherhood also called for changes in textbooks and materials used in schools for Native Indian students and non-Indian students. Their call was reinforced by writers who have dealt, sometimes emotionally, with the problems and history of Indian Education such as Sealy and

Kirkness (1973), Adams (1975), Linklater (1973), King (1978),

Smith (1978), and Blue (1978). All of them deplore the untruths and omissions in Canadian school texts when dealing with Indian history and with the present lives of Indians All state that there must be corrections made to textbooks so the facts are more honestly presented. Both the 'noble savage' image and the 'lurking menace' image must be eradicated. Further, while the knowledge of crafts, traditional food practices and survival tactics need to be known and appreciated, the realities of Indian culture today are more important than the artifacts of the past.

Sealey stressed the need for unbiased curriculum materials and textbooks that accurately portrayed "Native realities and white realities" (Sealey, 1973) to be written 21

and used to form the basis for curriculum for Indian students in multi-cultural classrooms.

New curriculum models which included Indian languages, communication skills, adult studies and pre-kindergarten studies were presented and outlined by Kirkness (1978).

Howard Adams, in his militant Prisons of Grass (1975), called for more emphasis on recreational, cultural and community projects outside the classroom. He desired that teacher-student relationships be more humanized. He suggested that schools should serve as community centres in the evenings and that adult education programs be conducted to increase Indian and Meti understanding of the legal and social services delivery systems. In a telephone interview

(1982), Adams stressed that curriculum development cannot simply accent the past or it becomes a caricature of the culture; it must reflect the present realities. He reminded his people that even their languages needed to be modernized, not locked in history.

A. Richard King compiled a survey of activities that had been developed for Indian students in B.C. schools In

1973-74. The use of many systems of written symbols when recording and in teaching Indian languages was named as a major obstacle to the development of Native Indian language curricula. King recognized the contributions "relatively

'untrained' community members" had made conducting classes.

He identified the major barriers to innovation as being political problems, the sources and uses of power and 22

information (King, 1974).

One of the projects in the Canada Studies Curriculum

Development Project was TAWOW, a kit designed by Metis and

Indian educators to enable all students to study some of experiences of Indian people today. The kit contained the two books, Indians Without Tipis and Defeathering the Indian as background resource material for teachers. As well, fifty study cards and one hundred pictures, a filmstrip, two cassettes, a book, When Morning Stars Sang Together, and a tv play were included for student use. The kit was designed for multi-grade use; it was not tied to any specific curricula or grade. As a result it has been underused. The high readability level (Grade Nine) of the material in the kit restricts independent student use of the written materials but the excellent pictures could be used in discussion groups at every grade level.

The Sto lo' Sitel Curriculum materials were prepared by the Fraser Valley Band for use in the provincial schools by Indian and non-Indian students and teachers. These graded materials were introduced through a systematic series of workshops and have been used by teachers to further knowledge and appreciation of Indian traditions and culture. Criticism has focused on two points: the strictly positive picture of the history of the Indian Band, ignoring any unpleasantness or conflict within the Band, and the formalization of Indian knowledge into the technical format of behavioral objectives and a tight time frame (Rothe, undated). 23

Other Indian Bands in B.C. and across Canada have

prepared curriculum units and materials for use in their

schools. Carrier, Chilcotin and Shuswap language programs are

alternates to the second language requirement for university

entrance. The Okanagan Bands' Joint Curriculum Development

Project has elementary materials in schools throughout the

Okanagan Valley and high school materials are being

developed. Other bands have prepared material and courses for use in local schools. Because of the language diversity in

B.C.'s Indian Bands, many materials are limited in

distribution and application. The Gitskan, Nisgha, Kwalwala

language and cultural programs are in operation in some

schools in their language areas (More et al., 1980, 1983).

The Ontario Government responded to calls for more

honest materials with People of Native Ancestry: A Resource

Guide for the Primary and Junior Divisions. This is a

teachers' guide listing activities, projects and resource materials (books, films, etc.) that, if used, should help

students understand Native Indian cultures and present

concerns. The material is ungraded and unstructured.

Therefore, it relies on the professionalism of the teachers

to develop units of study or to infuse the material into

their lessons based on school curriculum requirements.

To help teachers use the resource guide People of

Native Ancestry, another set of curriculum materials, Touch

a Child, A Midnorthern Ontario Region Curriculum Development

Project was prepared by a team of educators and Indian 24

people. It consists of a collection of large cards containing planning hints for units for use in Primary and Junior classes. Objectives and activities are listed.

An illuminating discussion of four types of multi-cultural education is found in Whyte (1982). He identifies the first, "problem-centered programs" as being compensatory, attempting to correct a deficient home or t"o adapt a' school to reduce home/school discordance. The best of these assimilative efforts are judged to be the

English as a Second Language or transition classes. The second type, anti-discriminatory programs, attempt to teach students to accept others' rights to be different by teaching value differences but ignore "the economic, political and social power relationships" found in multi-cultural societies. The third type, ethnic-specific programs, range from those programs concentrating on culture as material products, culture as actions, to culture as conceptual and cognitive systems. Whyte stresses that the danger in this approach is that too often the studies stop at the material artifacts. The school does not recognize the traditions of home as being "culture". This causes

"disintegration at the personal, family and community levels". The fourth type, multi-cultural education for cultural pluralism is the final program described by Whyte.

It requires there to be corporate pluralism and structural pluralism also. In effect, it requires barriers to maintain cultural strength and purity in practice, philosophy and 25

language. These "barriers" are similar to those proposed by the Special Committee on Indian Self-Government (Government of Canada, 1983). Whyte states that it is not the ultimate solution as it ignores too many realities of Canada today.

Whyte advocates an eclectic approach which allows the minority person to select which of the four programs and results he/she desires, exercising control over his/her education and life-style.

Teachers and Their Roles

Teachers' professionalism is somewhat suspect by

Native Indian communities after reports such as King's (1981) confirmed what so many educators and parents had suspected;

"teachers were so dependent on being told what to do" that they have difficulty teaching from other than textbooks and set curricula (see also Talmage, 1972, Stake, 1978, Lortie,

1975).

It was realized by some Indian educators that changes in curricula and materials would not be sufficient to solve all the flaws in the education of Indian students.

Sanderson (1975) suggested that a rethinking of the role of the teacher and a retraining of teachers was required to make Indian education successful. He demanded that teachers forsake their school buildings, their professional jargon, and their distrust of parents' intentions. He invited the teachers into the community to become intimately involved 26

with their students and their families (see also

Wyatt, 1978). He warned that if the interaction between parents and teachers were restricted to the presence in schools of associate teachers and community liason personnel, and that if curriculum planning were done solely by community leaders and schoolmen, only "intramural squabbling" would result. A tripartite role for teachers was outlined by Sanderson: ( 1 )instruetor; (2)developer of curriculum materials produced for individual students, classes and communities; (3)interactor with students and parents in nonauthoritarian settings. He also suggested classroom schedules would have to be restructured to allow teachers time to develop materials and to make sound instructional decisions.

King (1978) pointed out that although North American teachers have a fifty year history of talking about, allowing for, and adapting teaching for individual differences in students, and of starting where the student is, the prevailing tendency is for educators to "categorize levels of specific learnings that indicate where a student should be "

(Sealey, 1973 , p. 202) and teach at that level. Grade Five teachers teach material in Grade Five curriculum guides at provincially set levels, rather than teach students who happen to be classified as Grade Five but who operate at different levels individually, and as individuals, at different levels reflecting their interest and growth. The

Imposition of provincially set exams for students reinforces 27 this mind set. While teachers identify some students as defective or deficient, and request extra help in the form of

Learning Assistance teachers and classes, all too few teachers that King (1978) observed in B.C. schools were prepared to do the extra WORK (emphasis King's) required to individualize instruction, or to adapt materials for students who are different from the expected norm. King did recognize pockets of action in B.C. where community elders, students and teachers worked together to develop a process for changing school content and as a result, the structure and control of schooling. They were able to stay within the mandated provincial guidelines even while adjusting the content of classes to reflect local knowledge and values,

language and culture. King appended an outline of "Core

Knowledge Available in Most Native Communities in British

Columbia" along with a chapter on how a teacher might work with the community in collecting and processing the knowledge for use in the schools.

Hebert was much more positive in her assessment of

teacher strategies for multicultural education in her

evaluation of the Lillooet Language Program in 1983. She

stated that while the deficiency model had been rampant in

the sixties, in the seventies cultural differences were

recognized and acknowledged, and programs were designed to

study the differences. She classified programs in the

eighties as being based on a proficiency model, building on

the strengths and abilities of each child. 28

Community Involvement

The first attempt to document the process of creating an Indian school and an Indian environment in Canada was made by Wyatt in 1977. The Mount Currie School was a community effort, not an academic experiment nor a cultural demonstration. The preservation of the form of the provincial and federal schools reflected the conservatism of the parent community. (This faith in the traditional school is discussed

In a paper, "The Mystic Panacea", by Smith (1977), and Sealey

(1973), p. 205). The curriculum in Mount Currie was reorganized to include lessons in the local language. Indian music and dancing were taught by community people rather than professional teachers. Social studies and literature in the secondary school focussed on issues of contemporary concerns of Indian people. A training program for Native Indian teachers and aides did not differ substantially from teaching methods and theories presented at Simon Fraser University.

Therefore when traditional Indian skills and knowledge were to be taught, people from the community were tapped so that traditional knowledge was passed on in a more culturally true manner. Lessons were held in appropriate natural surroundings if possible or the community resource personnel were brought into the school.

Wyatt emphasised the importance of the Native Indian teacher as "culture broker":

the teacher proceeds on the premises that (1) aspects of the culture and communication styles 29

of both school and community are valuable; (2) teaching style and curriculum materials should draw on the resources of both; and (3) his/her skills make it possible to go beyond simply recommending integration of the two approaches to actually developing programs and materials which synthesize aspects of both cultural styles. (Wyatt, 1978, p.23)

Renaud reminded his audience of Canadian educators at the Quance Lectures of 1971 that educational institutions and personnel are slow to change, and he pointed out that the changes needed would have to come from the Indian population.

His words were a warning to Native Indian people. Schools, their teachers and administrators change very slowly; the clients, Indian students and other students, are expected to change to conform to the traditions of schools.

Indian adults have become more involved in the schools of their communities. Evaluations of Community schools are available (Alberta Education, 1981, Buckanga, 1978, Hamilton and Owston, 1982, Handley et al., 1980) but evaluations of community involvement in schools is more rare (King, 1981,

Owston, 1983, Sanderson, 1975). The Education North pilot study (Ingram et al., 1981, Alberta Education, 1982) followed seven communities in northern Alberta for five years. Each community attempted to develop citizen involvement in education programs through local education societies. Six stages of development were outlined and the difficulties associated with each stage were identified. The study provides a pragmatic guide to other community based programs. 30

Indian Teacher Training Programs

Programs at universities in Fredricton, Thunder Bay,

Winnipeg, Brandon, Saskatoon, Regina, Calgary, Lethbridge,

Victoria and Vancouver have accepted Indian students under special admissions to try to increase the number of Indian teachers. "Program quality has not been sacrificed because of these adaptations" (Wyatt, 1978, p.20) and as More averred

"easing entry standards does not have to result in lowering graduation standards" (More, 1980, p.35). Programs at each of these universities are different. The Victoria program has specialized in the training of teachers of Native Indian languages. The University of Lethbridge has instituted a program of Native American Studies. In Saskatchewan, the

Gabriel Dumont Institute of Native Studies and Applied

Research has worked with the two provincial universities to develop a Native Studies Program and has managed the

Saskatchewan Urban Native Teacher Education Program. The

Winnipeg program has concentrated on inner city education.

Five issues or problems unique to these Indian teacher education programs have been identified:

(1) Native Indian control of, and/or participation in DECISION-MAKING PROCESSES relative to Native education, including Native teacher education, (2) the use of FIELD CENTRES to facilitate the transition of the Native Indian student to university Studies, (3)the definition and incorporation of relevant CULTURAL CONTENT into the teacher preparation programs, (4)the provision of STUDENT SERVICES, 5) as a consequence of the four preceding points, the design of suitable systems of ACADEMIC AND FINANCIAL ACCOUNTABILITY which facilitate field centre operations and joint 31

governance arrangements, and also

ensure program integrity. (Mcintosh, 1979 , p.23)

Native Indian Control

Because teacher education is a prerogative granted only to provincial universities, Indian control of programs in universities is not easily achieved. However, as more Indian educators become school, college and university staff members and as some assume administative positions, more Indian participation in decision making occurs. Programs that are more "community-based" (More,1980) such as the Mount Currie program planned jointly with Simon Fraser University staff and The Northern Teacher Education Program in northern

Saskatchewan which has instructors from both the niversity of Saskatchewan and the University of Regina, have more

Indian control than those situated exclusively on campuses.

The Native Indian Teacher Education Program (NITEP) of the University of British Columbia is an example of a program in which Native Indian participation and decision making has gradually increased. Mcintosh and Thomas (1977) in their review of the creation and first three years of "~

NITEP observed that the Native Indian Teachers' Association had been unsuccessful in their attempt to win support from

the provincial Department of Education for a special teacher

training program for Native Indians. When they were able to enlist the support of the Dean of Education at the University

of British Columbia, the program was eventually approved by 32

the University Senate after a "time-consuming and tedious"

procedure. The degree of Indian control was restricted in

1977 to the presence of four out of the seven members of the

Dean's Committee. However since 1983, NITEP has been headed

by one of Canada's well-known Indian educators, Verna

Kirkness. However, NITEP, like other university programs, is

still under the control of the university senate.

Field Centres

The presentation of the first two years of the NITEP

program in field centres located in the students' home

territory has been feature of the five year NITEP plan from

its incept ion. Other programs adopted the practice of using

field centres as well: The University of Victoria has done part of its Native Language Teacher Program in British

Columbia field centres not reached by other programs. Simon

Fraser University conducted its entire program for teachers on the Mount Currie Reserve. In Alberta, field centres for programs from the universities have been located at St. Paul

(the Morning Star Program), the Morley Reserve, Hobbema, and

Grouard (Moore-Evans, 1977). Field centres have been features

of programs in Northern Saskatchewan and the Northwest

Territories and the Yukon. The Micmac-Mallseet Institute of

the University of New Brunswick runs part of its teacher

education program off campus in rotating centres. 33

Cultural Content

The cultural content of these programs has raised

several issues. The first issue is that which Wyatt

recognized "... conventional teacher preparation of people who happen to be native does not answer the problem" (Wyatt,

1 978 , p.19) and warned of "the danger of falling into

non-native school patterns"(Wyatt, 1978, p.21). However, when

Burnaby (1980) reported the concerns of the Ontario Teachers

Federation (O.T.F.) about special training programs for

Native Indians which had been done in the past by the

Department of Indian Affairs but which were now going to be

certified programs by the Ontario government, she stated:

Even if Native education and Native teacher training were considered equal in quality but different, the problems of access of Native people to majority culture education and teaching jobs would be great. Therefore, the concern that the OTF (Ontario Teachers Federation) and other institutions have shown that Native teacher training be as rigorous and contain the same basic subject matter as regular teacher training, is justified on the grounds of Native interests as well as the interests of the Ontario teaching profession and others Not only must regular material be covered but extra content as well. (Burnaby, 1980, p. 355)

The Ontario Teachers Federation seemed sure that Native

teachers required not only the usual basic teacher training material, but additional content in order for the Native

teacher to have access to the majority culture and not just

be an effective Native education teacher. The emphasis on the

need for the regular teacher training when it has been so

ineffective in successfully preparing teachers to teach 34

Indian students is suspect especially when viewed alongside the Ontario education systems' insistance that teachers in

French immersion programs must first be successful teachers in the English language stream. Moore-Eyman (1977) also emphasized the necessity of Indian teachers mastering the pedagogy of the majority culture. She pointed out the difficulties the teacher-trainees at Morley had in developing detailed lesson plans. She attributed it in part to the differences in the Indian concept of time as circular as opposed to the concept of time as linear. She pointed out that the Indian student teachers viewed teaching as teacher-discourse due to the mission education tradition which had been dominant for over a century. They identified their school experience with the ideal education so completely that in spite of the Indian tradition of teaching by example or doing, student teachers could not identify pupil-activity procedures for use in a classroom.

The accent on the Native culture becoming part of the school curriculum, written and implicit, proposed by Wyatt was reversed by Burnaby, the Ontario Teachers Federation, and

Moore-Eyman. Rather than introducing Indian teachers to schools, the plans focussed on turning Indians into typical school teachers of the dominant culture. Enhancement of

Indian cultural styles, child rearing methods, reward systems and interaction patterns and the integration of these into teaching styles and methods have yet to be tried. Instead trainee teachers who are Indian are taught conventional white 35 teaching modes.

There have been attempts to identify teaching methods most acceptable to Indian students. Renaud (1971), Kleinfeld

(1972), Sealey (1973), Wyatt (1978), Yukon Native Brotherhood

(1980), and Arbess (1981) have all published material suggesting ways for teachers to adapt their teaching styles to the learning styles most common to Indian students. The

Harvard Research Project on Manitoulin Island analysed successful teaching strategies and behaviors in an Indian school (Mowhatt, c.1979, Erickson & Mohatt, 1982).

Moore-Eyman (1977) identified some tentative successes using small-step programmed instruction techniques and computer-assisted instruction in teaching Indian students.

A second cultural issue is presented when student teachers are expected to learn and internalize the values of the academic world : i.e. analysis, classification, cause and effect, projections, oral and written communication, competition, and meeting project deadlines (Mcintosh, 1979,

MacDonald, 1978). However, these students are in a program that purports to be a Native Indian program, so it might be expected that the program will reinforce Native values and learning styles: i.e. holistic learning, spacial-visual learning, kinesthetic learning, aural learning, interdependence, and learning through direct experience rather than through written accounts (Arbess, 1981, Sterling

& Hebert, 1982). The students are enrolled in a program that is supposed to enhance and protect their culture, but they 36

are forced to express their ideas and experience in the formal, linear patterns of academia. The analysis or synthesis of this problem has not been completed.

Indian culture is typically represented in that portion of any Native Indian teacher training program called "Indian" or "Native" studies. The curriculum of this part of the program usually contains three sequential components: anthropological knowledge, contemporary issues, and the development of curriculum materials dealing with the anthropological and contemporary issues for use in schools

(Thomas & Macintosh, 1977, Macintosh, 1979). A fourth component in many programs is the development or the improvement of fluency in Native Indian languages. Although the sequential part of course outlines have gradually developed, the geographical scope of the each component has yet to be determined: local, provincial, Canada, North

America, or the western hemisphere studies. Concensus on content has not been reached across training institutions.

Diversity in the Native languages as well as diversity in life styles of Indians across Canada has made the institutions responsive to local needs. As in other Canadian educational institutions, there is no national concensus.

Academic Accountability

The matter of academic accountability, the accusations of watered-down curricula, "the red pass", have detracted 37 from the reputation of the Native Indian teacher training programs (Thomas & Mcintosh, 1977, Mcintosh, 1977, Mcintosh,

1979, More, 1980, Read, 1983). Nevertheless innovative programs have been developed. The University of Saskatchewan opted to develop a shorter term program for Native students while the University of Calgary decided to have the Indian students complete the regular program with additional tutorial help. (This tutorial help was not accepted by the students until the fourth year of the program when the tutorial took on the added role of counselling (Moore-Eyman,

1977). The Morning Star program in Alberta adapted a delivery system in which only one course is offered at a time. Most programs found that additional writing and oral communication skills had to be incorporated into the first year or the preceding summer to ensure success in first year

English courses. The need for improved communication skills is now so widespread in universities in Alberta that the

Indian students are no longer the only students in the remedial English program (Moore-Eyman, 1977).

Support Services

The provision of multidimensional support services including information, counselling, childcare, financial aid, easy access, non-threatening environment and tutoring was necessary for the success of students in programs such as Red

Lodge (Moore-Eyman, 1977), and Morning Star (Sloan, 1981, 38

Read, 1983), and the Indian Studies Project at the University of New Brunswick. A major hurdle for Indian adult students is that of raising self-confidence and self-esteem. One of the most valued sources of support during that period of self-evaluation has been the peer group (Thomas & Macintosh,

1977, More, 1980). The support of the group while the student strives to change old attitudes towards self and school is vital. The role of language studies and Indian Studies in increasing self-esteem for Indian students is mentioned by

Thomson (1978), Burnaby, (1980), McDonald, (1978). The importance of a tutor to bolster adults trying to improve rusty or undeveloped writing skills, and to ease adult students back into the role of student in school from the role of independent person in the adult world must be recognized (Mezirow and Ulmer in Read, 1983). More literature on disadvantaged adults was incorporated into Read's case study of Project Morning Star. (The use of the term disadvantaged in 1983 again illustrates how very positive was

Hebert's assumption that that view of culture differences had been put to rest at the end of the sixties.)

Paraprofessional Training Programs

In the sixties in the U.S.A., federal funds were made available to schools for the improvement of education, especially of minority and underprivileged students. Some of the resulting programs such as Head Start and Title 1 39 advocated the use of adults from the community as teacher assistants. (Sunderlin, 1968, Educational Service Bureau,

1966, Dady, 1968)

The findings of the Bank Street College of Education's study of the use of auxiliaries in some of the schools of fifteen areas in the United States in the late sixties are published in New Partners in the American School: Study of

Auxiliary Personnel in Education (1967), New Careers and

Rules in the American School (1968) and A Learning Team:

Teacher and Auxiliary (1969). These writings contain actual case studies backed by quantitative and qualitative analyses.

The training of teacher aides in Canada is not well documented. No detailed discussions, records nor evaluations of training programs for teacher aides were located. General discussions on the number and the use of teacher aides in schools in British Columbia and Ontario were located

(Canadian Education Association, 1967, Enns et al., 1974).

One booklet suggested ways British Columbia teachers might utilize teacher aides (Csapo, 1975). The effects of involving parents in Canadian schools were part of studies by Pomfret

(1972, 1982) and Fullan (1982).

Fullan (1982) reviewed the literature on the effects of parent involvement in schools as affecting change. He quoted

Clark's conclusion that active participation of parents from the school community in instruction of basic skills to elementary students resulted in higher achievement by the students. The effect on an individual student was enhanced by 40 the participation of that student's parent. Other studies referred to by Fullan found positive results in achievement and self-concept by both parents and students, especially in minority/black/disadvantaged children. Parent involvement as a paid aide, a volunteer, or a home tutor was positively correlated to student achievement gains.

Community Involvement

The Bank Street Project (Klopf et al., 1969) recorded that teachers and administrators feel challenged by non-professionals in their schools. Wright also identified this fact and she added "Teachers feel inevitable uneasiness when someone... less qualified... seems to encroach... . Aides

(must) demonstrate theirs ... is a supportive role" (Wright,

1969, p.5). Concurrent with the training program for the teacher aides in New Haven in 1966 was a program for the teachers and principals to learn how to use teacher aides effectively (Wright, 1969). A similar process was deemed necessary by City University of New York (Klopf et al.,

1969). Although Morehead University included the team approach to training and working in all its workshops in

Eastern Kentucky for teacher aides (Klopf et al., 1969), teachers did not attend the workshops. Dady listed twenty-five topics for workshops to train teacher aides

(see Appendix F) and singled out three topics that he felt must be part of any workshop. One of those was the "Team 41

Approach to Training and Working". Teaming was approached through sensitivity training and program analysis in separate group meetings of teachers and teacher aides in

California as reported by Openshaw, Joy and Gilbert (Klopf et al., 1969). The paraprofessional must become a co-worker, one who does more than simply follow directions, one who is an active, learning member of a team but who also recognizes the teacher's experience and expertise, Mcllhenny (1979) suggested. She recommended the supervisor be a facilitator in the team building process.

Wright's book (1969) is a primer for the concept and process of introducing teacher aides to schools. She wrote:

...as parent, teacher, and school administrator ... I have seen their eagerness to offer talents... I have seen both elation and disillusionment as they returned from their first encounters with the "establishment" for seminars and continuing help. ... Most of the unfortunate incidents that have marred the relationship of professionals and paraprofessiona1s can be avoided if all concerned are involved in preservice and inservice training programs focused on the ways that they can work together. (Wright, 1969, pp.4,5)

One major problem of hiring minorities to work in the schools resulted in an extension of the Pygmalion effect

(Rosenthal & Jacobsen, 1968). Even though the bilingual teacher aides hired by the New York schools had completed sixty hours of college credit, Mcllhenney warned that:

...(the) paraprofessional is frequently a member of the same minority group as the children. Since the teacher's expectations of the students are low, often the expectations of the paraprofessionals are correspondingly low. (Mcllhenney, 1979, p.16)

The Colorado State Board of Education in 1968 also 42 realized that teachers needed "special preparation" in order to develop respect for and understanding of the roles and responsibilities of paraprofessionals and teachers in the new situation. The Board was unique in that it also recommended involving community businessmen and parents in the planning stage of placing paraprofessional workers in the schools so the businessmen and parents would "feel secure" about the proposed changes. The Board stated that the community has a right to know what changes are taking place and why

(Cheuvront, 1968). This is a political fact that educators, administrators, state and provincial Departments of Education sometimes ignore. Only one of the other located studies, from

New York, recognized that "...without complete understanding and community support, little or no success can be expected."

(Kohn quoted in Mcllhenney, 1979, p.5).

In Detroit, planners included the total school community but not the community as a whole, in initial meetings.

Alexander and Selick (Klopf et al., 1969) counted in that school community, the principal, department heads, lunchroom manager, custodian, counselor, school-community agent and some senior teachers. In 1967, the initial feelings towards the program of hiring one hundred sixty-seven "unemployables" to work in the school were apprehension, and concern over extra work loads. It was recognized that all those working in the schools either directly or indirectly with the new paraprofessionals needed to be part of the implementation process. 43

The title of Klopf, Bowman and Joy's A Learning Team:

Teacher and Auxiliary succinctly states a message which cannot be ignored by developers of programs for teacher aides. The end result of a teacher aide training program must be a learning team, not a teaching team nor a teacher plus a teacher aide . The learning team must consist of teacher(s) working with a teacher aide , with the students and with the community. Finally, Wright (1969) reminded everyone

"...building teacher-teacher aide teams that are compatible is tough work. ...no magic formula " (Wright, 1969, p. 19).

Purposes and Objectives of Programs

This section will assemble the stated purposes of

teacher aide training programs. It will look at early programs which addressed the need to improve student achievement and to provide job training and employment for community people who were seen as disadvantaged and shut out of mainstream society. Further, later programs which recognized that while the presence of community people

increased student performance in schools, school personnel benefitted from the increased contact and understanding of

the home culture will be examined.

The New York program for educational assistants was

created "to improve student learning and to provide

employment for a disadvantaged population" (Pernice in Klopf

et al., 1969, p.142). 44

The programs in Kentucky and Detroit resulted from a

"convergence of these two needs for the improvement of the teaching of pupils and for the creation of separate channels of job development and job experience" (Alexander and Selick in Klopf et al., 1969, p.136).

The purpose of the training program developed by the

University of Connecticutt and the New Haven Board of

Education in 1966 was "to prepare and train low-income neighborhood residents to become teacher aides and to provide them with experience and education that will enable them to use their ability to its fullest extent" (Wright, 1969, p.26) .

Later writers stressed that programs only had legitimacy if their goal was to improve instruction. (McManama, 1972,

Clough & Clough, 1978)

More detailed purposes were outlined for the Auxiliary

Utilization Program in Berkeley, California (1967-68) by

Openshaw, Joy and Gilbert :

1. To enhance the possibility that children from low-income families will succeed in school by bringing parents and teachers into a working relstionship within the school, with the goal of modifying positively the behavior of all three - pupils, parents, and teachers. 2. To promote recognition and understanding by parents and teachers of each other's reward and restraints system and ways of meeting children's development. 3. To establish lines of communication among school staff, the children, and their parents not otherwise involved in the program. 4. To increase the sensitivity of the school faculty toward the life style, concerns, child rearing patterns and the language of the community by means of summer preservice and a continuing inservice education program for 45

teachers and aides. 5. To increase the relevance of education in terms of occupational mobility and personal development for parents employed as aides so that they, in turn, may pass on to their children their enhanced view of education. (Klopf et al., 1969, p.130)

Only in the report of the Minneapolis Aide Program begun in 1965 was the stated purpose to recruit in neighborhoods of all schools, not just those in "disadvantaged" areas. The linkage of the school and community through the aide was recognized as a chief value (Hayen, in Klopf et al., 1969, p.121, and in Educational Service Bureau, 1966).

Prerequisites

Prerequisites for entry into teacher aide training programs varied across the United States. No prerequisites are recorded for Canadian programs to train teacher aides.

Some programs set an entry requirement of two years or sixty hours of college credit (Mcllhenney, 1979, Emmerling and Chavis, 1967).

Other programs set no restrictions based on education or work experience, so they were designed with upgrading components. Some trainees took college courses, others high school courses (Brown, 1975, Wright, 1969, Klopf et al.,

1969, Cheuvront, 1968, Sunderlin, 1968). 46

Goals for Program Trainees

Many programs expected the aides to continue to full professional accreditation. The programs in Texas, Kentucky and Detroit were exceptions. The Bank Street Study concluded that "Upward mobility should be possible but not compulsory.

Advancement should be related to both desire and ability."

(Klopf et al., 1969, p. 17).

In Canada in 1973 an Ontario Teachers' Federation Survey identified 1200 students in Community Colleges in the province enrolled in courses advertised to train them for paraprofessional roles in schools (Ennis, Dillon and

McDowell, 1974). The goal of the community colleges in

Ontario for placing these students was not realistic as no districts had permanent budget allocations for paraprofessionals.

Inservice Content

This section will describe the topics included in the training courses for teacher aides in the United States. No descriptions of the content of courses for teacher aides in

Canada were located.

The Educational Service Bureau Inc. (1966) in their review of teacher aide and auxiliary programs hailed the introduction by the Minneapolis Schools of an inservice week of workshops for aides. Topics of the workshops reflect the 47 tasks assigned to teacher aides when they were introduced to the system in 1965. Records and record keeping, library responsibilities, general classroom duties, use of audio-visual equipment and materials, preparation of art materials, preparation of science materials, kindergarten responsibilities, playground, lunchroom, hall and bus duties comprised the program.

Closely following the original training program in

Minneapolis was one in Norfolk. It encompassed introduction to the school (ethics, personal development, time and rules, physical plant), duties of the paraprofessional in elementary and high schools, importance of punctuality and regular attendance, creating rapport with students, discipline, appropriate dress.

As previously stated, academic courses designed for

"high school equivalency" (Wright, 1969) or "upgrading for eventual college entrance" (Cheuvront, 1968) were added to later programs.

In Kentucky three topics are always included in the two or three day workshops: (1) Human Growth and Development of

Children, (2) Team Approach to Training and Working, and (3)

Career Development of Auxiliaries (Dady in Klopf et al., 1969 p.128). Twenty-five topics in all were included in the

Kentucky workshops (Appendix F).

Topics for the inservice training component of the program in Texas (Brown et al., 1975) consisted of units in role definition, supervision techniques, operation of 48 business and audio-visual machines, bulletin board design, record keeping, communication skills, library skills, small group instruction, positive reinforcement and team teaching.

In the handbooks for teacher aides published in the seventies a concensus of topics had developed (Shank and

McElroy, 1970, Brighton, 1972, McManama, 1972, Abbott, 1973,

Ornstein, 1975). Abbott avers that the workshops must be set up in conjunction with school needs but Shank and McElroy,

McManama and Brown et al. present generalized lesson plans for their suggested workshops.

Inservice Organization

In this section the organization patterns of teacher aide training courses are outlined. Preservice training sessions for teacher aides prior to their assignment to schools as well as inservice workshops and on-the-job training are included in the brief description.

A structured presentation of topics was made in the program designed by Brown et al. (1975) for "building aides" in the Dallas Independent School District in Texas. This program was performance oriented. Pretests (see Appendix G) were used in the program to determine the training required by building aides to improve their effectiveness as hall and library supervisors, office and audio-visual machine operators, record keepers and display mounters. The training sessions took place during six full day sessions and thirteen 49 two hour training sessions spread throughout the school year.

A more open approach to organization was utilized in

Berkeley. The inservice training consisted of four components: (l)career development for the aides which included job opportunity information and college, high school or occupational training courses, (2)group meetings of aides and teachers to provide time for program analysis, sensitivity training,and role playing, (3)training of teachers and aides to help children improve their skills in reading, and (4)team leader training, the training of trainers (Openshaw, Joy and Gilbert in Klopf et al., 1969, p. 131). The training took place during two hour meetings held weekly after school.

In New Haven, the program started with an orientation period which included an introduction to the school system, procedures and equipment. After the aides began working with teachers, topics such as classroom techniques, content courses, and communication skills were added (Wright, 1969).

Similar coordination of training and on-the-job experience was planned by Clough and Clough (1978), and Mcllhenny

(1979). Following an initial program in which aides were trained for ten weeks prior to entry into the schools, the

Detroit study recommended the preservice be cut to two weeks and the remainder of the training program be conducted in the mornings with on-the-job integration occuring in the afternoons. The half-day study, half-day work format was used initially by the New York program. However, once the aides in 50

New York were placed in the schools, they attended inservice classes for a full day at least once a month for "generic training", including psychology and child development, skills training in classroom tasks and human relations training or team training (Klopf et al., 1969).

Changes recommended for the program in Detroit resulted in a two-week preservice training period followed by a half-day inservice, and a half-day on the job training because:

1) it would reduce the amount of unused time; 2) it would permit feedback and interaction between their school experiences and their academic studies; 3) it would assist in developing more realistic attitudes regarding their roles in the school ; 4) it would allow the aides to apply abstract principles to actual situations and even more importantly, to abstract principles from analysis of experience; 5) it would provide an opportunity to revise the training program to conform to the requirements of the school; 6) it would facilitate the operation of aide-teacher workshops, which should begin as early as possible in the training period; and 7) it would facilitate realistic planning on the part of teachers and administrators in developing new and better ways of incorporating aides in the schools. (Klopf et al, 1969, p. 140)

The organization of programs is presented in Table II. 51

Table II

TRAINING PROGRAM TIMETABLES

Program Entry Preservice Inservice Requirements

Berkeley none brief - followed 2 hr./wk.T&TA Pilot Program 1 da/mo.TA

Dallas none Pretest, 10 two hr.+ 2-half days 4 full days TA

Detroit (a) none 10 wk.-40 hr/wk 1 1/2 hr. TA (after school)

(b) none 2 wk.-40 hr/wk 8 wk. a.m. classes + p.m. on-the-job

East Kentucky none none 1 , 2 or 3 day workshops ( 25 topics ) TA

Minneapolis none 2 yr. on-the-job training Tailored to auxiliary and school needs

New York none 2 wks. a.m. study, 1 da./mo. TA p.m. observation

New York 60 college college courses taken at same time (Bilingual) credits as on-the job training TA

T&TA = teachers and teacher aides

TA = teacher aides only 52

Assignment to Schools

The assignment of teacher aides to work in 'buildings',

to work with individual teachers or to work with two or more

teachers has affected the job fulfillment experienced by the aides, the acceptance of and satisfaction with teacher aides

by teachers and the success of programs as determined by

external evaluators. In this section the various procedures

for assigning teacher aides to schools will be examined to

identify those procedures which seemed most successful.

In Texas and Kentucky the aides were assigned to

"buildings" and worked with several teachers as requested and

in different capacities (Brown et al., 1975, Klopf et al.,

1969). In Kentucky this was because there were not enough

aides for an aide to be assigned to every teacher. It was

observed that when more than one or two teachers shared an

aide that aide spent most of her time in clerical duties

(Klopf et al, 1969).

The Berkeley program adjusted its assignment of aides

from a one-to-one basis to an arrangement whereby two

teachers shared one aide because there was more careful

planning of the time the aide and teacher worked together when the aide was available for only half a day.

The Bank Street Study made general recommendations that

after a period of inservice and work with one or two

teachers, the aides should select a special role, such as

classroom aide, library aide, tutor, counselor aide, in which 53 specialized training would be given.

The Colorado State Board of Education planned for the aides to work in a general capacity in the school with many different teachers until a teacher requested the aide be assigned permanently to the teacher's class. The aide would be free to accept or reject the offer without jeopardy but the team would thus have a better chance of being compatible

(Cheuvront, 1968).

Mcllhenny (1979) saw the development of a team of coworkers, the teacher and the aide as being important. The teacher, Mcllhenny avered, must become a "mentor"; the teacher and aide should plan the school day and activities together; they must practice the skills of teaching together as a team; the teacher must help the paraprofessional see the applications and use of the theoretical classes in lesson planning, classroom management, and reinforcement techniques.

Support Services

The characteristices of adult students determine the nature of required support services. In this section those

characteristics are reviewed as identified by the Bank Street

Study. Personal support is needed from the peer group, the other teacher aides. A different type of personal support comes from the community in the form of approval, the program coordinator in the form of personal guidance and eventually

from a mentor/teacher when a team is forged. Academic support 54

from a recognized institution may be in the form of a leader, a printed handbook and a certificate. Finally, financial

support reinforces community recognition and eases family

responsibilities of the teacher aide.

The Bank Street Study reviewed the characteristics of

adult students. The importance of small group membership and

the participation of the adult student in planning the

content and form of the program were recorded. The need for

building a positive self-image in order to allow the adult to

try new role models was stressed for both the assistant and

the teacher. The fact that adults take longer than children

to learn because they have to integrate the new

"knowledge, concepts and techniques" into past living and

relate it to present needs was presented. The requirements of adults for contemplation, for trying out new ideas in

private, of avoiding public failure were accented. This led

to recommendations for training-on-the-job rather than weekend seminars, the use of role playing, observing people

in action rather than lecture methods of presenting material.

All these point to a requirement for small group membership

and for a private place in which to practise new skills. As well, adult students value of academic credit for both work

experience and inservice training. The contributions of "hard

funds" to give status and continuity was also noted. The

creation of a career ladder to institutionalize increments in

pay and changes in title for sequential jobs in an

occupational track is a most effective way to encourage 55 people returning to a place where they did not likely experience success the first time (Klopf et al, 1969). Thus are personal, academic and financial support requirements enumerated.

The importance of professional staff personnel "to assist teachers and aides on the job and to coordinate the aides' work experience with the training program." was recognized by Hayen in his analysis of a three year old program in Minneapolis Public schools (Klopf, 1969, p.121).

As well as the teacher in the role as mentor to the aide, in the program of which Mcllhenney wrote, there was support for the teacher and the paraprofessional from the workshop leaders who visited the classroom. This workshop leader guided the paraprofessional in integrating learnings from workshops to practice in the classroom and helped the teacher plan better use of the paraprofessioal.

The Detroit program "coaches" acted as "trainers, counselors, supervisors and advocates of the auxiliaries and generally as liason between the auxiliaries and the school system. They were responsible in dual form to the principal of the school and the project director." (Alexander an

Selick in Klopf et al., 1969, p.137). Each school was assigned a coach.

The need for counselling and guidance throughout the program for aides and teachers was again emphasized by

Pernice in her discussion of programs in New York (Klopf et al., 1969). 56

In California, the group meetings of the entire staff, that had been designed for processing feedback, were modified as the program progressed. The first modification was to meet in smaller groups of four teachers and their assigned aides plus a team leader. Later teachers and aides met separately to facilitate frankness in discussing "process observer's profiles" and data from interviews and questionnaires.

Self-assessment of behavior, feelings, and role playing of situations appeared to be "effective for increasing understanding, communication and acceptance of new roles and relationships within a school system" (Openshaw, Joy &

Gilbert in Klopf et al., 1969, p.134).

Although group support and the presence of a mentor/counsellor helped trainees adjust to new roles and situations as teacher aides, it was recognized that persons entering the training program could not succeed unless they were free from excessively time consuming home responsibility. Such demands cannot be ignored no matter how much a trainee wants to become a school worker (DaSilva &

Lucas, 1974). The fact is that:

the road ... to full professional certification is so long and difficult that few low-income auxiliaries could hope to travel the whole journey. ... unless the required training can be secured without undue hardships and pressures emanating from minimal funds, heavy family and work responsibilities. (Klopf et al., 1969, p. 15)

No program had organized assistance such as day care facilities designed to lessen demands of family 57 responsibilities but financial support was part of most training programs.

The Bank Street Study validated the importance of a paid stipend to the trainees while they attended course work at a

"degree granting institution". The Berkeley Program included stipends paid to aides and teachers while they attended workshops (Klopf et. al., 1969). The New Haven Program in

1966 also included a training stipend (Wright, 1969).

Findings

Four implications for programs were stated in 1969 which still require attention today:

1. To initiate a program for the utilization of aides is a difficult and delicate operation, which calls for a) restructuring of preservice education for teachers in which they learn to share with aides their responsibilities to children in the classroom; and b) new training approaches and techniques for the preparation of auxiliary personnel. 2. Since the perceptions and abilities of aides and of teachers are major determinants in the success of any program of aide utilization, great care must be exercised in the selection process. 3. Some type of individual observation and evaluation with opportunity for feedback and discussion of specific cases holds grest promise for improvement of utilization of auxiliary personnel. 4. Continuous, intensive inservice education for all school personnel is essential, with the leadership for such education residing in persons not directly responsible for the school program. 5. Released time for planning by teachers and auxiliaries should be included in the school schedule each day. (Klopf et al., 1969, p.135) 58

Even though the paraprofessionals in Kentucky spent about one quarter of their time checking tests and homework, typing, duplicating, and preparing displays, the aides were quite happy with their assignments. They spent little time interacting with students but the aides saw that because of their work the teachers had more time to spend with individual students. Process-observers' records of time utilization of aides showed greater time allocation to clerical and monitorial duties than the aides reported themselves, but few aides felt they were ineffective or poorly utilized (Dady in Klopf et al., 1969, p.126).

A five year study in twenty-five Michigan schools done for the U.S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare in

1967 revealed these changes in teachers' jobs after aides were introduced. Time was reduced doing these tasks:

1. Correcting papers 89% 2. Enforcing discipline 36% 3. Taking attendance 76% 4. Preparing reports 25% 5. Supervising children moving between classes.61%

6. Monitoring written lessons 83%

The extra time thus made available was used by teachers to increase the time they spent on the following tasks:

1. Lesson preparation 105% 2. Hearing pupil recitations 57% 3. Preparation of homework assignments 20% 4. (CheuvrontIndividual, coachin1968 quoteg d Staffing for Better 27% Schools 1967, Brighton, 1972 quoted U.S. News and World Report, 1956)

The 1970 survey by the National Education Association of the United States classified the assistance provided by paraprofessionals in schools thusly: 59

Secretarial assistance 72.2% Assistance with lunch duty 45.8% Assistance with papers with objective answers 40.3% Assistance with playground duty 35.6% Assistance with small group instruction 26.9% Preparation of instructional resources 26.9% Assistance with individualized instruetion...25.7% Use of instructional resources 20.4% Assistance with bus duty 15.5% Assistance with grading essay-type papers 5.6% Other 5.8% (Ornstein et al., 1975, p.viii)

The Berkeley study found the use of aide in interactive tasks with students rose to an average of thirty-seven percent of class time at the end of the year. Teaching styles of teachers affected the amount of interaction between aides and students. "Group-focused teachers" used aides more effectively than "instruction-focused teachers". The use of aides evolved "a modus operandi through experimentation, analysis, feedback and joint planning by each teacher-auxiliary team" (Openshaw, Joy and Gilbert in Klopf et al., 1969 , p.133-4).

Two final reminders about the process of introducing teacher aides into schools are presented from the writers in the late sixties. In their report of the Detroit Public

Schools program for one hundred sixty-five auxiliary personnel in 1967, Alexander and Selick offered this analysis for the reason teachers do not change:

The daily demands of their jobs -emotional and physical- and the frequency with which these demands occur, often prevent teachers from doing much beyond surviving. Improvement in the teaching of pupils, the only improvement that has any real value in the whole business of education, will not come until the teacher's role has been made 60

manageable. The use of auxiliary personnel promises to be as excellent opportunity to make that role more manageable. (Klopf, 1969, p.136)

Wright reminds schools and aides that the "One important evaluation criterion is always the request for more of the same by parents and students." (Wright, 1969, p.19).

Training Programs for Indian Teacher Aides

Background

The training programs for Native Indian teacher aides in

Indian schools in the U.S.A. were part of the Head Start programs and paralleled the New Careers for the Poor programs plus the move for Indian control of Indian education. Federal money was available for both the schools and the training programs (Thompson, 1978). The demonstration school at Rough

Rock pioneered the use of Indian aides (Platero, 1978). The universities in Arizona became involved In developing and improving training programs (Steere et al., 1965, Bureau of

Indian Affairs, 1970, Pratt and Ramey, 1974).

McLean did not find a description of any training programs for Canadian Indian teacher aides when she did A

Review of Indian Education in North America (1973). She explained her study of programs designed for Indians between

1966-1971 was hindered by the lack of documentation of

Canadian programs.

The need for training for Indian teacher aides was first 61 officially recognized in Canada in a speech by the Minister of Indian Affairs, Jean Chetian, to provincial ministers of education in 1972. The progress in establishing Indian teacher aide training programs in Canada was assessed by King in 1975 :

Some tentative isolated training efforts have been made by holding special "workshops" or developing limited university summer projects for teacher aides. ... But nothing in the way of identifying specific training programs or establishing job-entry or advancement criteria has yet been attempted. (King, 1975 ,p.24)

The desire to keep (or to change) the status quo in the school system rather than a desire to utilize the unique value of the use of Indian teacher aides in classrooms were the motivation for two suggested locales for training programs, i.e. at community colleges or, alternately, as part of the teacher training process at established universities

(King, 1975).

The 1972 programs by the Cariboo College In Lillooet and by the Department of Indian Affairs and Northern Development in Ontario were the earliest Canadian training programs referred to in the literature located for this study.(Plater,

1973, Haig Brown, 1976). As well, documents from training programs for Indian teacher aides in British Columbia, the

Northwest Territories, and the Yukon were examined (Cornwell,

1978, More, 1978, 1979, 1980, 1982, More and Ashworth,

1980, 1982, Noble, 1980, Northwest Territories Department of

Education, 1978, Yukon Native Brotherhood, 1979). Assessments

of the training programs and the use of teacher aides were 62 also reviewed (King, 1975, More, 1982, Noble, 1980).

Community Involvement

In this section the involvement of the community in discussions for planning new programs, including the introduction and training of teacher aides will be discussed.

The program developers from the University of Arizona and the

Center fof Applied Linquistics in Arlinton, Virginia, met with community leaders, school personnel and students to receive guidance to enable them to determine cultural content, academic content and direction before designing training programs for teacher aides. Most of the programs developed in Canada do not seem to recognize in their organization such a need for wide community involvement once the program is conceived and financed. The planning, implementation and operation of Indian teacher aide training programs in Canada seem to be given over more completely to post secondary institutions or education officers than in the

United States.

The Center for Applied Linguistics's Handbook (1976) made some key points in their plans for developing a training program: 1) that a needs survey of school personnel, students and community members should be used to identify the areas in need of development; 2) objectives for the workshop(s) should be clearly stated by the planning committee; and 3) the

objectives should reflect the priorities of the community and 63 school staff. The participants must know what is expected of them and what they can expect from the program. Their recommendations applied not only to the summer workshop programs that the Center for Applied Linquistics conducted for individual groups in the southern U.S.A. and for the combined teacher and teacher aides for several different

Indian linquistic groups, but for all teacher aide training programs. Unfortunately later programs seem to downplay the need to involve community people and school personnel and students in the planning stages.

In British Columbia, both teachers and administrators have had input into the design and operation of programs, though not usually at the initial stages and not in any extensive way. In Williams Lake, the Co-ordinator of the

Native Indian Teaching Assistant Program at Williams Lake, replanned a workshop in order to address some of the role problems that had arisen. The teachers and teaching assistants formed eight groups in the meeting to address the problems. A specific problem solving format was used in the workshop "in which the goal, the facilitating forces, the restraining forces and eventually the solution(s) were identified." (Haig-Brown, 1976, unnumbered). Problems discussed" were: (1) communication between (a)the teacher and teaching assistant and (b)the teacher, the teaching assistant, and the community; and (2) the role of the teaching assistant in the school.

The need to form strong teams made up of the teacher and 64 teacher associate was recognized in Cornwell's proposal for the Teacher Associate Training Program at the College of New

Caledonia in Prince George, British Columbia. However, practical applications of these concerns were difficult as the aides in that program were working without training in the schools which were rural, isolated, multi-grade, one to four classroom schools.

Because the schools were so widely dispersed, the communication between the program planners and instructors was sparse. Only one of four surrounding school districts employed Native teacher aides or Native Language Instructors, and the other three "were not particularly interested in the program" for training Indian teacher associates. Community involvement in the program was therefore minimal (Cornwell,

1978, Noble, 1980, 1982).

In the Northwest Territories, the problem of distance in restricting community input was addressed in a different manner. Initially, teachers had been responsible for developing their own training program for their Native Indian aides. Rather than continue training in this very local form, a regional consensus was sought. In 1977 a workshop was held in Yellowknife in which "Classroom Assistants and

Teachers/Teacher Consultants" met "to identify specific skills demonstrated by effective Classroom Assistants" in the territory schools. It was a "grass roots" exercise without

"direct input from the headquarters staff of the Department of Education" (Northwest Territories Department of Education, 65

1978, p.4). At later workshops manuals delineating competencies, designated activites and performance objectives were written. The performance objectives were based on particular community languages, geography, and culture. These manuals now form the core of the training program, removing areas of uncertainty about what should constitute training and what standards of competency should be rewarded with a higher certificate and more pay. (A copy of a training profile and an example set of objectives, activities and evaluation are included in Appendices H and I.)

The extent of community and school involvement in most of the training programs has been restricted to elected school board members, administrators, and representatives from Indian Band Education Committees. Consultants from colleges or universities have designed the programs after consulting with these people. The consultants were able to adjust scheduled presentation of units to conform with local needs but the degree of "localization" of content was dependent on the preknowle'dge the individual instructors of workshop sessions had of the communities. This knowledge was restricted because few instructors visited a community more than once or twice during a training program (More, 1979,

1981, 1982, Yukon Native Brotherhood, 1979).

This problem of instructors' unfamiliarity with local conditions was avoided in the training program in Lillooet and Williams Lake. There, extensive use of school district resource people and respected teachers as instructors was 66 made (Plater, 1973, Haig-Brown, 1976, 1983).

The politics of change have been ignored in this recent attempt at effecting some improvement in schooling for Indian students. The usual wooing of established power groups has not been attempted by the Indian community. This time the omission may be intentional. The Native Indian people are quite accustomed to having verbal acquiescence followed by non-action to many of their requests, formal agreement but surprising practices in the past. They do not trust the good intentions of people who,in the past, have had amazing interpretations of land and fishing treaties, education and employment policies, and social services (Frideres, 1983). In the time of the repatriation of the Constituion of Canada of

Canada in 1982, the Native Indians were on guard. They paid for, organized, and maneuvered teacher aides into schools without gaining the support of the majority of community members nor school personnel.

The reasons for this strong action are explianed by

Carney (1982). In his discussion of adult education projects in Canada, he defines "Native-European interdependence" as

"the degree to which 'aboriginal sovreignty and strength' has been maintained in the two way process of acculturation."

(p.8) Carney expands four interpretations of that

"Native-European Interdependence": (1) a relationship of mutual benefit (identified as a short-lived period following contact), (2) a time of victimization (Carney warns this

interpretation ignores the resistance stratagies and innate 67 strengths of Native communities; it can lead to radicalization or , as undesirable, rescue stategies). More attractive are two other interpretations (3) factors of mutual understanding and common effort such as identified in

Dion's My Tribe The Crees and Manuel's The Fourth World.

This third interpretation is described as one which is aiding communication between Natives and Europeans. Six factors which characterize successful adult education programs for

Natives are:

(1) they were established by the people in the community and are managed and controlled at the local level;(2) each program is seen as a long-term venture, not a quick fix solution to 'a problem' ; (3) each program is located in a native community where it takes on a community identification and where it has access to community support; (4) each program is seen as being part of other community activities and programs; (5) native people play dominant managerial roles in such programs, resource people from outside the community are called in to provide expertise on a short-term basis; and (6) the programs are seen as a means to individual self-fulfillment not simply as avenues to employment. (Carney, 1982, p.9)

4) adult education "as part of an overall mutually agreed upon stategy" that will not solve all problems as exemplified in writings by Snow, Bellerose, Cardinal, or Steinhauer.

Three warnings are given to adult educators: a) it is not true that any teacher is better than none, b) Disassociate yourself with programs designed by government agencies in response to a crisis, and c) Recognize and beware of situations where the activities, even if mutually agreed upon, may disrupt community goals. Carney asserted that in order to develop effective programs it was necessary to 68 reflect on those of the past and hear the people of the community in their present (Carney, 1982).

These words to adult educators are cogent. What must be remembered by the Indian community is that the school personnel are also members of the community, and as members, they must be actively involved in planning and implementing change. Goodlad warned that "most efforts to improve schools founder on reefs of ignorance... of the ways schools function in general and ignorance of the inner workings of selected schools in particular" (Wiggins, 1983). Unfortunately, the designers and directors of many Indian Teacher Aide programs have ignored the ways schools function and those inner workings of specific schools as they tried to improve what has been judged poor education experience for Native Indian students. These internal factors or factions in the educational establishment can not be ignored, defeated nor overruled. They must be induced to join the innovating team.

Purposes and Objectives of Programs

This section deals with the purposes and objectives to be found in many of the Indian teacher aide programs. Those purposes and objectives stated for American programs will be discussed first, followed by the purposes and objectives of the Canadian programs. The similarity of purposes and objectives, in spite of differences in names given to Indian paraprofessionals will be shown. The two main purposes for 69 the programs - to provide a "culture broker" and to enhance the learnings by Indian students - receive different weightings in the various training programs.

The Indian Teacher-Aide Handbook (Steere et al., 1965) was published following the development of a program to train

Navajo Teacher Aides for kindergartens on reserves. The objectives of that program were:

1. To provide pre-school education and instruction for the teacher-aide. 2. To establish the foundation for effective working relationships between the teacher and teache r-aide. 3. To provide the information about Indian culture necessary to understand the Indian child. 4. To assist the teacher-aides in understanding the value and purpose of education. 5. To develop the teacher-aides into vital forces who can make education understandable to the people in their local communities.

(Steere et al., 1965, p.3)

These objectives were adopted by the later programs for

Navajo teacher aides which were conducted in 1970, and 1974

(B.I.A.,1970, Pratt and Ramey, 1974).

The Choctaw Bilingual Education Program in Oklahoma was based on the idea that Choctaw children must recognize the fact that they and their people live in a world of two languages and two cultures (Littlejohn, 1971). The teachers and teacher aides were made aware of aspects of the English language that are absent in the Choctaw language to help them recognize and accept culture differences. The school staff was encouraged to be more flexible about culturally controlled behaviors. Both cultures were given recognition as valid life styles. 70

In the discussion of objectives written for the Cariboo

College program, the use of Indian teacher aides is expected j "to enhance the self respect and feeling of self-worth among

Indian people by getting them to recognize they CAN

participate in the education progress and have a valuable and

unique contribution to make.", to be a role model for

students, and "to assist in developing a positive attitude

towards different cultural values and behaviors" (Haig-Brown,

1976, unnumbered).

Objectives for the on-going teacher assistant training

program in Williams Lake School District were recorded as

being identical to those of the 1972 program in Lillooet

conducted by the Cariboo College. They were:

The primary objective of the program is to provide training for Indian teacher assistants would be employed in classrooms where there are significant numbers of Indian children, to assist teachers and the pupils. (Haig-Brown, 1976, unnumbered)

Specific objectives were:

-To provide a 'cultural bridge' between the Indian and white cultures. -To provide an opportunity for the Indian people to appear before the white society in a role of positive and constructive leadership. -To explain the "home" to the "school" and the "school" to the "home". -To provide access to the homes in order to secure support for the school program. -To provide as "acceptance" of the native culture. -To provide younger Indian people with satisfying employment opportunities which utilize their education and bicultural background. -To provide an example for the community of the two cultures working in close co-operation." (Haig-Brown, 1976, unnumbered)

The objectives of the Northwest Territories program

were : 71

1. To implement a comprehensive trainee program in skill and related areas. 2. To utilize the trainee's progress record as a method of certification. 3. To encourage competent, effective Classroom Assistants to pursue a career in teaching. 4. To allow, where appropriate, for the Classroom Assistant training program to be delivered, either in part or as a whole, in a native language e.g.INUKITUT. There is nothing in this program that would prevent this objective from being achieved. (Northwest Territories Department of Education, 1978, p.2)

The objective of delivery of the program in a Native language is a first, perhaps because the north is one of the few areas where Native language fluency is common in younger members of the communities. Other programs have as goals the increase in fluency in Native languages by the aides (Littlejohn, 1971,

Haig-Brown, 1976, More, 1979, Handley et al., 1980).

The Paraprofessional Program for Remedial Tutors in

Yukon Schools is the most restrictive in its title. However in the description of role expectations, attributes desirable in candidates and list of skills to be developed, the tutor closely resembles the teacher aide or teaching assistant.

Under the heading of Program Objectives these major goals are listed:

1. To involve local people in the educational process in their own community. 2. To upgrade the skills of the present tutors from a personal and professional point of view. 3. To provide an avenue by which paraprofessionals may enter, at some later date, the field of professional teacher education. 4. To provide the tutor with knowledge and skills to make her/him an effective assistant to the classroom teacher. 5. To develop tutor skills in aiding communication between the school and community especially making the teacher aware of various community 72

resources. 6. To provide the tutor with skills which will be of benefit not only to the school but to the community at large.(Yukon Native Brotherhood, 1979, p.1,2)

Some of the training programs aspire to making the aide a "culture broker" (Wyatt, 1978) but others concentrate on more school-based needs of a teacher assistant, Indian or non-Indian. It is sometimes assumed that the presence of an

Indian adult in a classroom will add some Indian culture to the curriculum or in a multi-cultural mileau, a minority representative will make the curriculum more multi-cultural.

King identified the purpose of the use of the Indian teacher aides in schools as being to enhance the "communication potential between the Native children and the rest of the school" and as "some kind of increased "involvement" of the

Native community in school affairs" (King, 1975, p.23).

Prerequisites

The entry requirements to Indian teacher aide training programs are reviewed in this section.

There have not been formal educational requirements for candidates for training programs for Indian teacher assistants in Canada. In the United States, a few programs that were part of a professional training program required high school graduation certificate. For those programs with emphasis on Indian language teaching, fluency in the local language has been a prerequisite. Generally teacher assistant 73 trainees have been parents who wish to work with the children of their community in the schools. In Williams Lake there has been a trend towards young high school graduates becoming teacher assistants (Haig Brown, 1982).

Goals for Program Trainees

Initially the goal for the training programs was simply to place Native auxiliary personnel in the schools who had an understanding of the children's culture (Steere,1965, Reeves et al., 1978, King, 1975, Haig-Brown, 1976). Later the programs were envisioned as a step in a career ladder,encouraging and enabling Indian teacher aides to go on to professional acceditation as teachers (Northwest

Territories Department of Education, 1978, Yukon Native

Brotherhood, 1979, More, 1980, 1982, Kuskokwith Community

College, 1980).

Inservice Content

In this section the topics of inservice workshops are listed to enable comparisons to be made with other Indian teacher aide training programs and the teacher aide training programs in the United States in the sixties. There is a noticeable similarity in programs both to each other and to typical teacher training programs but there are unique offerings in some programs. 74

In the earliest detailed record of a training program for Indian teacher aides (Steere et al., 1965), the aides went to the campus of Arizona State University for eight weeks. A demonstration classroom in the Laboratory School was conducted with Indian preschool children from a neighboring reservation. The areas of instruction included:

1. Primary and pre-school education 2. Child Development 3. English 4. Community in the school 5. Indian education and Indian values 6. Creative Activities 7. Directed teaching 8. Teacher and teacher-aides relationship, and 9. Audio-visual and communications techniques.

(Steere et al., 1965, p.4)

Subsequent programs for the Navajo people brought both the teachers and the teacher aides together for summer workshops.

The aides were trained to work throughout the school, not just in kindergarten. Some cultural additions were made to the curriculum in 1970. Navajo games as well as "White" games were added to the aides' and teachers' repertoire, grass weaving was introduced and the importance of experience stories in learning English was emphasized more strongly.

(Bureau of Indian Affairs, 1970).

The Choctaw Bilingual Education Program focused on language acquisition. It provided classes in teaching English and Choctaw. Drama, role plays, and making books were some language teaching techniques studied. Values Clarification was used to help define differences in cultures and to build appreciation of the two cultures in which the Choctaw child had to live (Littlejohn, 1971). 75

The Center for Applied Linquistics conducted summer workshops for a single language group, the Choctaw Bilingual

Institute. A larger group of workshops was coordinated by the

University of Utah which trained teachers and teacher aides working in Navajo, Choctaw, Papago, Cherokee, and Acoma schools in 1975. A summer workshop could focus on one or more of these six areas:

•development of English language skills •development of Native language skills .training in basic linquistic concepts •training in teaching methods .training in curriculum development .Increase awareness of community traditions and ways they can be integrated into the curriculum. (Center for Applied Linquistics, 1976, p.2)

The Center recommended fourteen enrichment areas as well as the six major content areas needed in Native education. One of the enrichment areas was, of course, Native Arts and

Crafts. However it was recommended that the production of pots and baskets be used as a basis for mathematics or social and science instruction rather than the usual art or recreation curricula. This was an ingenious infusion of

Indian culture to main curricula areas usually ignored by those trying to make curriculum relevant to students in cross-cultural classrooms. A second addition to the usual topics was that of public speaking. The problem of the difference between the criteria of an effective speaker in the community tradition and that of English style was recognized. The dilema of the development of style by future

Indian leaders was "that Native practice is not subjected to undue criticism, and the participants are not forced to 76 reject the requisite English styles because of those differences" (Center for Applied Linquistics, 1976, p.25).

This attention to different speaking styles was studied by

Mowhatt (c.1976) with the aim of fitting teaching style to

Odawan culture. Perhaps there is a need to develop both styles for different audiences as is attempted by the Choctaw program (Littlejohn, 1971).

There are two Associate Programs offered by the

Kuskokwim Community College in Alaska. The first is geared for Instructional aides. This the two year program leads to an Associate of Arts degree. Thirty course credits are required in General Arts (Math, English, History, Psychology,

Science) and further units must be taken in: Orientation to

Education (Math, Reading and Language Arts Activities in the

Classroom), Methods for Teaching a Second Language and Child

Development. Two electives may be chosen from Art, Music and

Physical Education Activities, and/or Audio Visual Methods and Oral and Written Literature in the Cross-Cultural

Classroom. A practicum completes the program. The second program leads to an Associate of Arts Degree in Bilingual

Bicultural Education. Course work includes: Written

Communications, Oral Communications, Psychology, Cultural

Heritage, Teaching Mathematics, Teaching Language Arts,

Teaching Reading, Child Development, Alaska Native Studies,

Alaska Native Language and Linquistics, Natural Science/Math

Requirements, Orientation to Education, Introduction to

Bilingual Education, Methods of Second Language Teaching, and 77

Methods & Materials in Bilingual Education (Kuskokwim

Community College, 1980).

The Cariboo College course in Lillooet included units covering audio-visual equipment operation and maintenance, contents and methods in curricula areas, Teaching English as a Second Language, library operation and skills, Indian

Culture, child development and local culture. The program designed in Williams Lake added Philosophy, the Code of

Ethics, and Tests as units of study. Local culture in

Williams Lake included three language programs, Carrier,

Chilcotin and Shuswap, as well as story-telling, drama, dance

(Haig-Brown, 1976).

The Teacher Associate Training Program at Prince George at the College of New Caledonia, consisted of modules or seminars. Topics included the usual audio-visual techniques, child development, classroom management, role of the associate (aide), and lesson planning. Added were "key vocabulary" as a method of beginning reading, preparation of local materials and their integration into the classroom,

Native language instruction, and learning disabilities (my emphasis) (Cornwell, 1978, Noble, 1979, 1980).

The Paraprofessional Program for Remedial Tutors in

Yukon Schools, offered from January to June in 1980 consisted of classes that covered the topics: Child Development, Audio and Video Skills, Classroom Management, Supervision,

Interpersonal Skills, School and Society, Cross Cultural

Education and Tutorial Skills in Language Arts and 78

Mathematics. A unit entitled Resource Development with

Children is unique to this program. This program was intended to be a prepatory year, the paraprofessional year, in a four year Yukon Teacher Education Program, at the end of which a

Bachelor of Education (Elementary) could be awarded (Yukon

Native Brotherhood, 1979).

The Northwest Territories' Classroom Assistants Training programs are competency-based systems developed in

Yellowknife in 1977 by territory teachers and classroom assistants. The workshop participants identified "clusters of knowledge, judgements and skills" necessary for effective classroom assistants in their area. The resulting Classroom

Assistant Profile was printed in the form of a chart with the skills or competencies arranged in horizontal bands (see

Appendix H). Each band is sequenced in order of priority as determined by the people in the program. Performance objectives and learning activities as well as standards of performance for each competency were written at later workshops and form the training manuals for each certificate: Eastern Arctic Certificate, Eastern Arctic

Diploma, Western Arctic Certificate, and Western Arctic

Diploma. There are two programs as the Eastern and Western areas identified slightly different required competencies

(Northwest Territories Department of Education, 1978).

The workshops conducted in Bella Bella and in the Nisgha

School District were similar. Units on Classroom Management,

Self-concept Development, Child Development, Language Arts, 79 the Role of the Teacher Aide, Communication Skills and

Assertiveness Training were given in 1979. The program in

Bella Bella was completed with units on Lesson Planning,

Practical Audio-visual Use, Metrication, Art Education,

School Philosophy and Educational Jargon. The last topic was added in response to requests from the trainee assistants

(More, 1982).

The Nisgha Teacher Aides were almost all Nisgha language teachers and their program accommodated their needs. As well as the common units of Classroom Management, Self-concept,

Communications, Child Development, and Lesson Planning, there were added units in General Teaching Skills, Nonverbal

Communication, Thinking in Nisgha, Unit Planning, Objectives of Nisgha Language Program, Evaluation and Grading. The latter focused on native Indian styles of learning and teaching that were possible to use in the schools (More,

1979).

The contents of some of the training programs are compiled in Table III. 80

Table III

INSERVICE TOPICS FOR TEACHER ASSISTANT TRAINING PROGRAMS

Inservice Topics Training Programs

A A B B C E. T L N N N. P W Y R U E E E E Y A E R I U I S L R N K X T V W W. I L K Z T. L K. T E ' A T A N L 0 0 A E N S 0 H Y T. C I N N A C R T N 0 0 E A A B B A U R M 0 E L L C B. K G S R L I I K E I L F N Y I. 0 L G A 0 G R A I N U A. G K N I I E E A A S L T.

I.FOUNDATIONS OF SOCIAL AND BEHAVIORAL SCIENCES 1.Child Development X X X X

2.S choo1 as an Institution a)History,structure, organization X X X XX b ) Curriculum Organizat ion X X X X X c ) Classroom Management X X X X X XXX d)Home-School Relations X X X XXX 3.Man & Society a) 20th Century Change X b) Stratification -ethnic,class,race X X c) Famlly: prime unit X X d) Government Services e) Power & Interest Groups X 81

Table III (con't)

Inservice Topics Training Programs

A A B B C E. T L N N N. P W Y R U E E E E Y A E R I U I S L R N K X T V W W. I L K Z T. L K. T E A T A N L 0 0 A E N S 0 H Y T. C I N N A C R T N 0 0 E A A B B A U R M 0 E L L C B. K G S R L I I K E I L F N Y I. 0 L G A 0 G R A I N U A. G K N I I E E A A s L T.

II.JOB RELATED SKILLS 1.Content & Methodology a)Read ing X X X X X X X b)Language Arts X X X X X X c)Ari thmetIc X X X X X X X d)Social Studies & Science X X e)Art & Music X X X f)Health & Safety X X X X X X g)P.E. & Games X X X

.Individualization a)Observation X X X X X b)Counselling X X X X X c)Remediation X X X X X X d)Learning styles X X X X

.Classroom Organization a)Planning & Records X X X X X X X b)Supplies X X X X X X X X X X c)Audio-visual X X X X X X X X X d)Office Machines X X X e)Displays , Lettering X X X X X X -I

82

Table III (con't)

Inservice Topics Training Programs

A A B B C E. T L N N N. P w Y R U E E E E Y A E R I U I S L R N. K X T V W W. I L K Z T. L K. E A T A N L 0 0 A E N S 0 H Y T. C I N N A C R T N 0 0 E A A B B A U R M 0 E L L C B. K G S R L I I K E I L F N Y I. 0 L G A 0 G R A I N U A. G K N I I E E A A S

III.BASIC EDUCATION 1 . Communication & Study Skills X X X X X X X X X X 2. World of Work a) Dress,Grooming X b) Promptness X c) Reporting Anticipated Absences d) Rapport with Co-workers X X X 3. Advancement a) Aptitude Testing X b) Counselling:Self- Concept Enhancement X X c) Conflict Resolution X X 4. Role of Education Assistant a) Job Description X X X X XXX b) Training Projected X X X X c) Needs Identification X X

IV.CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT 1. Native Language X X X (Indian, European, Asian) 2. Communi ty Research X X X XX XXX 3 .Historical Research X X X 4 .Materials Prep. X X X XXXXXXXXXX 5 .Scope & Sequence Planning X X X X 83

Inservice Organization

The organization of the Indian teacher aide training programs' workshops or seminars is summarized in this section. The earlier programs recognized that teachers needed

to learn to work with teacher aides in the classroom but later programs ignored or discounted this team building component. The moving of programs from university centres to

local communities seems to be a learning from the Native

Indian Teacher Training programs

Some of the teacher aide training programs identified by

this study gathered together the teacher aides and sometimes

the teachers too, for a summer course of three to eight weeks at a central university campus. Those programs that included

the teacher aides and the teachers recognized the experience

of the teacher aide training programs of the sixties and

provided training to help both the teacher aides and teachers

become effective team members. At the university campus

training centres, the aides were able to practise the

practical applications of the theory in the courses at

demonstration or laboratory schools and in role plays with

each other. Advantages to this style of presentation are the

availability of library and other resources such as

counselling services, health care services; proximity to

academic tutors connected with the university; the distance

from the distraction of family responsibilities; and the

status of being part of a recognized, almost professional, 84 program (Shank and McElroy, 1970).

At the North Arizona University a program called the

Navajo-Hopi Teacher Corps was developed. It started with a preservice workshop in the summer in which the candidates studied the language and culture of the people of the area, the community, and child development. During the school year the "intern" received training through video tape lessons in technique and theory of classroom instruction. Contact was maintained with the university through a team leader. The five or six interns in a school began work as tutors to individual students. They progressed to more responsibility in small group work and eventually worked with the whole class. The interns rotated positions every six weeks so they obtained experience at all levels of the school. They were able to work in self-contained, open or portal classrooms.

Sixty percent of the intern's time was spent in classrooms, twenty percent in community relations and twenty percent in university studies. The following summer was spent on the university campus, then the interns returned to the schools for a year in a class or in specialty chosen. A Bachelor's or

Master's degree was awarded at the end of the program

(Wilson, 1978).

Students in the programs in Alaska could take courses full- time on campus or part-time in the thirty villages at which courses were offered. Courses were available during a four semester year on campus but not in the summer in the villages. An academic counselor attempted to coordinate a 85 cycle of courses through the villages to enable the people working in the schools to upgrade their academic and professional standing. Upon completion of an Associate of

Arts Degree it was possible to enter any University of Alaska education program at the third year level (Kuskokwim

Community College, 1980).

The Yukon program was quite different from other programs in western Canada because the tutors attended classes everyday for five and one-half hours. Each day began with a study period in which the tutors worked on personal communication skills, both oral and written. The other class each morning was a tutoring skills development class. In the afternoons the tutors worked on a project, usually materials development, and then had a final class In practical skills.

Observation in classrooms was scheduled for a half-day each week. The skills sessions were organized so that the tutors experienced being taught as an individual, in small and large groups, and in project development. All classes were held in the Yukon Teacher Education Program facilities in Whitehorse.

Those who completed the program could qualify for "mature entry" to the Yukon Teacher Education Program or the

University of British Columbia education faculty (Yukon

Native Brotherhood, 1979).

In the Northwest Territory schools, following publication of the Classroom Assistant Training Manuals and

Profiles, the training of the aides reverted to being the responsibility of the classroom teacher. The training manual 86 was designed to be used by the trainee to identify, plan practice exercises, and master performance objectives. When the supervising teacher and aide agreed that mastery had been achieved, the competency was to be recorded on the Classroom

Assistant Training Profile for the certificate level aimed for. (Competency based instructional models were also used in the Navajo-Hopi Teacher Corps training program (Wilson,

1978). While most of the competencies could be acquired on-the-job and be evaluated by the teachers, certain skills were identified as being best acquired at an educational institution. The teacher aides must go to a southern university for summer courses to obtain those competencies.

(Northwest Territories Department of Education, 1978).

The 1972 training program at Lillooet brought together twelve trainees from Williams Lake, Lillooet and Bella Bella for a four week training session administered by Cariboo

College but taught by local teachers. The trainess then returned to their home communities and worked in the schools for six months under sponsor teachers. The course finished with a final one month training session in Lillooet (Plater,

1973) .

The training plan in Williams Lake interspersed five on-the-job-training sessions of five to thirteen days with workshops or "vestibules" lasting from one to five days. The workshops were held in a central location in the district.

Each of the on-the-job-training sessions had one of the following focii: discovering the need for a cross-cultural 87 aide, clerical tasks, one-to-one student assistance, Language

Arts and cross-cultural education. A Teacher's Assistant

Certificate was awarded upon completion of the training program. This training program has been repeated in the district but not often enough to train all the new teaching assistants as quickly they have been hired. Teacher assistants tend to move on to other Band positions with more prestige and a few of the teacher assistants entered the professional teacher training program offered in Williams

Lake by Native Indian Teacher Education Program (NITEP) in

1982 (Anthony, 1983).

A proposal to establish the Teacher Associate Training

Program at the College of New Caledonia in Prince George,

B.C. was written in 1978 for teacher associates in federal schools in the Prince George Indian Affairs District. The teacher associates were scattered in schools across the large area. As the associates were already at work in the federal schools, a modular format was suggested for the training program. This format had been used by the Department of

Indian Affairs in its preschool teacher training program for

Indian people in B.C. and in Williams Lake in the teacher assistant training program. The modules or training sessions were held once a month for a week at the College. The seminars consisted of lectures and discussions plus written assignments. During the other three weeks of the month the assistants worked in classrooms in the schools of their home communities. One week was spent observing other 88 paraprofessionals at work in schools with large Indian student populations (Cornwell, 1978, Noble, 1980).

The teacher aide training program at Bella Bella and the

NIsgha Language Teacher Training Program at New Aiyansh were offered in modules in the communities. Instructors from

Vancouver, Prince George and elsewhere in the province travelled to these isolated communities to give two or five day workshops. A program coordinator in the community helped arrange the timetables of the workshops and assisted as a support person for the aides and the teachers involved in the programs (More, 1979, 1982).

Assignment to Schools

In this section the arraongements for assigning Indian teacher aides to schools and classrooms will be examined.

Although early programs in the United States trained teacher aides in the summer before they were assigned school positions, some later Indian teacher aide training programs in both the United States and Canada were organized after the after the Indian teacher aides were actually working in the schools. In a few instances the untrained Indian teacher aides had been given full responsibilities as teachers in isolated schools.

The first program to train Indian teacher aides in

Arizona drew candidates from twenty tribes. The aides returned to their home schools after training and were 89 assigned to preschool classes (Steere et al., 1965). In later summer courses both the teacher and the teacher-aide attended classes together to develop skills as team members (Bureau of

Indian Affairs, 1970, Littlejohn, 1971, Center for Appplied

Linquistics, 1979).

This recognition of the necessity for teachers and teacher aides to learn to team was documented by

Plater in the first Indian teacher aide training program in

British Columbia but no later program in the province planned to conduct workshops to develop teaming between teachers and Indian teacher aides. Plater was concerned with the "lack of opportunity to adequately prepare teachers to use aides, combined with the difficulty of clearly establishing the mutually supportive roles of teacher and aide". He recognized that sending out material to sponsor teachers was "a pale sustitute for discussion and study"

(Plater, 1974, P15-16).

The materials from training programs in Alaska, the

Yukon and the Northwest Territories do not outline any methods for assignment of associates, tutors or classroom assistants.

This disregard of a problematic part of the introduction of teacher aides to classrooms was continued in the Williams

Lake and Prince George districts where Indian teacher aides were assigned to classrooms before the training program was created. The Williams Lake program scheduled visits by the co-ordinator to the classrooms to help "facilitate 90 communication between the teachers and the teaching assistants" (Haig-Brown, 1976, n. pag.). Following the program a day's workshop was held with teachers and teacher assistants together. The meeting was designed to:

clarify the role of the Teaching Assistant in the classroom, to sight (sic) some specific duties a Teaching Assistant could perform, and to foster better communication and empathy between the Teaching Assistants and their sponsor teachers. (Haig-Brown, 1976, n. pag.)

Although Cornwell stated in his proposal for the program in

Prince George that "Teachers must also be given assistance in learning the processes of establishing a working rapport with the associate" and "This is particularly important in the process of allowing the associates to grow as individuals - it is very easy to keep suggesting ways of presenting a lesson without stopping to listen or encouraging the associates to try out their ideas" (Cornwell, 1979, p.14), the program developers were not able to have workshops where teachers and associates could develop rapport, nor were there frequent observations and discussions between the teachers, associates and program co-ordinator or instructors to help develop teaming in a more individualized manner. Shortage of funds and distance between schools, time for workshops all hindered the delivery of a recognized key element in the program (Noble, 1980).

The programs in Bella Bella and New Aiyansh were organized after the Indian language teachers and support people had started working in the schools also. They became the pilot programs for the Indian Paraprofessional Training 91

Program offered throughout British Columbia in 1981-82. Each of the programs had a coordinator who was expected to "be on call at most times, and who would also have scheduled time

(for arranging activities, for providing some of the professional feedback for the internship component, for counselling)" (More, 1978, p.2). However in the evaluation of the total bilingual/bicultural program it was found that

"there is little formalized opportunity to apply workshop topics to the classroom under specific guidance of a professional" (Handley et al., 1980). In Bella Bella the teachers met with one of the instructors for an afternoon during which they were briefed on previous workshop sessions the aides had attended concerning the role of the teacher aides in Bella Bella. "Like the aides the teachers requested advance information of future teacher aide workshops, and of the long term plans for their training" (McCutcheon, 1980).

Two months later the teachers met with another instructor and expressed similar concerns. They stated they were interested in the workshops so they could reinforce workshop learnings of their teacher aide. They were concerned that reassignments of aides by the program administrators had been made without warning. Assignments of aides in both programs seemed random.

The Ontario Task Force on the Educational Needs of

Native Peoples found that aides were under-utilized and were performing menial tasks rather than being given teaching responsibility, especially in cultural topics and language

(quoted in Haig-Brown, 1976, n. pag.). The expectations of 92

the assistants and their hopes to introduce their native culture and knowledge into the school life of Indian students were not realized. Instead, the delegation of only unpleasant tasks, the uncertainty of the definition of the role of teacher assistant and the lack of a career ladder had

"resulted in a lack of commitment to fully realize the potential of their work" (Haig-Brown, 1976, n. pag.). King accused institutional administrators of being deliberately vague in defining their expectations of Indian teacher aides because :

the kinds of outcomes sought are functions of a high degree of skill at interpersonal relationships and sensitivity to a great complexity of social nuances—skills and sensitivities which are usually absent in the usual "professional" school personnel. In other words, contrasted with the normative helping mother teacher aide who is usually just helping the teacher do more of what the teacher would do anyhow if time allowed, the native Indian teacher aide is really being expected to perform some specialized functions which the professional school personnel have been unable to perform—often unable to perceive even the need for performing. (King, 1975, p.23)

Upon reviewing the programs offered to Indian teacher aides since King wrote, it is possible to suggest Indian teacher aides are now expected to do both the "more of the same" tasks as well as those developing "interpersonal" and intra-cultural. The absence of a career ladder and the fragility of funding for teacher assistants are two continuing deficiencies.

As a result of the pressures to accomplish so much in so many roles, the Indian aide becomes susceptible to both 93

"culture shock" and "role shock" (King, 1981). It is then difficult to prevent the aide from becoming dissatisfied with the school, or the school becoming disillusioned about the

"culture bridge".

Support Services-Financial

The training of teacher aides is not a recognized function of educational institutions therefore grant money from governments and foundations must be obtained before a program can exist. Most adults require financial support during training and certainly most expect to be paid for working in the schools. However as the position of teacher aide is not recognized as an essential part of the educational establishment, school districts and government departments of education seldom include salaries for teacher aides in their budgets or long-term plans. Indian teacher aides are not any more valued by school financing systems than other teacher aides.

The year-to-year financing of both Indian teacher aide training programs and Indian teacher aide positions in schools is accomplished using a variety of sources. Some of these sources are enumerated in this section.

In the United States, financial support for Indian adults training to work in preschools was made available under Title II, Community Action Programs as part of the

Economic Opportunity Act. This financial assistance was used 94 by the American Indian Tribes to finance pre-school training

(Steere et al., 1965, Gelardi and Miller, 1980).

The Center for Applied Linquistics' workshop with the

University of Utah was funded under Educational Professional

Development Assistance. The specific uses of the funding are not recorded (Center for Applied Liquistics, 1976).

Some scholarship money was available for students enrolled in the Associate programs at Kuskokwim Community

College in Alaska. The project was funded under Title VII of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act. (Kuskokwim

Community College, 1980).

The Yukon Department of Education gave financial support to students plus travelling allowance. Subsidies for housing were considered (Yukon Native Brotherhood, 1979).

In the British Columbia programs (Lillooet, Williams

Lake, Prince George, Bella Bella and New Aiyansh) the teacher aides or teaching assistants are usually paid salaries by their band from educational funds. Some money is available directly from the federal government for programs that are vocational and not paraprofessional. Thus the Department of

Indian Affairs provided funds for development and operation of the Lillooet and Prince George programs as "training employment package(s)" (Plater, 1974) each for one year

(Cornwell, 1978).

While providing welcome financial support, the salaries paid to the teacher aides sometimes cause problems. In small communities, when only a few aides had been hired and 95 trained, it was sometimes difficult to rally those who were not hired behind the program. The continued economic welfare of the teacher assistant sometimes caused conflict in the community and in the home, especially if the women became the ones receiving regular pay and more education. The community became factionalized (Reeves et al., 1978, King, 1981, Ingram et al. , 1981 ) .

The Field Development Office of the University of

British Columbia has supported the programs in the Yukon and throughout British Columbia by making instructors available and by helping to finance their fees and travel costs (More,

1983).

Support Services-Personal

Generally teacher aides reenter the world of the school with low expectations of success and acceptance(Klopf et al.,

1969). The careful shepherding by a sympathetic and knowledgeable coordinator plus the guidance of an interested teacher has increased the self-esteem and success of teacher aides in this attempt to improve student learnings. The support offered by the perr group of trainee teacher aides is as important as that recorded by evaluators of Indian teacher training programs (Mcintosh, 1979, More, 1980, Read,

1983, Thomson, 1978). In this section the personal support given to trainee Indian teacher aides will be reviewed.

The early teacher aide programs in the United States 96 gave the aides workshops but personal guidance ended there.

The Centre for Applied Linquistics made onsite visits to schools before and after the summer workshops in 1965 to provide resource and support services (Center for Applied

Linquistics, 1979).

It was recommended that teacher-teacher aide teams in each school meet once a month to dicuss ideas, difficulties and evaluate ongoing programs at the workshops in 1970 in

Arizona (Bureau of Indian Affairs, 1970). This group problem-solving session was tried in a formal way only once in Williams Lake (Haig Brown, 1976).

Personal support through a supervisor/cousellor/program coordinator was given in most programs. An academic counselor was assigned each student in Kuskokwim Community College

(Kuskokwim Community College, 1980). The interns in the

Navajo-Hopi Teacher Corps had a team leader who supervised the intern in the classroom and the community activities and who was also available for discussion of the course work that was presented on video tape (Wilson, 1978). A similar role was filled by the coordinator for the programs in Lillooet,

Prince George, Williams Lake, Bella Bella and New Aiyansh.

The difficulties grew as the schools at which the trainees were assigned became distant from the center or each other.

In Arizona a team leader was responsible for six interns in the same school. The Lillooet program had a coordinator but he was not able to visit the trainees at work in schools distant from that centre. In Prince George, the coordinator 97

planned programs for twenty-nine associates from nine schools. The Williams Lake program's coordinator was responsible for guiding the program for twenty teachers and trainees in several scattered schools. In New Aiyansh the position of coordinator was only part time. The coordinator at Bella Bella was responsible for arranging workshops with

University of British Columbia as well as for local training and liason.

Support Services-Academic

The presence of the academic instructors is brief, most instructors conduct only one or two workshops in each program. Therefore the possesion of printed materials in the form of a handbook containing information that was expanded in the workshops provides long-term support and as easily accessible reference resource for the teacher aides, his section examines some of these printed support materials in some detail.

The teacher-aides in the first training program in

Arizona requested a written record of the program to serve as a guide for both teachers and aides at work in the classroom.

The handbook contains the syllabus of the pilot program. It was published when it became obvious during the eight week training session that a written guide would be needed by the teacher-aides to help them function in their jobs more effectively. This handbook-syllabus has been quoted and has 98 served as a model for later programs In Arizona and British

Columbia. The authority accorded this handbook is due in part to its stated use:

It is intended as to be used as a guide for the teacher-aide to supplement the program directed by the teacher, and may serve as a guide for the aide working with younger or older children. The principles are the same. It is understood that the material will be adapted to the problems, the individual children, the varied cultural and environmental conditions in which it will be used. To function at a high level in the classroom and in the community, the aide must have an understanding of child development, all facets of the curriculum, the cultural heritage, and community relationships in his particular area. (Steere et al., 1965, p.8)

The handbook is designed to be a reference book for the aide. It includes a summary of duties, characteristics of c young children and suggestions for effective ways to guide them in interpersonal and educational activities. Details on planning the day in a pre-school include sample lesson plans and activities, but do not include any suggestions for cultural infusion of Native Indian knowledge, crafts, games or songs. The handbook provides material that assists the

Indian teacher aide advance pre-school students' exposure to the dominant culture through rhymes, fairy tales, games, art materials and language but 1965 was too early for educators to recognize that children learn best if they know their own culture first. This emphasis was corrected in later handbooks

(i.e.Bureau of Indian Affairs, 1970).

Section two of the book is entitled Indian Culture. The section appears to be an outline for teaching culture to the teachers by the aides. It was important that the teachers and 99 aides understood the present culture of the Navajo. Although the objectives for the Indian Culture section state:

4. Cultural patterns are the greatest heritage of any group and should be regarded with pride. 5. As groups come in contact, an exchange of cultures will occur. 6. Culture substitution or rejection can be disastrous if not based on a very careful pattern of selection. 7. A good selective process should not introduce cultural conflicts.

(Steere et al . , 1965 , p. 76) and the pictures accompanying the text show adult Indian people engaged in current activities and traditional cultural observances, the program's implicit recognition and acceptance of the dominant culture of America is apparant in the total absence of suggested classroom activities, stories, games or learning experiences that would involve Indian knowledge or culture. The handbooks prepared by the Centre for Applied Linquistics and for the Choctaw Bilingual Program placed more emphasis on cross-cultural activities and programs (Center for Applied Linquistics, 1979, Littlejohn,

1971). Much work is still to be done on defining Indian culture, organizing and structuring it to fit the school curricula or alternately, organizing and structuring the school to fit the culture.

The final section of the handbook is a guide for classroom Audio-Visual equipment and communication techniques. Valuable plans for preparing students for field trips and for preparing audio-visual presentations are also outlined. 100

Three handbooks prepared at subsequent workshops in

Arizona for Indian teacher aides and teachers of Indian children emphasizied team teaching, role definition, writing lesson plans as well as the topics in the earlier programs.

In spite of research by Mowhatt (1976), Erickson and

Mohatt (1982), Kleinfeld (1972, 1973), Sterling and

Hebert(n.d.) and discussions by Arbess (1981) and Cornwell

(1978) the methodology and teaching skills taught to Indian teacher aides in later programs differ not at all from those in teacher education programs throughout North America.

Handbooks and collections of outlines for workshops that have been prepared in British Columbia have had multiple purposes (Haig-Brown,1976, More and Ashworth, 1980, 1982).

Haig-Brown (1976) appended the section from the British

Columbia Teachers' Federation Handbook that defines the role of teacher aide in British Columbia schools (see Appendix E).

He also included parts of Steere's handbook and material from the Ontario and Cariboo College guides to add to the considerations about what an aide was and could do. The handbooks with their examples and assignments have served as resource books for the aides. For the teachers, the handbooks have provided a concrete record of what the aide has been expected to learn and therefore, what the aide might be asked to do. The inclusion of a philosophy for teacher aides, a code of ethics, a job description and a list of possible duties in "Native Indian Paraprofessional Training Program:

Learning Packages" (More and Ashworth, 1980) also provided 101 the teachers and aides with more bases from which to establish a working team plan.

Evaluation by Participants

In this section the only extensive evaluation of a training program by the actual participants is quoted. The criticisms seem valid for other programs as well.

The evaluations of the training program for associate teachers in Prince George was done by the trainees, the teachers and the coordinator. Questionnaires were completed at the end of each seminar but the most revealing evaluation came in discussions held during the coordinator's final visit to each school. The criticisms of the trainees centred on four items in the program:

(a) Although the majority of seminars were seen as useful, too much was presented to the participants in too short a time. (b) More time should be spent in actual practice of seminar content and more time should be spent on assignments while the participants are in Prince George. (c) The program should be more structured with required attendance and evaluation of assignments. Participants should receive some sort of credit for their work. (d) Participants who are not working in classrooms should be required to work in their schools on a voluntary basis (this applies to substitutes primarily). (Noble, 1980, pp.3,4)

The federal teachers criticisms of the program were:

(a) The failure of some associates to integrate what they had learned in the seminars in their classroom performance (b) The lack of emphasis on practicum assignments and evaluation of the performance of the participants. 102

(c) The failure to more actively involve federal teachers in the program and keep them informed of seminar content. (Noble, 1980, p.4)

The coordinator felt the starting of the program was most problematic. Hired only one month before the first seminar was held, she had little chance to gather, and less chance to assess, implications of different formal education levels of the trainees, different experiences in schools and different educational goals (Noble, 1980). Her experience as a program co-ordinator was not unique..

Findings

In this section the salient characteristics of Indian education and the programs designed to improve it will be discussed. The findings from training progams for teacher aides, both Indian and non-Indian will be presented.

The improvement of the academic achievement of Indian students in schools has been attempted in three types of schools: on-reserve schools, residential schools and integrated schools. The trend seems to be to relocate schools back onto the reserves. In the past, the separation of students from their families to the residential schools allowed educators to control student attendance, to increase exposure to English but created a problem in that the students were separated and alienated from their own culture without being exposed to another culture other than the culture of the residential school system. Attendance at 103 integrated schools has increased the students' exposure to the majority culture and language but the Indian students' achievement in schools has not been that desired by their parents nor educators.

Demands for relevant curricula form Indian associations have been partially met with the introduction of courses in

Native languages, arts, crafts and music, plus some courses in history and law. Textbooks have been rewritten to correct some of the anti-Indian bias and the most blatant misrepresentation of history.

Community and Native control of education have only been achieved in a very few locations. The trend in Canada towards centralized control of curricula, testing, textbook, and materials use does not point to a positive political climate for the realization of the desire for the control of Indian education by Indian people.

The training of paraprofessionals from minority groups in the United States in the sixties allowed entry of community people into the schools. It was a long-term process which required community reeducation through open communication in print, in meetings, and in free association with schools. Teachers and teacher aides had to be taught to work as team members and had to learn to accept each other's differences in child rearing practices and reward systems, in language and in mannerisms. The use of teacher aides in bilingual or bicultural programs in New York (Mcllhenny,1979,

Klopf et al,1969), Connecticutt (Wright, 1969), California, 104

Kentucky, Minnesota, and Michigan (Klopf et al, 1969) have been reported. In all of these programs candidates have been chosen from the school's community with no or little education prerequisites. Varied upgrading has been provided depending upon the need.

More important than academic prerequisites, according to evaluators, was the ability and willingness of the teacher aides to personnally accept and adopt certain codes of behavior and dress and to use accepted techniques of control and instruction with children. Being punctual and notifying others of possible absences were two desireable behaviors stressed by school personnel.

The improved academic achievement of children was correlated with the presence of their parents in the classroom working with the teacher (Fullan, 1982).

The pivotal position of the principal in any innovative program has been delinated by Sarason (1971, Fullan and Park

(1981), Leithwood and Stanley (1983), and Pravica and Mclean

(1983). The active support of this key person in any school is essential to the success of any innovation. The principal must be convinced that the innovation is worthwhile for his students and his teachers so that he will pursue its adoption and implementation.

Native Indian teacher training programs in the United

States and Canada have reinforced some learnings from the paraprofessional training programs of the sixties, especially concerning features of adult education. The importance of 105

facilities to enable minority students to raise self-esteem has been accented in the successes of peer group support and

counselling, a home base or 'nest' within a larger

institution, the leadership of a trusted, sympathetic and

academically qualified coordinator. This coordinator acts as

a buffer and a bridge to ease the entry and efficient working

by the students into the culturally foreign world of

academia. The difficulties raised by family and outside

responsibilities of the trainee teachers and

paraprofessionals have been partially addressed by the use of

field centres - training close to home - and by stipends paid

to students.

The formalization of Native Studies has raised the

profile of the cultures of the Indian peoples. The cultures are no longer relegated to ancient anthropology but now have

recognition as current life styles, legal systems and arts.

The knowledge of the Indian peoples is given respect.

Training programs for teacher aides or teaching assistants, teacher associates or classroom assistants, show

a strong resemblance whether they are designed for Native

Indians in Canada or the United States or if they are

designed for other bicultural classes, disadvantaged social

groups or Australian Aboriginal people. School structure and

organization, child development, communication and

counselling skills, use of audio-visual and office machines,

some basic skills upgrading, arts and craft organization, and

in the Native Indian programs, Indian language fluency and 106

Indian culture curriculum development are common components

(Table III). Many Indian students required course work in the structure and grammar of their language even if they were fluent speakers. Tribal history and political organizations were other necessary topics for many of the candidates for the Navajo-Hopi Teacher Corps (Wilson, 1978) and in British

Columbia (Plater, 1973). The major change has been the dropping of teaming skills from the later programs. In doing this program designers ignored the fact that the introduction of teacher aides or teaching assistants to classrooms

requires that both teachers and teacher aides learn new

roles. The persistance of teachers in pursuing traditional

teaching methods is well documented by Stake et al.(1978),

Lortie (1975) and Sarason (1971). New roles for teachers designed by outsiders are adapted or are rejected outright by

teachers (Walters, 1981, Parish and Arends, 1983, Sarason,

1971, Fullan, 1973, Fullan and Park, 1981). It is imperative

that this teaming component be reintroduced to training

programs to ease the entry of teacher aides, to increase

their efficient use and to recognize the value of both

teachers and teacher aides in this innovation.

The organization of instructional and classroom time varied (Table II). Most programs began with an intensive

period of introduction to the schools for the future

assistants followed by placement in the schools.

Unfortunately all too few recent programs provided time for

the teachers and assistants to discuss and solve the 107 difficulties of merging the assistants into the existing school structure nor to helping teachers learn to work with an adult assistant, Native Indian or otherwise, in a team of co-workers. Training for the assistants continued to take place at regular intervals, in some cases on one day a week, or one week out of every month. Distance from school to training centre sometimes mandated that longer training sessions be held at less frequent intervals, and for longer periods. Only in a few situations were the participants of a program able to spend part of each day in training and part of each day in the school.

The training of Indian teacher aides has had two major focii: (1) to increase Indian students' achievement by creating a "culture broker" or "cultural bridge", and (2) to increase the number of Indian adults employed in the school education team. The first focus was intended to be a bridge to permit people to bring more Indianness into the school system. There has been an increase in the teaching of Indian crafts,art, music, languages and history. However the inservice content of training programs which closely resemble typical teacher training courses, and the lack of supervision and communication between the home community, the school personnel, and the program personnel has resulted in the teacher aides becoming a bridge across which more information travels from the school to the student than from the Indian community and culture to the school. The teacher aide learns the non-Indian school system and then explains it to the 108

Indian students so that the students not only know what the methods and rules are, but sees those methods and rules as

legitimate for the Indian people, accepted and promoted by

Indian people.

The other intention of the bridge - to bring Indian

culture, not just curriculum materials - is very difficult to attain when most of teacher aides have white instructional models in the teachers with whom they work, in their

coursework, and in their own experience as students.

The second focus of Indian teacher aide training

programs - to increase the number of Indian adults employed

in the school system - has been realized most successfully

where the school is a band operated school or school

district. In other school districts, the established teacher

associations view teacher aides as infamous insertions

designed to reduce the number of teaching jobs for

association members; acceptance of teacher aides as coworkers

has been slow, especially in classrooms. Indian bands have

paid the salaries of teacher aides to prevent charges of

usurping local school board finances and this has allowed the

teacher aides to be placed in schools. Sadly, teacher and

administrators have still to be convinced the introduction of

Indian teacher aides is a positive cooperative effort rather

than an invasion from people who previously had little

interest or influence in schools but who now are taking their

place in what was a closed professional shop. The political

nature of introducing Indian teacher aides is even more 109 delicate than the introduction of middle-class parent volunteers or teacher aides to schools. The sensitive nature of the process has been overlooked or Ignored by those who have operated and designed most of the training programs for

Indian teacher aides. 110

Chapter Three

Methodology

Summary

The present study consists of two parts, a review of the literature on Indian Education with particular attention paid to the literature on the training of Indian teachers and teacher aides as well as the training of teacher aides to work in multicultural classrooms, and a study of the Teaching

Assistant Training Program in Lytton, B.C.

The study of the Lytton program took place over a two year period. The researcher first became aware of the teaching assistant training program in Lytton in October 1981 and monitored it through to June 1983.

The Teaching Assistant training program in Lytton, B.C. is an example of a community working on the development of a school team of parents and educators.

The training program was a formal entry process to the school for community members, introducing the team concept of education for native Indians and teachers. This study mirrors some of the impressions of the participants, the teachers, the administrators, for there are "multiple truths, multiple understandings, some contradictory to others" (Stake, 1977).

Stake reminded educators that "problems are directly solved by people close at hand" rather than by the presumption that

"in some measurement or...imported truth lies the remedy." Ill

People in a small village, even one on the Trans-Canada

Highway and main railway lines, seemed to feel:

... an outsider visits, plans to tell something of your story. You are skeptical. ... he who knows nothing about you will, even in saying good, do you harm by twisting the story. Then he will go away and all of you in your isolated .. community will live with the bad feelings left in his wake. (The Rainy Lake Chronicle, 1983 , p.2)

There was a long period of trust building while program participants were wary of an outside investigator who had motives that were unrelated to the program itself and the people in the program. This initial hesitency on the part of the Teaching Assistants and school staff to be part of the study precluded the use of pretests and posttests to assess changes in attitudes or performance.

The study is a micro-study using Goodlad's "amalgam of traditional techniques: interviews, questionnaires, observations, and, particularly in the curriculum domain, collections of documents" (Goodlad, 1983).

An attempt has been made to describe and document program activities and processes. This is classified as process evaluation (Borich, 1982). 112

Ins trument s

Questionnaires

Teacher Assistant Questionnaire

The questionnaire (Appendix D) given to the teaching assistants was adapted from the one designed by Thomas and

Mcintosh for their evaluation of the University of British

Columbia's Native Indian Teacher Education Program (NITEP).

Jioth NITEP and the Lytton teaching assistant training program accepted students with varied academic background. Both programs prepared students to work in the schools but recognized the program might prepare people for other jobs as well; both programs were designed specifically for the Indian people of British Columbia. The co-ordinator and the education director of the Lytton program viewed it as preparation for NITEP; the trainees initially hoped the

teaching assistant training program would develop into a

NITEP centre; therefore, a comparison between the responses of the participants of the two programs would illustrate

similarities between the two groups of students.

A sample questionnaire was distributed to the Teaching

Assistants in March of 1982. Some questions were deleted at

this time following a discussion with the Teaching Assistant

trainees, the Program Coordinator and the researcher. The

revised questionnaire was distributed to the Teaching

Assistants during the final week of the program in May, 1983. 113

The Teaching Assistants, by then comfortable about the contents and the use of the information, were nonetheless confident of their right to answer or not to answer the questions. Although they were sure their individual responses would not be revealed, they also knew that the researcher could identify their replies to questions and this may have shaped their responses.

Teacher Questionnaire

The questionnaire (Appendix C) given to the teachers was adapted from the pre and post tests given by Brown in 1975 to

school personnel in Texas during the creation of a training program for building aides. The two programs were similar as

the building aides in Texas like the Teaching Aides in Lytton were not assigned to one teacher but performed a variety of

tasks for various teachers in the school. The trainees in both programs were chosen from the school community without prerequisite academic qualifications.

Additional questions were formulated after consideration of the Ministry of Education's New Stategies in Indian

Education (1981), Cornwell (1979), Sterling and Hebert

(n.d.). The additional questions attempted to determine if

teaching or presentation styles had been adapted to match

Ministry suggestions for accommodating Indian students'

learning styles in the schools.

The researcher attended a staff meeting at the high 114

school in May to present the questionnaire and answered

questions concerning the study and use of the data and

thesis. The principal at the elementary school chose to

I present and distribute the questionnaire to his staff. The

researcher did not meet with the elementary school staff.

Interviews

The interview checklists (Appendices A and B) were

formulated by the researcher and refined in conjunction with

program developers and delivery personnel in March, 1982.

Comments regarding later developments were added in the fall

of 1982 and In February, 1983. Interviews with the school

principals and the teacher who coordinated the tutoring

program in the high school were held in May, 1983. During the

interviews the researcher tried to identify, in conjunction

with the participants, factors that had affected the program

design and operation. Interviews were held in the offices of

the people interviewed. A written report of the interview was

sent to each person for corrections and additions. A further

meeting was held if so desired. Written corrections were made

and then rechecked by telephone and letter.

Observations

The researcher became a participant observer in two

workshops, one attended by teachers and Teaching Assistants, 115

and one math workshop attended only by the Teaching

Assistants . The researcher conducted two curriculum development workshops with the Teaching Assistants. The researcher was hired to tutor the teacher Teaching Assistants to assist them with the completion of one of the Open

Learning Institute of Britsh Columbia's English courses. The tutoring took place during eight sessions of two afternoons.

The researcher made several visits to the office of the

Education Director and Curriculum Materials Developer of the

Lytton Indian Band to review program development, and to provide some research material from the University of British

Columbia library for the curriculum being developed by the

Lytton Indian Band employees. Informal conversations were held with the Teaching Assistants during these visits.

The researcher attended the "Successes in Indian

Education:A Sharing" Conference in Vancouver in February,

1983 to observe the presentation by the Teaching Assistants,

Education Director and Curriculum Materials Developer of the

Lytton program.

Visits to the schools were made on the days that the researcher was in Lytton but those visits were restricted to discussions with the principals and individual teachers.

Classroom observations were not made. Instead, the report of classroom observations of the Teaching Assistants made by the program evaluator at the end of the second year of the Lytton training program were read. 116

Document Study

Copies of the outlines for each workshop held in Lytton were obtained. Schedules of classes and classroom assignments in the schools were made available by program developers.

As well as material in the University of British

Columbia Libraries, documents and books from the private libraries of various faculty members were reviewed. The collection of material in the NITEP reference room was examined. People who had been in charge of Indian teacher training programs were contacted and in most cases, documents were obtained. The materials available from the Department of

Indian Affairs in Vancouver were examined.

Limitat ions

The researcher was not continually involved in the program nor was she able to make scheduled observations of

the program. However, thirteen percent of the training workshops were attended although visits were unevenly spaced

throughout the two years. Observation of the Teaching

Assistants at work with students or teachers were not made by

the researcher.

It was not possible to control the level of cooperation

in questionnaire answering. Five out of ten staff members in 117 the elementary school completed the questionnaire; ten out of fourteen staff members in the high school responded. All the

Teaching Assistants completed the first part of the questionnaire, only one declined to complete the second half.

The people who left the training program at the beginning of the first year and the person who left it in the second year did not fill out the questionnaires.

There are four possible explanations for the lower response rate by the elementary school staff:

1) there were fewer Teaching Assistants working in the elementary school for the last six months of the program.

2) the questionnaires were distributed by the principal rather than the researcher, thus the personal, professional contact was lacking between the research and the teachers.

3) the questionnaire was distributed just after the

Curriculum Materials Developer, an ex-staff member of the elementary school, and the Educational Director had left the band's employ and loyalties were divided between the program and the people who had left.

4) It was not possible for the researcher to employ personal followup procedures in the elementary school.

Oppenheimer observed that one of the problems of evaluating educational programs for adults was that it was

"almost impossible to get a negative comment or critical evaluation of a class or teacher from an older adult student"

(Oppenheimer, 1980, p.2). This statement also applies to

Native Indian students and written evaluations. They are only 118 slightly less reluctant to criticize verbally (Noble, 1980).

Rothe reminded researchers that questionnaire results are biased when Indian people "are expected to complete forced-choice items which reflect a researcher's perspective on educational features which are significant and relevant to the researcher" (Rothe, 1982, p.l). Researchers are further cautioned by Adams because "answers by Metis and Indians to formal questionnaires rarely represent true opinions about the questions" (Adams,1975, p.157). In this study both teachers and Indian people were requested to answer such a formal questionnarie. 119

Chapter Four

Lytton Teaching Assistant Program

In this chapter the development of the Lytton Teaching

Assistant Training Program will be described. First there is a brief sketch of the town of Lytton, then the training program is presented. The training program will be discussed under the same headings as were used in the review of the literature: Community Involvement, Purposes and Objectives of the Program, Prerequisites, Goals for the Program Trainees,

Inservice Content, Inservice Organization, Assignment to

Schools, Support Services and Findings.

Introduction to the Community

The village of Lytton perches on a bench above the conflux of the Thompson and Fraser Rivers. The Trans-Canada

Highway cuts along the mountainside above the village while the two main Canadian of the railway lines skirt the upper and lower limits of the old town. A neat grid of tree-lined side-streets borders the wide store- fronted main street. Two blocks are empty due to past fires. There are two grocery stores, a small department store, a bank, the library and some smaller stores along the street. At the turnoff from the

Trans-Canada there is a large motel, garage, cafe, and summer river raft trip complex on the right and the high school on the left. 120

There are two new subdivisions hidden above the

Trans-Canada highway. They are built on a dry, open hillside.

Trees are just starting to provide much needed wind breaks and shelter from the sun in summer in this, one of the hottest spots in Canada.

Winding down the hill under the rail line, the road passes the forestry station, manned only in the summer, and turns once again to enter the town. On the right an imposing two-storey building with a motel in tow becomes a centre of activity in the summer for raft trippers finalizing plans to go down the Fraser or Thompson River. A little farther down the street on the left is the centre of town for the teenagers, the electronic games arcade. Another block further is the core of the town. On one corner is the hotel complete with cafe, restaurant and pub, and across from it is the post office sharing a building with the Indian Band Office. Just up the hill on a side street is the R.C.M.P. office and the elementary school. Tucked in behind the Band office on the part of main street which is cut off by the old highway is the hospital and church. Between the Band office and the hotel is a road that leaves the town for Lillooet. It also leads to the ferry across the river to the many small enclaves of Indian people who live on farms and ranches on the benches in the curves of the Fraser River. The road to

Botanie Valley branches off the Lillooet Road. The old residential school is further along the road to Lillooet.

Lytton has a population of about 2000 . Of these 121 residents, 1200 are Native Indians. Indian adults work in the cafe, in the mill, in the band office, as support staff in the schools, for the railways, as loggers and as farmers in the surrounding country. The non-Natives are the store and hotel owners, the garage, mill and motel operators, the tourist raft trip organizers, the train crews, the forestry, medical, police and teaching personnel. There are numerous adults, Indian and non-Indian, who are unemployed most of the year.- Part time work with the Highways Department, and with the Forest Service tree planting or fire fighting crews is sometimes available.

One of the many small reserves in the area (the original

Lytton settlement) abuts the town and the Indians who live

there enjoy the benefits of the town's water supply, fire protection, sewer system, hospital, and tv satellite reception dish .

In the opinion of some of the towns' people, the Indians are seen to receive an inordinate amount of financial assistance from the government which is paid for by the non-Indian taxpayer. This was seen to be true of those Indian people who had access to town facilities, those Indian people who were provided with Band jobs, those people who received training courses in farming or in working in the schools, and those Indian students who received education allowances (see also Reid, 1974). These sensitivities regarding the equality of opportunity and treatment between Indian and non-Indian meant that some people in the town were not enthusiatic 122 supporters of the Teaching Assistant Training Program.

Lest the impression is given of a town divided by the above, it was observed that the Department of Agriculture lectures and demonstrations on gardening and orcharding that were held in the Band office facilities were attended by both

Indian and non-Indians. It was also observed that at community ball games there were players both Indian and non-Indian.

The Lytton Teaching Assistant Training Program

Community Involvement

In this section the involvement of community members and groups in Lytton in the Indian teaching assistant training program is examined and discussed. The population of the community of Lytton is almost evenly divided between Indian and non-Indian people. The school personnel are both Indian and non-Indian but the teachers and administrators are all non-Native Indian while the student body is seventy-five percent Native Indian. Community involvement in changing curriculum, staffing and activities in the school therefore was an attempt to alter power structure, a very political happening.

In 1980 the Lytton Review/Action Committee was

established by the Lytton area Indian Bands (Kanaka, Lytton,

Nicomen, Siska, Skuppah) and the South Cariboo School 123

District. A consultant from the University of British

Columbia was asked to join the committee. The purpose of the

committee was:

to determine how well the current education system is meeting the needs of Indian children attending Lytton schools so Band members as well as other parents can be more aware of the existing educational system, its strengths and weaknesses, as a basis for consideration of developing improvements and alternatives for the future. (More, 1981)

During Phase 1, three Band members interviewed parents,

older students and interested community people to determine and discuss their goals for education. Indian Education

projects in other communities were examined. In particular,

the teacher aide program at Bella Bella and the

Bilingual/Bicultural program at New Aiyansh, the curriculum

projects of the Storlo Sitel, and the work being done by

Robert Sterling and his program in Merritt were studied.

A series of goals and objectives for the students in

the two Lytton schools with particular reference to the

large percentage (75%) of Indian students was developed by

the staffs of the schools. A report of Phase I was presented

to the Band in the summer of 1981. This phase completed the

first step of Tyler's rationale, "What educational purposes

should the school seek to attain?" (Tyler, 1966). It also

brought the three main groups necessary for the successful

implementation of any innovation (Organization for Economic

Co-operation and Development, 1977, Fullan, 1983),

namely:

(a)those who are associated with the innovating 124

action as designers, analysts, selectors and implementors; (b) those who make up the target area - individual citizens, professional groups, organizations or communities, and (c) the general public who can be expected to be more than just neutral observers. (Bruusgaard quoted by Organization for Economic

Co-operation and Development, 1977, n. pag.)

However, the next steps of the rationale, "What educational experiences can be provided that are likely to attain these purposes?" and "How can these educational experiences be effectively organized?" were not formally addressed by the groups involved because, while the interviews were being conducted, and the goals being set, the

Home-School Coordinator of the Lytton Band began discussions with the school principals and the superintendent of the

South Cariboo School District about the possibility of placing Indian Teaching Assistants in the school classrooms.

This project might have in fact been something that the committee, community and school staff would have selected as something to answer the second of Tyler's questions, but they were sidestepped in the process.

While the committee continued collecting data to examine the education process in Lytton, the Home-School Coordinator pursued the possibility of creating a Teaching Assistant

Training Program by seeking support from the Director of

Indian Education in the Ministry of Education, British

Columbia. The Department of Indian Affairs and the office of the Supervisor of Indian Education of the University of

British Columbia were approached by the Home-School 125

Coordinator to organize a training program for the Teaching

Assistants. The Home-School Coordinator employed a strategy of collecting all supporting figures and documents and assembling them on paper, then, with those papers in hand, meeting the officials and administrators one by one, face to face, to obtain their approval and backing for the program.

By September, 1981, a tentative format for the Lytton

Teaching Assistant Training Program had been created.

Financing from the Band's discretionary funds had been approved by the Band Council and the Department of Indian

Affairs for program salaries, equipment and supplies, the

University of British Columbia's Field Office provided instructors and their stipends.

A Program Coordinator was hired from within the community. She was a person who had taught in the elementary school and who had worked as a special education assistant in the high school. Eight candidates for training were recruited from the band by the Home-School Coordinator.

Principals gave permission for the Teaching Assistants to be present in their schools and teachers volunteered their classrooms. A room in the band office building was allocated as the Teaching Assistants' classroom. The program was began less than six months after conception.

The Home School Coordinator, the Band Chief, the Band

Office staff, the Lytton Review/Act ion Committee and the Band were all proud and a little surprised that so much could happen so fast. It appeared that everyone involved in the 126 innovation of introducing Indian Teaching Assistants into the schools had become informed about the planned program, and had approved it.

The community and the school staffs had some reservations about the program, its intents and purposes.

Some of the questions raised were: "What are we training

these people for?" "Can we assure them of jobs in the schools at the end of a successfully completed program?"

"Where will the funds for their salaries come from in future years?" To others the program was another "make-work" program, government money being spent on a task that didn't need to be done. To still others the program was being

foisted onto the schools before the teachers and

administrators had a chance to think about: "Did the teachers need Teaching Assistants?" "What do teachers want Teaching

Assistants to be able to do?" VWhat will it mean to teachers,

students, and schools, to have Teaching Assistants in the

classrooms?" "How does a teacher work with a Teaching

Assistant?" Two or three people wondered, "How will teachers work with Teaching Assistants who are Indians, and not

necessarily those who had been star pupils nor uncritical

supporters of the school system?"

As the program progressed, the community as a whole had

little direct input into the program. However, conversations

in the community about the program filtered back to the Band

office through the Teaching Assistants, teachers, Home-School

Coordinator and Program Coordinator. 127

Informal communication networks concerning the training program established themselves. The workshop instructors picked up feelings, attitudes, opinions, and information when they visited the schools and talked to staff members, or as they checked into motels or ate meals in restaurants. A stranger in a small town is questioned about his or her business. Few local non-Indian people hesitated to voice their opinion about this new development in their schools.

It seemed there were at least two separate networks with only a minimum crossover between non-Indian and Indian information and perceptions about the program.

The Indian Band, through the chief, office staff, and

Home-School Coordinator's regular reports to the Band

Council, were kept formally informed about the program's development. Because the Band Council regulated the funds and was apprized of happenings, the Band retained financial and administrative control of the project.

The Program Coordinator and the Home-School Coordinator served as the community control for program design in the following ways. They were able to assess the interaction between the Teaching Assistants and the teachers in the school by daily observations and by the feedback each of them received from individual teachers and Teaching Assistants.

They consulted with each other and with the Supervisor of

Indian Education from the University of British Columbia.

The Program Coordinator and the Home-School Coordinator adjusted the content and form of the afternoon sessions and 128 workshops to accomodate the perceived and voiced needs of the

Teaching Assistants. Another part of the community, the teachers, did not have control over program design. In only one instance were the teachers' needs addressed face-to-face by the program. At other times, teachers' concerns were considered, but not in the combined presence of teachers and

Teaching Assistants. The teachers did not see how the training program was attempting to adapt to meet their needs for assistance in the classroom. They did not feel they had input into the program.

The wider community was still more remote from it.

Purposes and Objectives of Program

In this section the stated purposes and objectives of the Lytton Teaching Assistant Training Program will be discus sed.

The intentions of the Teacher Assistant Training Program in Lytton were similar to those training programs for Indian

Teacher Aides in the schools of Bella Bella, Bella Coola,

Klemtu, and Chehalis, all of which used the workshop outlines developed by More and Ashworth (1980).

The program intent as found in The Native Indian

Paraprofessional Training Program: Learning Packages (More &

Ashworth,1980) is to :

a) provide an effective training program for Native

Indians to work in classrooms as Teaching Assistants, Native 129

Language Teachers or in other paraprofessional roles.

b) emphasize skill development in the areas in which the native Indian paraprofessional can make special contributions to the classroom - i.e. tutoring individuals and small groups, cultural infusion, language development, teaching a native language, liason with parents, orientation and support of teachers.

c) provide an academic and professional basis for entry into N.I.T.E.P. and teacher certification and on to administrative roles in schools.

d) provide a training program adapted to the needs of the community.

Additional purposes of the Lytton program as defined by the participants and Home-School Coordinator were to:

e) improve communication between band and school.

f) develop curriculum materials specific to the

Thompson culture for use in the schools.

The Lytton Teaching Assistant Training Program concentrated on doing just what its name stated, training

Teaching Assistants. The one Thompson Language Teacher already working in the schools attended some of the training sessions but there was no effort to train the other Teaching

Assistants to be Language Teachers.

The work on the English units from the Open Learning

Institute of British Columbia was designed to prepare the

Teaching Assistants to enter NITEP. They did complete the courses to the university entrance level. Unfortunately the 130 small number of Teaching Assistants meant there could not be a NITEP field centre in Lytton, and the family responsibilities of the assistants precluded the option of attending a NITEP program elsewhere at the present time. Two of the Teaching Assistants hope sometime in the future to be able to become fully qualified teachers.

The teachers, administrators, Teaching Assistants, and

Supervisor of Indian Education (More, 1982) all agreed the program had Increased communication and understanding between home and school. The positive responses were based on feelings, informal conversations and observations of interactions between teachers, administrators, teaching assistants and students. No numerical records of conferences nor tealephone and personal calls support the personal opinions or assessments of the program participants.

Under the guidance of the Curriculum Materials

Developer, the teaching assistants created some curriculum materials for use by the students. Two illustrated Thompson vocabulary workbooks and some storybooks of local legends were created and printed for use in the schools. A book illustrating local plants and specifying their traditional use was in draft form in June, 1983. A collection of classroom activities based on the study of Indian Foods was in rough draft. A collection of historical prints from the provincial archives has been obtained. An outdoor education unit, a scope and sequence plan for the infusion of Thompson knowledge into the provincial social studies curriculum in 131

the elementary grades was started. The teaching of Thompson

language classes extended throughout elementary and high

school classes.

Prerequisites

The prerequisites for entry to the training program in

Lytton were never formally recorded. The Home-School

Coordinator selected the candidates with the help of members

of the Band council.

The experience of the people in Lytton reinforces the

findings of programs in the United States that cademic

prerequisites contribute less to the success of trainees than

a willingness to accommodate to school idiosyncrasies. In

programs designed to bring minority group adults into the

schools in the United States as paraprofessionals,

punctuality, regular attendance, reporting absences,

conformity to norms of dress eased entry. Dependablity, assertiveness and initiative were qualities school staff

identified as desirable qualities in future candidates for training in Lytton with stress put upon dependability in punctuality and attendance.

Goals for Teaching Assistants

The original goals envisioned by the Home School

Coordinator, the Program Coordinator and the Teaching 132

Assistants were to upgrade the education of the Teaching

Assistants so they could be an "effective Indian presence" in

the schools and to prepare the Teaching Assistants for

eventual entry into NITEP. It was hoped the Teaching

Assistants would become a nucleus of Indian professional

teachers in the community's schools someday.

The goals as expressed by a representative of the

Department of Indian Affairs were broader. He felt the

training could provide entry to school based careers but also

could provide entry to positions in Band administration.

Some of the Teaching Assistants became effective tutors

and counsellors in the high school. In the elementary school,

time constraints restricted planning time which seemed to

prevent effective use of the Teaching Assistants. As

elementary teachers in smaller schools do not have

preparation time during the school day, and as teaching assistants were not usually in the school except between 8:30 a.m. and noon, there was little time available to arrange

teaming.

During the program three of the Teaching Assistants were elected to the Lytton Band Council. These people assumed leadership roles in the organization of community recreation activities such as Bingo nights, baseball teams and league play, and Indian dance groups while continuing their training and jobs as teaching assistants. Another pair of the Teaching

Assistants were active participants in the negotiation processes in Ottawa during the repatriation of the Canadian 133

Constitution in 1983. Thus were the goals of the Department of Indian Affairs realized during the life of the training program.

Inservice Content

In this section the content of the workshop sessions will be described. A discussion of the content of the workshop sessions will follow.

The content of the training program scheduled for each afternoon in the designated classroom in the Band office was designed to upgrade the Teaching Assistants' language and mathematics skill to university entrance standards and to acquire classroom management skills. It was initially planned that the Teaching Assistants would keep a journal, study basic grammar, literature and mathematics plus increase their exposure to art materials and games for three weeks of each month (Table IV).

Table IV

Afternoon Schedule

MON TUES WED THURS FRI

1:00 Journal Journal Journal Journal Journal

1:15 Literature Punc.& Cap. Abbrev./ Spell./ Writing

Posses. Vocab.

2:00 Math Art/Games Math Math Art/Games

2:30 Teach.Less. Sp.Proj. Verbal Comm. Teach.Less. Open 134

Teaching Assistants needed time to talk about their new role

and their new perceptions of the school now that they were

adults working in the school system. The debriefing sessions

became a source of topics for the teaching component of the

afternoon, generally the time was used to augment of knowledge of some school subject skill such as literary analysis, algebra or senior math skills, graph and map

reading skills, and vocabulary development.

The topics of the workshops conducted in the afternoons

of the fourth week of each month were those found in The

Native Indian Paraprofessional Training Program: Learning

Packages (More & Ashworth, 1980) plus some locally developed units (Table V).

The program began with a workshop in which the features

of Indian education in British Columbia were reviewed. The

second workshop was the first of a series in Communications

led by an instructor from the University of British Columbia.

The instructor introduced and led practice sessions in developing skills in clear message sending, body language, paraphrasing responses, seeking specifics, and problem solving techniques. In the second year of the program, the instructor of the communications workshops conducted assertiveness training sessions and developed the counselling skills of the Teaching Assistants.

In the first locally produced workshop, the school principals, the district Supervisor of Instruction, and the local school board trustee explained the organization of the 135 public school system and professional responsibilities of members of the system. A second examination the local school system was made in January, 1982 when the role of the School

Board and the provincial education system was defined for the

Teaching Assistants.

A second series of locally produced workshops was conducted by teachers from the Lytton schools. The curricula for the elementary and high school language arts programs were described, the materials presented and some activities the Teaching Assistants could use were presented and practised. This workshop, by presenting some of the content with which the Teaching Assistants were unfamiliar gave them experience as learners as well as practice in some tutoring skills.

The third set of locally produced workshops were conducted by the local health service workers. They addressed local concerns with the topics Suicide Prevention and

Adolescent Development.

Instructors with experience in Indian Education in i

Canada were selected to teach the units outlined in The

Native Indian Paraprofessional Training Program: Learning

Packages (More & Ashworth, 1982). 136

Table V

Scheduled Workshops for Lytton

1981-1982 1982-1983

SEPTEMBER 14-16 Indian Education 20-21 Communication 21-22 Communication 29-30 Collecting Oral History OCTOBER 28-29 Child Development Learning Difficulties Individualized Instruction 30 Classroom Management

NOVEMBER 3-4 Language Arts Overview (Local) 23 Classroom Management 25 Teacher-Teaching Assistant Roles

DECEMBER 6-7 Drama (Local) 13-14 Math

JANUARY 25-26 Suicide Prevention Speech Arts Adolescent Development (Local) (Local) 27 School Board & Provincial Department of Education (Local) 28-29 Communication

FEBRUARY 22-24 Instructional Methods-Math 3-4 Curriculum 25-26 Classroom Management Deve1opment Positive Reinforcement 16-17 SUCCESS 21-22 O.L.I.English MARCH 29-30 Cultural Infusion 31 Cultural Assignment 7-8 0.L.I.English 21-22 O.L.I.English APRIL

14-15 Cultural Infusion 1-2 Identifying Individual 18-19 O.L.I.English Learning Problems 25-26 O.L.I.English MAY

17-18 Communi cat ion 16-18 Review 27-28 Evaluat ion 19-20 Evaluation 137

In the first Classroom Management workshop, the Teaching

Assistants worked through some cooperation activities and

related them to their classroom experiences. Then they

analysed their classroom experience as both students and

Teaching Assistants and identified behaviors that contribute

to positive self-concept development for individual students

and that contribute to a positive classroom climate. In

November, a second workshop on Classroom Management

introduced the skills of lesson planning. The lessons that

were planned used the Storlo Sitel Curriculum materials.

These materials demonstrate how to infuse an Indian culture

into school curricula. A third workshop helped Teaching

Assistants develop positive reinforcement methods for

establishing classroom discipline.

The workshops on Child Development outlined the stages

of physical, social and personal, moral and intellectual

stages of development. The Teaching Assistants were shown how

to identify the stages, how to work with children at various

stages, and how to encourage growth. The Teaching Assistants were assigned tasks making observations of children's

behaviors and learnings for a week following the workshop.

The tutoring duties of the Teaching Assistants were

addressed in a workshop in which they studied the

identification of individual learning problems and how to work with students who are having difficulty learning

specific skills.

The concern over task assignment and role definition by 138 teachers, Teaching Assistants and program developers resulted in a joint teacher-Teaching Assistant workshop led by the

Supervisor of Indian Education at the University of British

Columbia. The emphasis was placed upon mutual discovery of ways to improve the effectiveness of the Teaching Assistants in the school.

The two comprehensive mathematics workshops emphasized the principles of teaching mathematics, the necessary transition from concrete to semi-concrete to abstract, graphing, problem solving and topology.

Instuctors from other areas were utilized to conduct workshops in Drama, the Speech Arts, Collection of Oral

History Material and Curriculum Development. The Drama and

Speech Arts sessions were designed to: (1) increase the confidence of the Teaching Assistants, (2) give them practise in story telling and dramatization, and (3) sharpen their oral speaking techniques.

The meetings with an anthropologist to learn the techniques for the collection of oral history material introduced research skills that the Teaching Assistants needed to start amassing data for Thompson curriculum materials. The use of tape recorders and note taking during interviews, transcribing, classifying data, interviewing techniques, use of videotapes, still photographs, slides and obtaining and using archival material were all dealt with in a two day session.

The continuation of the oral history collecting 139 by teaching assistants, tasks teaching assistants could be requested and expected to complete.

In spite of the attention paid to the development of communication skills, open and clear communication between teacher and Teaching Assistants, between the Education

Director and Teaching Assistants and between teachers and the

Program Developer and Education Director did not occur. The atmosphere of trust and cooperation that followed the joint teacher-Teaching Assistant workshop in November, 1981 dissipated. Improved communications was the major request from teachers, administrators and Teaching Assistants.

The orientation to the school system session attempted to inform the trainee Teaching Assistants of the responsibilities of members of the school establishment but more emphasis could have been put on the social niceties required by school personnel. For example, high priority for both adult personnel and students is given to attendance, punctuality and neatness in appearance. The first two items are not negotiable. In the classroom, teachers have a long tradition of being in control. Even supervisors and administrators knock before entering a teacher's domain. In summation, Teaching Assistants must understand the supportive nature of their role if they are to win acceptance by teachers. Equality and true teamwork develops slowly, incrementally. (See Educational Service Bureau Inc., 1966,

Wright, 1969, Klopf et al., 1969, Brighton, 1972, Abbott,

1973.) 140

The program was adapted to the needs of the Teaching

Assistants as long as the Program Coordinator had control

over the content of the afternoon inservice training but the

workshop leaders from outside the community did not tie their

topic presentation to practical needs of the program

participants. The topics of the workshops in October and

November, 1981 (Table V) were cogent to the program but the

examples and exercises were not tied to the current

day-to-day needs of the Teaching Assistants. The regular

afternoon sessions (Table IV) had just been reorganized and

adjusted to meet their needs rather than being tied to a set

schedule.

In the schools the Teaching Assistants were adapting to the system while the teachers watched to see what

the Teaching Assistants would volunteer to do. At a time when

the Teaching Assistants could have put to use skills developed in office and audio-visual machines operation,

record keeping, and supervision of small groups, the Teaching

Assistants were taught the theory of stages of development, language acquisition, establishment of classroom climate. At

that crucial beginning stage of teaming when teachers would have felt comfortable assigning non-instructional duties to the Teaching Assistants and when the Teaching Assistants could have gained confidence by completing simple routine classroom school tasks, the Teaching Assistants had no training in those basic clerical tasks that teachers are usually most willing to turn over to non-professionals. In 141

other programs reviewed, in this early part of the training

program, Teaching Assistants were encouraged to help the

teachers by assuming routine clerical tasks and minor

supervisory duties while confidence in their individual

ability and ability to work within a team grew. But in

Lytton, the teachers were made to feel that if they asked for

help in routine clerical duties of the teaching profession,

they would be asking for "slave labor" and the program

planners feared the Teaching Assistants would be used solely

in these non-interacting roles. As a result, the first step

of building teaching teams in classrooms, the sharing of

clerical duties, was not tried. Instead the teachers and

Teaching Assistants were expected to dive into the middle of

the team building process.

When teachers finally assigned the Teaching Assistants

some tutoring tasks, the monthly workshops continued to address large group planning and classroom management skills

such as motivation, identifying behavioral objectives, unit and lesson planning, maintaining "positive classroom climate" rather than "keeping discipline". Topics addressed in a less formal manner were cultural infusion, small group

instruction, and tutoring skills - the actual classroom activities in which the Teaching Assistants were engaged.

The workshop leaders were not sufficiently aware of the realities of the experiences of the Teaching Assistants in the schools to be able to match the content of the workshops to current needs of the Teaching Assistants. For example, 142 while most of the Teaching Assistants were working as tutors

in the high school struggling with geometry, algebra and business math as they tried to aid the students under their

tutorage, the math workshops dealt with the use of concrete materials and topology. Although the objective of teaching

the Teaching Assistants to present concepts with real objects and to look at problems from different angles was essential, the workshop did not tie the theory to immediate classroom requirements of the Teaching Assistants. As a result, the

Teaching Assistants were impatient and not able to concentrate on the lessons of the workshop. Nor were they able to transfer the techniques of using concrete objects to teach elementary students number facts and measurement to the technique for using concrete shapes and forms to teach geometry to a student needing tutorial help. This desired transfer of training is a skill that has to be pointedly taught before it is learned.

Similarly the curriculum development workshops did not register as "real". They were based on methods of cultural infusion possible in whole class lessons and in unit planning while the Teaching Assistants were generally responsible for one to one tutoring and needed help in adapting set curriculum for students who were having problems. The workshop started from the curriculum materials instead of from the actual work of the Teaching Assistants.

The workshops were not community grounded. The workshop leaders lacked authority to gain access to observe the 143

Teaching Assistants working in the classrooms and to set the

content of the workshops so that they could truly deal with

the requirements of the Teaching Assistants for the work they

were actually doing. The program director, who sometimes

mistook goals for needs, arranged the workshops through the

university but did not have enough information to enable the

workshop leaders to plan their sessions around examples

pertinent to the present experience of the Teaching

Assistants. In the future the Teaching Assistants may have

opportunities to work more with elementary school children

and large groups, to make lesson plans and plot units of

study, but at the time of the workshops the Teaching

Assistants desperately needed techniques they could use in

their tutoring sessions more than they needed instruction on

the broader issues for effective teaching.

The Language Arts workshops that were conducted by

teachers from the local schools dealt with the aspects of

reading and vocabulary development that the Teaching

Assistants needed most. These sessions reinforced some of the

lessons started by the Program Coordinator and tied those afternoon sessions closer to the world of the school. They were much more effeective as the leaders were more aware of day-to-day problems of the Teaching Assistants.

The difficulties in correlating the workshop content and the Teaching Assistants' work in Lytton became increasingly obvious during the tutoring sessions for the Open Learning

English Course. Repeated contact with the same instructor 144

eased reticence and conversations revealed frustrations and

problems in work and study sessions. The course came alive

only when the Teaching Assistants were shown that it

contained the very skills they needed to help the students

they tutored. Topic sentences, main ideas, supporting facts,

colourful language, suitable adjectives, connectors, became

terms to learn because the Teaching Assistants could then

explain these to their students. The course was not just a

series of difficult activities to be mastered for its own

sake; it was a technique to learn about what they had to

teach. When it was pointed out to them that brainstorming,

priorizing, round robin reading sessions, discussions, and

pairing-off, were not only activities Teaching Assistants did

in class, but that they were techniques to be used in their

tutoring sessions, the afternoon program no longer seemed so

onerous. The suggestion that by learning to write essays in

the ways the Open Learning Institute (OLI) required, they were also learning methods that would be acceptable when preparing cultural material for students in schools and acceptable forms for briefs for future requests and proposals

for financing, gave meaning to exercises that no one enjoyed.

Difficulties the Teaching Assistants experienced in the

OLI English course included developing analysis techniques, linear thinking, and identifying cause and effect. The differences in structure of the Teaching Assistants' written assignments and the models placed in front of them and the frustration of trying to decipher and then apply markers' 145

comments were added trials. These problems vividly

illustrated the dichotomy of the expectations of schools with

their implicit norms, and the reality of the Teaching

Assistants' circular thinking patterns, still dominant after

twelve years of schooling. The necessity of recognising the existance and legitimacy of both the linear and circular was obvious. The necessity of developing awareness of and competency in both became real. The legitimacy of using traditional Indian oratory styles while addressing Indian groups, and while story telling must be accompanied by the realization that other literary styles are more easily understood by those who control material being integrated into schools or those who at present control the funding for many programs for Indian people. Cultural bilingualism must be part of the repertoire of educated Indian people

(Littlejohn, 1971, Center for Applied Linquistics, 1976,

Whyte, 1982).

Because there were problems of role definition and gaps in the Teaching Assistants knowledge of high school subjects in which they were expected to assist, the afternoon sessions sometimes assumed a crisis intervention attitude rather than the demeanor of a structured training program. Participants doubted their purposes and achievements. The joint teacher-Teaching Assistant workshop gave people a chance to identify positive experiences and a team spirit started to emerge. Both teachers and Teaching Assistants expressed appreciation for the program, approval of goals and methods, 146

because by this time both groups had had an opportunity to

contribute to the design and shape of the program.

Unfortunately the team spirit did not continue to grow

following the Christmas break. A gap in the communication

between the training program and the school administrators

and teachers developed. This occurred because the teachers

were simply told the names of the workshops that had been

held but they wanted to know what the Teaching Assistants had

been studying. The teachers stated that there must be a clear

understanding of roles and responsibilities, continuous

evaluation of performance and training. Implicit in these

desires was the uncertainty regarding the teachers' roles and

responsibilities in this team teaching situation, and

uneasiness about evaluation, by whom, of whom and how.

Just as the joint workshop reset the program's direction

in a positive fashion once, perhaps more meetings could set

new assignments for Teaching Assistants under teacher-mentors

rather than setting teachers as uneasy observers, uncertain

of what skills their Teaching Assistant is developing and

unsure of what they may reasonably request a Teaching

Assistant to do. Still more communication skills must be

developed together by both groups.

The gap in communication meant the teachers were not

invited to become partners in the training of the Teaching

Assistants. The exception was the one high school teacher who became the coordinator and encourager of the tutoring program in the second year. Few other teachers viewed themselves as 147

key participants or stake holders in the training program

even when there was a Teaching Assistant working in their

classroom. The teachers were auxiliaries to the program

rather than integral partners in the learning process. Even

the teacher hired as the Curriculum Developer did not

undertake to train the Teaching Assistants to develop

curriculum materials but simply worked along side of them.

Inservice Organization

The organization and scheduling of workshop sessions is

discussed in the following section. The flexibility required

because of distance from the university, political

conferences, and changes in scheduling, funding and personnel

is stressed.

The program was planned so that the Teaching Assistants would spend their mornings in the schools as Teaching

Assistants and their afternoons in the Band classroom

learning the skills to make them better Teaching Assistants.

They were also expected to upgrade their English and Math

skills in the afternoons in preparation for entry to a NITEP

program at a university entrance level.

The workshops were scheduled for the final week of each month but the instructors were not always available as assigned. The Teaching Assistants arrived in the afternoon expecting one sort of workshop but found another. On at least

two occasions in the second year, two instructors for two 148

different workshops arrived on the same afternoon. This

flexibility in the scheduling of workshops led to some

During the first year, the Program Coordinator visited

the schools in the mornings and talked to teachers and

administrators. This permitted close coordination between

schoolwork, workshop content and day-to-day coaching which

was appreciated, perhaps more in retrospect by teachers,

administrators and Teaching Assistants when in the second

year there was no Program Coordinator.

At the end of November the first joint teacher-Teaching

Assistant workshop was held. Another scheduled for May was

never held. Following the joint workshop, the Teaching

Assistants worked in the schools full time to assist with

holiday projects throughout December. A team spirit seemed to

be building, especially in the high school.

In January a more definite timetable was implemented

(Table VI). For at least one week each month the Teaching

Assistants were in the schools all day. The Program

Coordinator observed the classroom work of the Teaching

Assistants and worked out strategies for improving

performance in the classroom.

Flexibility was still a key operative word. Lytton

respondents commented that workshop leaders were not always available when scheduled, prereading material seldom arrived before the workshops and workshops were switched at short notice. 149

Table VI

SCHEDULE FOR LYTTON PROGRAM JANUARY-JUNE 1982

January

Week Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday

•-In school morning only-

—In school all day

•In school morning only--

4 Suicide Adolescent Defining the Follow- Prevention Development Role of the Communication up Workshop Workshop School Board Workshop and Educ.System

February

Week Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thurs day Friday

1 Field Trip 3 days In schools morning Victoria Museum

2 (pre-school) In schools all day

3 (pre-school)In schools morning only Workshop pre-assignments and Open Learning-p.m.

4 Instructional Methods for Math Cultural Infusion Workshop 3 days workshop 2 days 150

Table VI (con't)

SCHEDULE FOR LYTTON PROGRAM JANUARY-JUNE 1982

March

Week Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday

1 (Field Trip cancelled) Observing- Elementary School Class Open Learning and English Upgrading — p.m.

2 In school all day :

3 In school all day

4 In school morning only Workshop preassignments and Open Learning—p,m.

5 Positive Reinforcement and Identifying Individual and Discipline Methods for Learning Problems Assistants Workshop 3 days Workshop 2 days

April

Week Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday

1 SPRING BREAK Open Learning e xam

2 HOLIDAY (bookkeeping) -In schools morning only Open Learning and English—p.m.

3 xn schools morning only English, Cultural Topics--p.m.

4 In schools all day 151

Table VI (con't)

SCHEDULE FOR LYTTON PROGRAM JANUARY-JUNE 1982

May

Week Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday

1 In schools all day

2 in schools all day

3 In schools morning only Workshop preassignments -- Projects-p.m.

4 HOLIDAY Communication Final Evaluation Workshop Wrap-up of Lytton Course with all Workshop 2 days Teachers 2 days

In March, an Interim Evaluation completed by the

Supervisor for Indian Education at the University of British

Columbia reported observable benefits of the program after six months. These included the presence in the classrooms of an adult with whom the Indian children could identify,

"remarkable growth in the classroom skills of the Teaching

Assistants ... increased involvement in education by Indian people; an increased awareness by teachers of similarities and differences in educational needs of Indian and non-Indian children; ...and a greater potential for explaining the schools to the Indian community and for providing feedback 152 for the Indian community to the schools." (More, 1982)

Following the evaluation, plans were made to increase the number of Teaching Assistants in the training program and to add the preparation of Thompson curriculum materials to the skills of the Teaching Assistants for the 1982-83 school year.

During the summer the position of Program Coordinator was cancelled and a Curriculum Materials Developer was hired instead. The Education Director and her assistant assumed responsibility for the organization of the training program as well as the responsibility for managing it.

In the second year the program reverted to the format of mornings in the schools, afternoons in the Band classroom in order to concentrate on two major focii: preparation of materials and upgrading English. Monthly workshops by instructors from the University of British Columbia were planned.

The initial workshops in communications and recording oral history were well received. The Teaching

Assistants were highly motivated to go out to talk with the elders and record the history of the Thompson people of the

Lytton Band.

The workshop sessions in which teaching materials, wordcards, puppets and workbooks for the elementary school

Thompson Language Program were prepared occupied almost half the afternoon sessions from November to February. This period was climaxed by the presentation made at the "Successes in 153

Indian Education: A Sharing" conference in Vancouver,

February 16-19, 1983.

At least one afternoon per week was devoted to work on the Open Learning English program. Interspersed at approximately monthly intervals were two afternoon workshops in Math, Speech Arts, Drama and Curriculum Development. From

March to May more energy was expended on completing the Open

Learning English packages. Without the Education Director to manage the program, the Teaching Assistants undertook to examine the program with the Supervisor of Indian Education from the University of British Columbia, and the Home School

Coordinator. A testing program consisting of written tests of the material presented in the workshops was completed. Plans for the 1983-84 school year were made for continuation of the work of the Teaching Assistants in the schools as well as the collection and preparation by Band members of Thompson cultural materials for use in the schools.

Assignment to Schools

The assignment of Teaching Assistants to school classrooms and students will be described.

The program started in September 1981 with the Teaching

Assistants working in the schools only in the mornings. Four

Teaching Assistants chose to work in the high school, and four chose to work in the elementary school. They rotated between schools at six week intervals. By Christmas the 154

Teaching Assistants were working in the schools for full days for about half of each month. This change was in response to requests by both teachers and Teaching Assistants. Getting the Teaching Assistants in the classes was, after all, the aim of the training program.

In the high school the Teaching Assistants were at first assigned to help specific teachers in specific classes. The

Teaching Assistants were expected to attend classes and assist the teacher as directed, but there was no time assigned for planning together. This absence of planning time was true for the teachers and Teaching Assistants in the elementary school as well. As a result the Teaching

Assistants tended to simply carry out isolated tasks rather than becoming involved in the education process. For example,

The Teaching Assistants were completing assignments with students that the teachers had fully outlined.

When the program resumed in September, 1982 the half day format was reinstated. The Teaching Assistants did not spend full days in the schools during the second year of the program. The program started to flounder in the fall of 1982.

At that time the Teaching Assistants all moved to the high school and the tutoring program was organized under the leadership of one of the high school teachers. After a short time two of the Teaching Assistants moved back to the elementary school. Those Teaching Assistants in the tutoring program in the high school assumed responsibility for getting two or three students to class and prepared for class with 155 homework completed and books In hand. Attendance by the

Teaching Assistants became more regular and the interest in the students and teaching process increased.

Steps in the development of the tutoring program were structured to increase responsibility of the tutor and student towards the school tasks.

1. Students each were given a homework book in which

assignments were recorded by the student. The Teaching

Assistants had to check the books of their students to

determine what work was due, done or incomplete and

together the student and Teaching Assistant could decide

what extra help was required.

2. Teaching Assistants attended classes so they would be

better able to tutor students in areas of difficulty.

3. Teaching Assistants helped individuals complete

assignments in class under teacher direction.

4. Teaching Assistants conducted a group activity prepared by

the teacher. The homework records provided data indicating

areas that required reteaching or extra practice.

5. Teaching Assistants prepared charts and activities under

teacher direction, and gradually began to help their

student groups complete assignments.

6. Teaching Assistants discussed homework records with

parents. Plans for improved performance by students

through help from parents and tutors was planned together.

7. Teaching Assistants helped teachers discuss students'

school work with parents. (Smith, Lytton Respondent, 1983) 156

This structured approach defined for the first time, in detail, just what the Teaching Assistants were to do.

The Teaching Assistants who moved back to the elementary school were assigned permanent duties. The morning schedule of one was shared by two teachers. The Teaching Assistant completed tasks as assigned in a book, using the questions and eliciting the answers designated by the classroom teacher in discussion groups which the Teaching Assistant held with students. The other Teaching Assistant was described as "here every morning and helps in many ways." That Teaching

Assistant reported making teaching aids, devising games as well as working with individual students and helping the teacher with snacks, winter clothes and clean-up in the classroom. As well, this Teaching Assistant undertook to prepare some teaching aids at home.

While the procedure of rotating assignments between the two schools at six week intervals was satisfactory for the

Teaching Assistants, the school staff felt that the assignment time was too short. They just had their schedules and procedures adapted to the use of an assistant and they lost that assistant for at least six weeks. In the high school, teachers felt their knowledge about the needs of their schools and students were overlooked while the views about needs held by semi-involved school workers such as the

Home-School Coordinator, the Program Coordinator and the personal wishes or interests of the Teaching Assistants determined placement of those assistants. The Teaching Assistants seemed free to select whom they would work with and when, but the teachers did not have the same freedom.

Some adjustments were made but not without confrontation. In the end, the control of the program remained with the Band but principals and teachers had more influence on the placement of Teaching Assistants.

Few Teaching Assistants preferred to work in the elementary school. A full time library assistant would have been welcome but to train different Teaching Assistants for one month periods was a daunting, time-consuming task.

Teaching Assistants, on the other hand, found many of the duties in the elementary school to be housekeeping or child-caring in nature and did not seem to have much educational value. In the elementary school, the six week length of the rotation cycle and choice of assignments meant that few "teams" of teacher-teaching assistant developed. The lack of time together for planning made it difficult for teachers to make effective use of Teaching Assistants.

In the fall of the second year, while the Teaching

Assistants were completing classroom tasks In the high school as assigned, their growth in responsibility seemed stunted.

The Teaching Assistants were neither required nor compelled to think of past behaviors and consequences, nor to plan for future developments. Therefore, the tutoring program was designed to increase the personal commitment to students who obviously needed help. This plan seemed to give the Teaching

Assistants more of a sense of purpose than the former 158 assignments as verified by the increased attendance and renewed interest in students' progress.

The seven-step process listed on page one hundred fifty-five was more manageable than the list of thirty-six possible duties for the Teaching Assistants that was found in the "Guidebook to Teachers Planning to Work with Indian

Teacher Aides" in The Native Indian Paraprofessional

Training Program: Learning Packages (More and Ashworth,

1981). The teachers appreciated the Teaching Assistants more as students completed more homework assignments and appeared in class regularly with pre-reading done and with books in hand. The Teaching Assistants attended classes to be sure they knew what assignments were given to their students. Some supervision of small groups in classes became part of the

Teaching Assistants' tasks.

Support Services

The support services that seemed essential to the Lytton

Teaching Assistants are described and discussed in this section under the headings: Home Base, Financial Support,

Program Coordinator, Program Manager, Academic Support and

Community Support.

Home Base

The program in Lytton began in September, 1981 with 159 eight trainees, a Program Coordinator, the Home-School

Coordinator and her assistant all sharing classroom and office space in a large basement room in the band office building. There were classes to be conducted In the afternoons but there were also meetings of the Home-School

Coordinator and her assistant and students and parents; there were phone calls to order supplies or arrange workshops.

There were more calls from the schools, from parents, from health care workers. To achieve relief from the interruptions and distractions, a partition was built to form a working office and a big L-shaped classroom and meeting area. The

Program Coordinator and the Teaching Assistants had, then, a room they could fill with books, audio-visual machines", posters, wall charts, reminders and schedules. A collection of reference books was begun. Histories of Indian political development, collections of Indian myths, anthropological studies of the Thompson people, records of local history, government documents as well as basic references such as dictionaries, thesauri, encyclopedea, as well as some text books were acquired. Audio-visual equipment was required both for teaching purposes and to familiarize the Teaching

Assistants with the various machines in use in classrooms and schools .

The original open area impeded work. The traffic was disrupting. The accessibility of the reference material and audio-visual equipment to the public increased their use but sometimes needed material was not available. 160

Financial Support

Financial assistance in the form of a salary was paid to

the Teaching Assistants during the training program by the

Band. This financial support was from the annual budget and

this precluded long term planning as the program had to be re-funded each year.

The Teaching Assistants agreed that they received a sufficient sum while they were in a training program.

Unfortunately there were no guaranteed funds available to pay trained Teaching Assistants. The program and the position

thus must be renewed annually.

Program Coordinator

The Program Coordinator's position encompassed many roles: teacher, liason between school staff and Teaching

Assistants, program developer, materials procurer, liason between Band Education Director and Teaching Assistants, supervisor, mentor, coordinator of local program and university program, and tutor for Open Learning courses. The coordinator visited the schools in the morning to talk to the teachers and administrators. She listened to them and incorporated their observations and ideas into the afternoon sessions. The Teaching Assistants were observed at work so the coordinator could help them integrate workshop learnings into their classroom work. The coordinator discussed and 161 planned workshops with leaders from outside the community.

The position was eliminated in second year and the salary instead went to the Curriculum Materials Developer.

Teachers, principals and Teaching Assistants regretted the loss of the Program Coordinator. Someone was needed to:

(a) monitor the Teaching Assistants' attendance, (b) keep communication lines open between teachers and Teaching

Assistants regarding afternoon classwork and integration of that into morning work in the schools, (c) monitor the school classroom work of Teaching Assistants to see that workshop skills were practised and became part of Teaching Assistants' repertoire, (d) discuss with teache rs the progress of

Teaching Assistants so that assignments could be changed,

(e) provide a formal channel for evaluation of classroom performance, and to supply direction for improvement.

A program coordinator whose main loyalty was to the effective use of Teaching Assistants in the classroom was required. A coordinator who could understand institutional and educational pressures on teachers and who could then translate teachers' needs into lessons' for Teaching

Assistants was crucial to the program. A program coordinator whom the Teaching Assistants could be sure would present their views in a professional and respected format to the schools and to the Band administration was required. A coordinator who could push gently and lead assuredly through mazes of academic and classroom skills while not insulting or hurting pride was a key component of the program.

i 162

Program Manager

This is a fictitious title created to describe the functions performed by the Home-School Coordinator (later

Education Director) for the training program.

The Program Manager was an energetic, determined person who assembled data and presented it convincingly, in acceptable bureaucratic form, to the personnel of instituions who had to give their approval in order for the program to get started. The Program Manager exhibited self-assurance because it was best to see administrators in one-to-one meetings where they were more easily convinced of the merits of the proposed programs. The Program Manager attended many meetings and presented reports with elan. The Program Manager required a good credit rating so bills and salaries could be paid when grants were slow to arrive. (See also Government of

Canada, 1983, p.85.) The Program Manager developed contacts in government and in universities and research centres in order to obtain credible support for proposals. As well, the

Program Manager became familiar with Indian education projects across Canada in order to design a project to match the community's needs. The Program Manager developed political skills to get and keep the support of Band and

School officials and people in the community. The Program

Manager learned to be be a planner and logistics expert to arrange for workshops when and as required.

The Lytton Program was the only program reviewed in 163 which one person attempted to organize, develop, administer and be accountable for the training program. Financial prudence might have been the reason for dropping the Program

Coordinator during the second year but the resulting work load of the Education Director must be seen as a factor in problems in that year of the program. Only when the high school teacher assumed the duties of coordinating the tutoring or in-school part of the program did it seem possible that the program could continue.

Academic Support

This section describes the support supplied to the

Indian Teaching Assistant Training Program by the University of British Columbia. That support included personnel, printed materials and finally, a certificate.

The Supervisor of Indian Education at the University of

British Columbia helped arrange funding through the Field

Office of the University, the Ministry of Education of B.C. and the D.I.A. for the instructors and the materials for the program. He was available for observations, joint planning sessions, internal evaluations, ongoing planning and adaptation, and negotiations. He arranged instructors for workshops through his contacts with people in the network of

Indian education, community colleges and the universities. He ensured that the University of British Columbia granted a certificate to the assistants at the end of the program. 164

"A doctor in the house" was a welcome addition to the program. The legitimacy added by the support of the

University of British Columbia and especially by the

Supervisor of Indian Education was instrumental in arranging funding and placement of Teaching Assistants in the schools.

The structured workshops led by qualified Instructors familiar with the long term goals of the program and with experience in Indian education were valued by the Teaching

Assistants. The continued support by the Supervisor of Indian

Education at the University of British Columbia throughout the program gave needed perspective in that gains that appeared insignificant to those involved in the day-to-day running of the program were more recognizable to someone from outside the community who could compare the program to others.

The granting of the certificate by U.B.C. meant that these people were working toward something prestigious and from an established institution; the program became something other then a make-work program. The graduation ceremony afforded an opportunity for public recognition of the

Teaching Assistants' efforts and the schools' cooperation.

The printed materials from the workshops supplied reference materials for the Teaching Assistants. The printed materials would have been valued more had they had their own binder to which the Teaching Assistants could have added the units as studied. 165

Community Support

This section identifies community support services such as the school administration, the school staff and the Band

Council and Chief.

The school staff and administration were actively involved in consolidating positive outcomes of the program such as increased communication with parents. They were willing to try-new combinations in teaming and new formats in using the Teaching Assistants when initial attempts were less than effective. At the time of apparant collapse, the principals asserted their expectations for professional behavior and this respect from the administration helped the

Teaching Assistants complete year two.

The school staff allowed the program to develop and gave the Teaching Assistants space. They did not try to take over the program but allowed it to grow through some difficult stages. They waited to be invited to become contributing participants in the program. They might have requested more input sooner but realistic knowledge of the time they had available to guide an assistant, uncertainty over the assistance available, and variance in opinion of the multicultural role of a school were restricting influences.

The support of the Lytton Band through their chief and council for the first year and a half encouraged and sustained a high level of productivity on the part of the

Home-School Coordinator. Without their support her position 166 was untenable and she left the program. The chief and council continued to encourage the Teaching Assistants and provided

concrete support in the form of the "home base", financial

aid and leadership.

Wider community support did not develop, possibly

because there, was no way for the wider community to

contribute to the program but informal support was given to

individuals as reported by some Teaching Assistants and

school staff members.

Findings

The learnings from the Lytton Teaching Assistant

Training Program are presented and discussed in point form in

this section.

1. The problem of role definition for the teachers and the

Teaching Assistants was never resolved. That difficulty was

voiced by the Ontario program in 1972 and it still exists

in most contexts including British Columbia:

Unless clarity can be brought to the issue of aide utilization in modern educational practice the functions of aides will remain ambiguous, and the services they provide will be less than satisfactory both to themselves and to the schools they serve. (Haig-Brown, 1976, n. pag.)

The teachers and Teaching Assistants of Lytton made a start

on defining their roles at the workshop in November 1981.

More and frequent meetings were needed to complete the task

because the program's picture of the role of a Teaching 167

Assistant and the classroom actuality of the role did not coincide. Continual assessment of roles by both teachers and

Teaching Assistants in a non-confrontal group situation was needed. Frequent group meetings between Teaching Assistants and teachers might have provided positive feedback, constructive criticism, calm problem solving forums, and planning sessions. Teachers and principals needed to feel they were part of the training team. They needed to know what part in the program they could play. For example, opportunities for school personnel to be involved in the program increased their commitment to the program, i.e. two

of those who gave workshops became the Curriculum Materials

Developer and the Coordinator of the tutoring program, two of

the more vocal and active supporters in the staff.

2. The goals the program manager had were not realistic for

the program given the small number of trainees, the uncertain

finances and the limited local resources. As there were only

seven regular trainees, there were not enough candidates for

a NITEP centre to be established in Lytton. Long term

financing must be available to enable efficient planning.

Program components may be adjusted but the presence of a master plan and assured financing of longer than one year

increase the likelihood of a commitment being made by the

stake holders, the Department of Indian Affairs, the Band

council, the program participants and the school personnel

(Plater, 1973). 168

3. Program managers, coordinators and Teaching Assistants should determine priorities between program, school, home and community uses of the Teaching Assistants' time. It cannot be assumed that the program will be the first priority to all the trainees. It is also important for the instructors from outside the community to be made aware of local realities so their planning for workshops is able to take into account time restraints. Community and family responsibllites of the Teaching Assistants determine the time available for outside preparation for classes. For example,

Constitution Conferences, community baseball nights, sick children and widowhood were occurances in Teaching

Assistants' lives that the program attempted to ignore in the second year. However, when it is possible to tie the workshop content to local realities, school or political, more effort is likely to be made by trainees to complete extra preparation.

4. More coordination has to be done between school and course work for Teaching Assistants . The Teaching Assistants were most involved in workshops that tied theory to the actualities of the Lytton classrooms. Math theory and topology concepts might have been helpful in teaching problem solving techniques but what the Teaching Assistants were worried about was how to solve equations and how to teach business arithmetic. Workshops were not designed to meet the immediate instructional needs of the Teaching Assistants .

They were taught classroom techniques when they needed to 169 learn more tutoring strategies. Workshops in drama, essay writing and speech arts had to be tied to personal or classroom needs to be valued. To be able to pass an exam or to analyze a piece of literature were not a valid reason to learn, but it was important to learn to speak and write in order to be able to be effective when presenting a brief or applying for funds.

5. The acceptance of Teaching Assistants is influenced less by academic capabilities and credentials than It is by a willingness on the part of the Teaching Assistant to accommodate school idiosyncrasies. Punctuality, conformity to norms of the teaching profession, acceptance of restrictions on outside political involvement were the keys to acceptance by the school personnel.

6. The Teaching Assistants revised their views of schools when they became part of the staff. They reexamined behavior expectations of children, duties of teachers, and functions of schools. A classroom seen from the point of view of an adult worker was a different place than the one they remembered as students or as visiting parents. In the initial months the Teaching Assistants demanded time in the afternoons to discuss these new perceptions of what goes on in a classroom.

7. The afternoon class sessions had to be strictly structured to give them value otherwise they became viewed as 170 unimportant or deteriorated into gripe sessions. Assignments would be completed outside of class if their purposes were clear; if the completion were expected and required; and if a personal relationship was established between the instructor and the Teaching Assistants (Kleinfeld, 1972).

8. While Teaching Assistants most enjoy their work with students, teachers need help with non-interacting duties too; these are a part of a teacher's job. Some sort of agreement about the percentage of time Teaching Assistants spend in classrooms and in preparing materials for teachers must be established. Research reports done in Minneapolis found that

Teaching Assistants spent fifty percent of their time doing routine tasks, twenty-five percent supervising group activities, and twenty-five percent tutoring individuals

(Bennett and Falk, 1970). In Lytton, teachers hesitated to ask for help with routine tasks and Teaching Assistants were not encouraged to offer help in that area because it was feared they would then do nothing more interactive.

9. The frequent visits of an outside consultant were necessary to give perspective to seemingly small amounts of progress. Broader exposure to other programs plus non-personal, non-political involvment made it easier for the outside consultant to suggest alternative methods and channels for instruction and implementation when required.

Program participants at all levels became discouraged when change was not immediate and sweeping in the classrooms or in 171 personal growth. People who imagine that they can effect much change in schools in a short time or make schools more accepting of non-middle class normalcy will likely be disappointed and become discouraged (Renaud, 1979, Lortie,

1975).

10. Teachers would welcome more Thompson curriculum materials, especially legends, local history, natural history, pictures, games, charts and cards to teach and practise language skills. They would like some help integrating local knowledge into the curricula. Teachers feel more comfortable using new, extra materials rather than utilizing extra people in their classrooms. However a positive example of integrating local knowledge occurred this year when native foods were collected and prepared by classes

in both the elementary and high school as part of science,

social studies and home economics classes. Native crafts such as beading have been part of the school art program for some

time. Wildlife sketching in the art program reflects the community interest in the natural surroundings.

11. Both the Program Coordinator and Program Manager positions are necessary. To ensure more communication about content of courses is done between schools and the

program, one person must take responsibli1ity to increase

communication about tasks, skills development, materials

requirements and use as requested by the school personnel.

The two jobs, Program Coordinator and Program Manager 172 should be separate. Whenever this has happened more co-ordination of people, designing of curriculum and financial planning was done effectively.

12. A special classroom for the Teaching Assistants with access to reference materials, audio-visual equipment and media for preparation of teaching aids is required.

13. Continued communication between parents and schools which helps to improve student and parent responsibility for homework completion and identification with school goals needs to continue.

14. Indian Teaching Assistants and Teachers persevere. They don't give up. 173

Chapter Five

Results: Correlation of Literature and Lytton Study

In this chapter the problem and purpose of the study are restated. The Methodology is reviewed. Findings from the review of the literature and the study of the Lytton Indian

Teaching Assistant Trainig Program are correlated in order to formulate conclusions.

Problem

Native Indian students have not been graduates of, nor successful students in, academic programs in North American schools in proportion to their number. The problem with which

the present study is concerned is the need to improve the academic achievement and the retention rate of Indian

students in school. This study is particularly concerned with the problem of improving achievement and retention of Indian students in the school system through more Indian community

involvement in the schools, the use of culturally relevant

curricula and the presence of more Indian teachers and writers of material.

One way culturally relevant curricula and Indian

teachers have been introduced to the schools has been through

the use of Indian paraprofessiona1s to teach Indian languages

and cultural activities. More recently, training programs

have been designed for Native Indian paraprofessionals to 174

become more effective as teaching assistants to improve the

academic achievement of Indian students. These teaching

assistants have no formal role in introducing Indian

languages, culture or crafts.

Purpose

The purpose of this study was to investigate

congruencies in program design and development between the

Lytton program for training Indian teaching assistants and training programs for paraprofessionals in cross-cultural situations elsewhere.

Common training components, implementation practices, support facilities were sought following the lead of the

International Council of Educational Development guide to case studies:

...in contrast to trying to give an overall "success" rating to each case, it would be far more useful to try to discover what concrete factors within each program and its environment had helped or hindered the achievement of its objectives, and to what extent similar positive and negative factors turned up repeatedly in different program contexts. (Coombs, 1980, p.3)

A collection of those "concrete factors" is presented for the consideration of program developers and participants in

teaching assistant training programs. 175

Summary of the Study

Methodology

Written material from and about teaching assistant training programs that were developed in the United States for schools with a multicultural clientele were reviewed.

Written materials from and about programs designed in the

United States for Indian communities were examined.

Commonalities were identified.

Documents from programs that had been developed in

Canada, particularly British Columbia, were compared to discover factors that had been described as successful, especially by the participants in the programs.

The Native Indian Teaching Assistant Program at Lytton was followed over a two year period. Observations were combined with documents, interviews, and questionnaire results to identify the components that had been deemed successes by the program participants and those factors that had been sources of difficulties.

The resulting collection of concerns is outlined for the consideration of those attempting to design, to conduct, or to participate in a teaching assistant training program, and especially an Indian teaching assistant training program.

These factors have been pivotal points in more than one training program. 176

Conclusions

1. Communication networks must be established between the training program and the community as a whole, between the training program and the school community, and between the training program and the supporting academic community. The implementation of any innovation into a school is a very political process. Therefore all those who can affect that implementation must be kept informed about the innovation or any one group can sabotage the program at the stage at which they have most control. The community controls the budget, the principal controls the introduction of an innovation to his school and the teachers control the actual implementation of the innovation (Parish and Arends, 1983).

Programs that attempt change in Indian communities, in particular, must create efficient communication networks.

The people in the communities not only require factual information, but also organized systems so they may gain some control over what their children are taught because as long as :

Native parents have no control over curriculum, choice of textbooks,, or staff, they have come (and will continue) to regard the educational system as an "outside" racist instution, to be tolerated but not supported. ...when all the structural variables are considered, the reaction of Native parents to the educational system is not apathetic, but actively, and understandably, hostile. (Frideres, 1983, p.174)

It is not enough to simply invite Native people to be part of a community forum or community education committee to 177 create support for programs because "Active adult community support for education will only develop when Natives who live on the reserve are allowed to hold teaching and administrative positions... ." (Frideres, 1983, p.174).

Establishing Native Indian teaching assistant programs is a start. The Home-School organization, the school staffs, the band council, the school board and the town council are organized bodies that should be viewed as potential support services. They should be informed about the program, and some members should observe the program in action in order for continuous positive community support to be forthcoming.

These groups are the ones who can facilitate problem solving be it personal or financial, physical or philosophical. If they are excluded from the program so the information they get is distorted or not original, if they feel slighted and unimportant to the program, the program will fail. The number of factions in any community makes it mandatory that clear communication lines are developed. Expectations must be shared. These points are brought out in the literature on the

New Careers for the Poor movement as well as the literature on Indian education (Klopf et al., 1969, Fullen, 1982, Ingram et al.,1981, OECD, 1977, Buckanaga, 1978, Reeves et al.,

1978, McDonald, 1978, King, 1977, Thomson, 1977).

School personnel require introductory information about a new program and a great deal of information about the program as it develops. Implementation of different or new programs in a school is a political act. Changes in schools 178 to improve Indian education involve political factions some of whom are not regular participants in the life of the basically conservative climate of the school. These political groups range from those groups afraid of Indian participation to Native Indian peoples antagonistic to the dominant culture systems. Definite channels of communication within the school and between the school and the training program are essential.

In Lytton, Lillooet, Bella Bella, Williams Lake and

Prince George, the teachers requested more communication about the program. One or two joint workshop sessions and written information outlining topics of workshops did not sufficiently satisfy teachers' needs to know what skills

teaching assistants had learned or what tasks teachers could legitimately request teaching assistants to perform. The

thorny issues of role definition, assignment of teaching assistants to classrooms, and task competency have most

successfully been resolved in group meetings using non-confrontational problem solving techniques. (Klopf et al,

1967, Haig-Brown, 1976). Lytton did this only once

Teachers in Lytton, Bella bella, Lillooet, Williams Lake and

Prince George working with teaching assistants, voiced

frustrations because they were not given more information

about the kind of training their teaching assistants were

receiving. Teachers wanted a channel for input into the

program as well as control over the implementation of that

program in their classroom. None felt that a written list of 179

the topics covered in the workshops for the teaching assistants was adequate information. Most teachers asserted

they must discuss the content of workshops with workshop

leaders as well as receive an outline of the class. Printed

information restricted this desired two-way communication.

As in the past and as analysed by implementation

specialists such as Sarason (1971), Fullen (1973, 1981,

1982), Foshay (1980), Pomfret (1982), changes in curriculum

content and presentation decreed from centralized authority have been aborted or adapted by communities, school administrators and teachers. That has not stopped new methods

of imposing change on the school system from being devised

(Werner et al., 1983, Butt et al, 1983). Although writers

such as Goodlad (1983), King (1978, 1981), Parish and Arends

(1983) and many others have stated and restated teachers'

inertia towards trying different methods and materials,

Glatthorn (1983), Crandall (1983), and Louks and Zacchei

(1983) have asserted that teachers will use programs

developed outside their schools to improve their own school

if they receive a little outside support plus leadership from

their principal. This support by administrators is crucial

(Fullen and Park, 1981, Leithwood and Stanley, 1983). The

fact that school personnel control school programs cannot be

ignored. Beattie (1982) emphatically insists that teachers,

not principals nor Ministries of Education have the final say

about what is taught in classrooms and about how it is

presented. Indian education innovations must win the support 180 of the school teachers and principals.

Continual communication between the academic support institution and the training program Is vital to insure that workshop topics and content are closely coordinated with the classroom experiences of the trainees. Preset curricula must be adapted and sometimes sacrificed to ensure close correlation with the practical requirements of the job.

Teaching assistants who are working as tutors do not need lessons in classroom management and long-term curricula planning; teaching assistants who are working in high school classes do not have time to learn elementary "hands on" science or math teaching techniques but do have a need to

"brush up" on algebra and geometry lessons; language teachers have only time to learn effective ways of improving fluency and comprehension and not time for mathematics and science lessons. When the teaching assistants feel competent in their dealings with students and competent in their teaching assistant role in classrooms with teachers, there are opportunities to broaden their knowledge in longer, more relaxed study sessions that encompass the full school curricula in scope and sequence.

2. There is a need for dynamic local leadership.

All the programs had at least one person who sparked others

to try the innovation and kept generating enthusiasm within

the program and outside in the community. (Schools Council,

1967, Hamilton, 1981, Werner, 1983). Different programs in

British Columbia had various people as the keystone: a 181

Home-School Coordinator, a Band Education Officer, a local teacher, a principal and a district administrator. Less frequently, a Program Coordinator hired from outside the community has inspired others. In Lytton, first the Education

Director and later the high school teacher organised, enlisted and enthused others about the program.

Usually teachers are most receptive to new ideas in curriculum and methodology when they are presented by a respected colleague:

Effective local leadership is essential and this must come from among serving teachers. The most important qualities for such leadership will clearly be their experience and their acceptability to colleagues in the locality. Expertness alone is not enough. The most effective input is likely to come from a teacher who is known and respected for his work, who is highly skilled and abrest of new thinking and who possesses the personal qualities to bring cooperative efforts to fruition. (Schools Council, 1967, p. 7)

The crucial function of the person(s) within the school is to "resolve the tension between innovation and stability",

to be the "'role innovators' who are able to match their

personal interests and strengths with the goals of the school and to invent unconventional roles that embody those goals"

(Hamilton, 1981, p.147). There must be someone who can

negotiate and communicate freely for the Indian people within

the school community. That person must have the trust and

respect of both the school personnel and the Indian

community. The sensitive task of making a match between the

innovation and the goals of the school must be foremost in

the politics of change for Indian educators. The fragile 182 communication networks that must be developed are most effective when they are channeled through a person thoroughly aware and attuned to the local situation.

3. New roles must be studied, practised and learned by both teachers and Teaching Assistants.

There is a necessary stage of preservice before a program is established in the schools which is needed to give staff time

to define roles, identify teaming modes and create channels of communication (King, 1981, Mcllhenney, 1979, C.A.T.M.,

1978, Carlton et al.,1977, C.A.L., 1976, Fullen, 1973,

McManama, 1972, Shank & McElroy, 1970, BIA, 1970, Wright,

1969, Knopf et al.,1969, Sunderlin, 1968, Cheuvront, 1968).

Teaching Assistants require reorientation to the school

system as adults: an introduction to the actual physical

plant, a study of their role and how it will change as they

progress through training (Oppenheimer, 1979, McManama, 1972,

Educational Service Bureau, inc., 1966). This reintroduction

to schools and the changing future role of the teaching

assistant has been missed in most programs although the first

item is well recognized as an essential part of adult

education and upgrading programs (Klopf et al, 1969, Read,

1983). A structured approach to tasks and training modules in

the inservice program and on-the-job training was most

successful in the Lytton program. Incremental steps in

responsibility were planned to aid the career development of

the teaching assistant in programs in Arizona, Colorado, 183

Oregon, North Carolina, California, Michigan, and Connecticut

(Wilson, 1978, Cheuvront, 1968, Educational Service Bureau,

Inc., 1966, Emmerling and Chavis, 1967, Klopf et al., 1969,

Wright, 1969).

Only in the two summer programs that were attended by

the teachers and teaching assistants together were these

problems formally addressed (Bureau of Indian Affairs, 1970).

Not only do teaching assistants need to learn to assist

teachers, and to give them support (Wright, 1969), the

teachers need to learn "to share with aides their

responsibilities to children in the classroom" (Klopf et al.,

1969, p. 135). This need for teachers to learn to work in a

team is reported in study after study and in the comments of

teaching assistants and teachers. A sociological study

suggested that a minimum of three workshops be held to enable

teachers to identify various uses of a teaching assistant,

the legal and policy considerations of using teaching

assistants, and the needs and abilities of the teachers and

the teaching assistants (Bennett and Falk, 1970). Bypassing

the initial inservice time to facilitate acceptance of

teaching assistants by teachers has created problems in

program after program. Lack of funds has been the reason;

failure of programs has been the result.

Directors of the teaching assistant training programs

have attempted to train teachers to work with teaching

assistants. It has been more effective if the director teams

with a teacher who is experienced in working with a teaching 184 assistant so that the teachers can identify with an experienced peer when learning skills in an new role (Bennett and Falk, 1970, Mcllhenny, 1979).

Teaming requires much time for planning, evaluating, revising plans, testing procedures, reevaluating, especially in the first year of working together. Teams must have time to meet to work out strategies, frustrations and talk about

successes (Wright, 1969, Klopf et al, 1969, Esbensen, 1966,

Joyce, 1967, Plater, 1973, Bennett and Falk, 1970).

Established teams accomplish most tasks more efficiently and effectively.

4. The importance of the active support of the principal of

the school in achieving implementation of an innovation is well-documented (Sarason, 1971, Fullan and Park, 1981,

Leithwood and Stanley, 1983, Pravica and McLean, 1983, Loucks

1983, Cox, 1983, Huberman, 1983).

Once the principal is convinced of the value of the

innovation for the principal's school, the principal's staff

and the principal's students, the principal must "exert

strong and continuous pressure on teachers" plus "revisions

in scheduling, teaming, and monitoring " (Huberman, 1983) for

school improvements to be lasting. When principals lost

enthusiasm and thus lessened support for change, the momentum

gradually slowed and the improvement or innovation ceased. 185

5. Funding for Teaching Assistant training programs and for

Teaching Assistant positions in schools must be part of long

term financial plans.

In native communities, changes in school programs have often been experimental and easily and quickly terminated (Hatt,

1969 quoted in Frideres, 1983), sometimes before they have had a chance to prove their worth. The lack of committed long-term funding for teaching assistants, other than Native language teachers, by any government department indicates the position of teaching assistant is not highly valued by either the Department of Indian Affairs or the provincial education authorities. Therefore communities do not take the position seriously either. The programs are regarded in a jaded fashion because:

In general, the federal government has retained control of development schemes by only allowing natives to implement projects rather then plan them (Hatt, 1969). Moreover, as Hatt has shown, Native projects tend to be short-term experimental or pilot projects, which can be terminated quickly with few problems. According to Hatt, these programs have "therapeutic" value only; because they defuse protest and do not seriously disrupt the status quo, they perform effectively as social mechanisms. (Frideres, 1983, p.300)

Quick results should not be expected. Changes in programs and curriculum take at least two years to become established in schools (Fullen and Park, 1981). To convince districts and schools that a program will have to be in place for at least two or -three years before any measurable change

in student achievement could occur is a formidable task that

Indian Bands and the Academic support people will have to 186 address in the future. The school boards are unable and unwilling to simply provide jobs for Indian or non-Indian

people as teaching assistants. It must be proven that the hiring of teaching assistants improves the instruction and

achievement of the students, or teachers and school boards will not support the programs for training teaching

assistants. When changes in budget and personnel occur,

"environmental turbulence" makes it even more difficult to

accomplish school improvement (Huberman, 1983).

6. The position of Teaching Assistant is a justifiable

position in school staffing.

Most training programs for teaching assistants have as their

stated goal the eventual accreditation as professional

teachers. But not all people who want to work in the schools want to become teachers. The Bank Street Study recognized the

intrinsic value of auxiliary personnel in the schools and

recommended that the position become institutionalized,

providing a career ladder within the educational system but

also respecting:

the dignity and validity of every task at every level. The jobs available at the entry level need to be meaningful in terms of the basic goals of education so that the person who feels more comfortable remaining an aide can make a real contribution to the ongoing life of the school. Upward mobility should be possible but not compulsory. Advancement should be related to both desire and ability. (Klopf et al., 1969, p.17)

7. There has been no evidence that there are academic

qualifications that are necessary prerequisites to successful 187 training programs for Teaching Assistants.

Teacher aides and Teaching Assistants who were accepted to programs in California, Kentucky, Lytton, Prince George,

Williams Lake, Bella Bella, Lillooet, and Texas without prerequisite academic qualifications seemed as " successful in their positions as those in New York and North Carolina who were expected to have completed two years of college. It seems that a willingness to conform to certain expectations of the school in dress, punctuality, attendance, and possession of a certain amount of assertiveness and responsibility is the prime prerequisite quality in teaching assistants. (Klopf et al.,1969, Brighton, 1972, Educational

Service Bureau, Inc., 1966, Abbott, 1973, Lytton, 1983).

8. Teaching Assistants are responsible people and must be given tasks which allow them to exercise that responsibility.

Kleinfeld(1973) observed that Native high school students who were given much less responsibility than they had accepted at home began to act "passive, dependent, and socially irresponsible". In Lytton, when Teaching Assistants were given less responsibility than they expected to receive, some reacted in a similar fashion to Kleinfeld's students.

They responded much better when the program lost its

Education Director in 1983, and they undertook to complete in-school duties and O.L.I, course work. When the the onus was on the individual Teaching Assistants and their program rather than on the Education Director's program participants, 188 there seemed to be more determination to succeed. Indian or non-Indian teaching assistants respond best to a gradual increase in responsibilities following a structured approach to task assignment and training modules in the inservice program and on-the-job training. This must be both planned and coordinated between the school, the program coordinator and the academic support institution (Wilson, 1978,

Cheuvront, 1968, ESB, 1966, Emmerling and Chavis, 1967, Klopf et al., 1969, Wright, 1969).

It is usual for the teaching assistants to begin with

"menial tasks" that teachers have to do, but are most willing to assign to others, clerical and housekeeping jobs.

Gradually, but as quickly as possible teaching assistants should move to preparation of lesson aids, and then work in one to one tutoring situations. Eventually teaching assistants work with small and large groups following learning activities designed by the professional teacher. As team confidence grows, the assistant contributes more to the planning stages as well as to the delivery stages of the teaching process.

9. Training programs for teaching assistants have developed

Into a condensed teacher training course presented in workshops or Inservice training classes.

These programs seem most effective when they are correlated closely with what the teaching assistants are doing in their work in the schools. 189

10. The assignment of teaching assistants in schools has been most effective when two teachers share one teaching assistant according to a schedule.

Some successful teaming has occurred when an immediate one-to-one assignment of assistant and teacher has been made

(Noble, 1980, Haig-Brown, 1976, Mcllhenny, 1979, Plater,

1973), providing both the teacher and teaching assistant assistant have been able to devote extra time to joint planning (Cheuvront, 1968). More frequently a general assignment to a building or a rotation of assignments to familiarize teaching assistants with a school has started off a program (Brown et al., 1975 , Klopf et al . , 1969 , Cheuvront,

1968, Lytton, 1981). Most programs found that sharing an assistant by two teachers has resulted in more effective use of both the assistant and time as did the Lytton Elementary

School staff (Klopf et al., 1969, Brown, 1979, Mcllhenney,

1979).

11. Trainees in teaching assistant programs have a strong need for a private place for debriefing after classroom experiences .

The value of having a room available for free discussions was was noted in at least two of the programs, Berkeley (Klopf et al., 1969) and Lytton. Although teaming is enhanced by teachers and teaching assistants sharing staff rooms and planning time, both teachers and teaching assistants sometimes need to meet separately to share their unique experiences and viewpoints in a less demanding atmosphere 190 than a mutual meeting place. Indian students at universities have as well found great support in casual discussions with other students in a meeting room or centre (Thomson, 1977,

Thomas and Mcintosh, 1977, Read, 1983).

12. Financial assistance In the form of a stipend for work done at the school gives recognition that programs are valued by the government, school boards and the community.

While volunteer aides are untrained helpers without responsibility for the learning of school skills and knowledge by students, trained teaching assistants are responsible for that learning and to the teachers with whom they team. As an integral member of the teaching team they must receive financial rewards.

Future Challenges for Research and Implementation

In this section recommendations arising from the review of the literature and the study of the Lytton Teaching

Assistant Training Program will be presented.

1. The Cultural contribution that Indian Teaching

Assistants are expected to make to schools has yet to be defined.

Many training programs seem to be designed to have the teaching assistants "not only accept the schooling provided their children, but also to have Native parents change themselves for their children's sake" (Carney, 1982 , p.2).

Carney calls this a form of rescue. In other words, the 191

Indian teaching assistant is trained to be a teacher assistant as any other parent would be with no attention paid

to the unique characteristics of Indian culture that an

Indian teaching assistant could bring to the classroom, students and teacher. The identification of those unique resources has not been scientifically identified in verified research but suggestions are made In Indian education literature such as:

beyond curricula, there is a need for Indianization of Indian schools in terms of teaching techniques, integration of the school into the local community, and adjusting the annual calendar of events to that of the local community. (Price, 1974, p.113)

The Indian teaching assistant can inform the teacher of important local calendar events. The present use of teaching assistants is helping the schools move into the community but for now only the bodies and not the beliefs and traditions of the teaching assistants are moving into the schools.

Integration is not yet more than another form of colonization.

The introduction of Indian teaching techniques into schools is a challenge that has not been formalized. In a study in which findings by Philips in Oregon were tested in

Ontario, an Indian teacher and a non-Indian teacher were observed at work in classrooms. The differences in teaching styles were illustrated by observations such as:

relative " Cultural congruence" of the two teaching styles with the children's experience of social life outside school.(p.141) ... sense of pacing ...slowness and interactional smoothness (p.145) ...more disjunct, a "stop and go"pattern (p.147) 192

...teacher's positioning in space and orientation to objects and people...a distinct rhythmic pattern to verbal and non-verbal behavior (p.164) ..."privatized" arenas for interacting with chiIdren..."spot1ight" individual children... . (Erickson & Mohatt, 1982)

In some communities establishing cultural congruence between teaching style and homes necessitates major changes for middle-class teachers as was the case for one of the teachers in the Ontario study (Erickson & Mohatt, 1982). For example, teachers of children in the Nicola Valley probably find that as :

the grammar of Okanagan ... lacks a true causative construction and ...the use of Okanagan requires that a verbal contract must be made explicit between speaker and hearer before a speaker can form expectations of an addressee with respect to directives issued. ...teachers cannot make / cause/ force native children to perform a particular task ... native children will determine for themselves when to learn, to respond, and when to stop... native children will decide whether or not to select and respect teachers as authority figures. (Sterling & Hebert, 1982, p.l)

The problem of Indian students finding themselves in a culturally-incongruent situation is further explored by

Arbess (1981) with reference to styles of learning as defined by Philips (1972) and language acquisition as described by

Scollon and Scollon (1979). Arbess was one of the few educators who tried to suggest ways teachers could make their classrooms more congenial to the learning styles of Indian students in provincial workshops and publications (Arbess,

1981). The Nisgha aides who were also language teachers attempted to coordinate Indian learning styles and language teaching in their schools (Handley et al., 1980, More, 1979). 193

The Choctaw program (Littlejohn, 1971) recognized the differences between the Choctaw Indian culture and the

European culture of the schools and tried to train teachers and aides to accommodate both cultures in the school. The

Center for Applied Linguistics' summer program outlined some of the more imaginative and integrated activities for cultural infusion into an established curriculum. The program designed by More and Ashworth (1980) attempted to include cultural infusion in the training of teacher aides and

Teaching Assistants. Their perspective was that "Every subject could start from a Native perspective if the teacher knows what that perspective is" (Price, 1974, p.113), and it was the Teaching Assistant's task to help the teacher obtain that Indian perspective.

This challenge was difficult for the Teaching Assistants because there has been little attempt to reinforce the

"Indianness" of native Teaching Assistants in the content of

Teaching Assistant training programs. The schools, universities and training programs still seem to believe that :

... culture is traditional art, beadwork, foods, language, tales, from the point of view of school authorities, curriculum developers, and teachers, non-Indian and Indian for in teacher education courses, Indian students learn that "culture" is formal, explicit patterning, primarily producing artifacts and languages. The idea that implicit, informal culture shapes people's ways of acting in everyday life does not seem generally to be taught to teachers,-whether Indian or non-Indian. (Erickson & Mohatt, 1982, p. 167)

This "living" culture will be more difficult to recognize and 194 accept, and then teach and practice than the curriculum now accepted as culture.

2. The challenge to release control of Indian education to the Indian people has yet to be accepted by the Canadian schools.

The report, Indian Self-Government in Canada, presented to the Government of Canada (1983) by the special committee chaired by Mr. Keith Penner, concluded that "external control of the education of Indian children has been distructive of

Indian culture" (p.27). Although the commissioners observed that there are native studies programs in existance, and that the master tuition agreements provide funds to school boards for native students, they recognized that the Indian Bands are "blocked by the school boards" from introducing relevant curriculum material. The commission sees Indian control over education as an essential component in strengthening Indian culture and preserving Indian heritage. Indian witnesses to the commission recognized as well that education must enable

Indian students to acquire "the skills needed to survive and prosper in non-Indian society" but warned that "Education programs operated by federal and provincial governments were seen as promoting a policy of assimilation" (p.29).

The Native Coucil of Canada asserted:

we are talking about relationships that respect the traditions and culture of those people...without trying to impose on them some kind of non-Indian relationship. If we can do that on the basis of mutual respect and trust, then I think we have gone half way to solving a lot of the problems we have. (Government of Canada, 1983, p.41) 195

Dr. Lloyd Barber stated:

I hope that we are psychologically prepared for this challenge. It has come upon us rather suddenly and tends to shake the basis on which we have always thought about our relationship with native people. I suppose, in a way, we tend to react like somebody who has been standing on the other fellow's toes for so long that we are indignant when he wants to pull his foot out. I hope we can overcome this for his sake and ours. (Government of Canada, 1983, p.137)

Indian leaders were preparing for the First Ministers'

Conference In Ottawa on March 8 and 9, 1984 at which the proposals for the first steps for First Nations

Self-Government on Native lands and control of Indian

Education were to be discussed. In spite of the difficulty for Indian leaders to sustain faith in a parlimentary system which periodically adjusts and reverses previous treaties and agreements, the members of the Assembly of First Nations prepared their briefs for the conference and undertook to publicize their position by placing a full page advertisement in Canadian newspapers.

The legislation concerning the six settlements for the cut-off land claims was passed but the resulting payments and return of reserve lands seemed to harden the lines between the provinces which have developed on lands not relinquished to the crown by treaties, the federal government, and the Indian First Nations at the conference table in Ottawa on March 8 and 9, 1984. In spite of the recommendations of the all party committee that recommended the establishment of self-government for the First Nations on 196 their lands (Government of Canada, 1983), the six of the provincial leaders demonstrated that the negotiations will be lengthy and difficult. Once again Canadian politicians ensured that Indian leaders had a difficult task in convincing their people that the Canadian parliamentary system will allow the Indian peoples to become full and equal partners in Canada. 197

Chapter Six

Conclusions

Summary

Indian Teaching Assistants have been introduced into

multicultural classrooms with large numbers of Indian

students in programs designed to improve the academic success

of Indian students. The Indian Teaching Assistants receive

training that is designed to make them effective "culture

brokers" as well as tutors and classroom aides.

This study examined the literature of Indian education

concentrating on three themes: 1) cultural relevency,

2) training of Indian teachers, and 3) training of Indian

teaching assistants. As there was a paucity of material

concerning the training of Indian teaching assistants, the

study examined the literature on the training of teacher aides in the United States, in particular the training of

teacher aides and teaching assistants during the New Careers

Movement which focussed on introducing cross-cultural and urban poor adult aides into existing school systems.

The Teaching Assistant Training Program in progress in

Lytton, B.C. was followed for two years during which interviews, questionnaires, observations and document study were completed. Components that had affected the success of programs in the studied literature and the program in Lytton were correlated. 198

Conclusions

Changes in school programs affect the whole community.

Therefore, planning for new programs must involve all members

of that community: 1) the financial community, the Indian

Band, its council and members as well as its education

officers, the business and professional people of the

community; 2) the parent community; and 3) the school

personnel, administrators, teachers and support staff

including secretaries and janitors. Each group has control

over some part of the program. If any group is ignored,

bypassed or sidestepped, that group is likely to veto the

program through active intervention or passive

non-compliance. The financial support group can withdraw

funding; the parent group can withdraw students from programs

or lobby education authorities; and the teachers may publicly

refute the program or use their traditional power in their

closed-door classrooms to practise non-implementation.

The most effective means of gaining and retaining

support has been the creation of communication networks and channels that allow the flow of information about the program

to proceed to the groups in the community and from the groups

to the program participants. The communication must be informative and detailed. Community meetings in which the program was discussed by the widest possible representation of the people, action groups which took on development and support roles, publications and structured observations to 199

keep the community informed were important. Within the school

group where people were working with the program a constant

flow of information, interpersonal contact, encouragement and

sharing of successes and frustrations were all needed to keep

a program dynamic and growing. A printed list of activities

or study topics did not constitute keeping people informed.

The program must be led by an energetic, capable local

person who involves others in the process of development and

implementation of the program so that others become vested

stake holders. Successful school innovations have most often

been initiated by a local teacher who has first won and enlisted the support of a principal and then the other school

staff members. The support and encouragement of the principal

for his staff while they are learning and practising new behaviors in new roles was crucial to the success of new programs. Further support from the parent community has been gained through the active involvement of perents in classrooms. Support from outside administrators and academics has kept programs expanding in structured forms.

New programs demand new activities and new roles for

teachers and their teaching assistants. Because adult learners have to practice new roles in non-threatening and non-stressful conditions before they are comfortable assuming those roles in public situations, inservice for both teachers and teaching assistants which involves role plays, practice situations and opportunities for self-criticism is mandatory.

Gradual assumption of tasks in the new role coupled with 200

on-the-job training has been successful. Both teachers and

teaching assistants need to have feed-back from observers to

help them implement the new skills they try in the classroom.

Educational change is a long term process. Too often

programs were funded on a short term basis, evaluated and

cancelled before they had had any effect on student

achievement. This problem of short term funding has been

particularly tragic in Indian education as both parents and

teachers view solutions as "band-aids" to cover up crises

rather than cures to long standing ills.

The benefits of having an Indian adult in the classroom

as a role model, as a culture bridge and as a teacher

assistant are recognized (Wyatt, 1977, 1978, More and

Ashworth, 1980, King, 1975 , 1981). There is still a need to.

identify and analyse the differences in teaching styles of

Indian culture that are related to language, movement,

self-control, group interaction and individual motivation.

The learning styles that are most effective for Indian

students must be more fully explored and utilized. Practices

in Indian cultures as well as the study of artifacts need to be incorporated into the school life of Indian children.

Schools must become multicultural in all aspects of curriculum. There are essential parts of the Indian cultures that have yet to be integrated or infused into that school curricula. More Indian people must become involved in the education process to identify and organize their learnings that are not now presented to students in schools. 201

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Russell, H. H., K. A. Leithwood and R. P. Baxter. The Peterborough Project. Toronto: Ontario Institute for Studies in Education, 1973.

Sarason, Seymour. The Culture of Schools and the Problem of Change. Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 1971.

Werner, Walt. "A Political View of Implementation Training." CSSE Annual Conference, Vancouver, 5 June, 1983. 208

Werner, Walt, Brian Frankcombe, Tarry Grieve and Rob Watson, eds. Program Implementation Experiences; Cases from British Columbia. Vancouver: Program Implementation Services, British Columbia Ministry of Education and Centre for the Study of Curriculum and Instruction, 1983.

METHODOLOGY

Adams, Kay Angona. "The Keen-edged Feather: Intuitive Analysis and Reporting in Qualitative Analysis." Phi Delta Kappa CEDR Quarterly, 15:3( 1982), pp.3-6.

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INDIAN EDUCATION

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Reeves, Faye, Gretcher Peniska and Jean Hienstr."Indian 'Head Start' Programs - The Child in the Process of Becoming." In The Schooling of Native America. Ed. Thomas Thompson. Washington, D.C.: American Association of Colleges for Teacher Education, 1 978 , pp. 87-104 .

Reid, Gordon. "Indian Education as I See It." Indian Education 4:6&7 (1974), n. pag.

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Rothe, J. Peter. "The Sto lo' Sitel Curriculum: An Assessment." unpublished paper, University of British Columbia, n.d.

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Sanderson, Solomon. A Model for Community Education: Local Control at James Smith Reserve. Saskatoon: University of Saskatchewan, 1975.

Schmeck, Ronald R. and Dan Lockhart. "Introverts and Extraverts Require Different Learning Environments." Educational Leadership, 40:5(1983), pp.54-55.

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Sealey, D. Bruce and Verna Kirkness, eds. Indians Without Tipis . Winnipeg: William Clare (Manitoba) Limited, 1973 .

Sheffe, Norman, ed. Issues for the Seventies: Canada's Indians. Toronto: McGraw-Hill Company of Canada Limited, 1970.

Sloan, Leroy V."Morning Star Study: Looking Back to Find Direction for Students." Canadian Journal for Native Education, 8:2:(1981), pp.2-10.

Smith, David G. "The Mystic Panacea: A Historical Perspective on Indian Education Policy in British Columbia." Unpublished paper, University of British Columbia, 1977.

Sterling, Robert W. The Home School Coordinator. B.C. Native Indian Teachers Association, 1974. 215

Sterling, Robert W. and Yvonne M. Hebert. "Self-determination of Action and Implications for Education." In Visible Minorities in Canadian Education. Ed. V.D'Oyley. Vancouver: Centre for the Study of Curriculum and Instruction, forthcoming.

Thomas, W. C. and R.G. Mcintosh. Return Home, Watch Your Family: The Native Indian Teacher Education Program at the University of British Columbia. Edmonton: Department of Indian Affairs, 1977.

Thomson, Colin A. "The Emergence of Native American Education at the University of Lethbridge." Canadian and International Education, 6:2 (1977), pp.34-48.

Thomson, Colin A. "Native American Awareness: An Institutional Response." Interchange, 9:1 (1978-79), pp.45-55.

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Waller, L. P. G., ed. The Education of Indian Children in Canada. A Symposium Written by Members of the Indian Affairs Education Division With Comments by the Indian Peoples. The Canadian Superintendent,1965. Toronto: Ryerson Press, 1965.

Whyte, Kenn. "The Development of Curricula/Programs for Indian and Metis People." Canadian Journal of Native Education 9:2 (1982), pp.21-29.

Wilson, Roger. "Teachers for Indian Children." In The Schooling of Native America. Ed. Thomas Thompson. Washington, D.C.: American Association of Colleges for Teacher Education, 1978, pp.155-167.

Wyatt, June. "Native Teacher Education in a Community Setting: The Mt. Currie Program." Canadian Journal of Education, 2:3 (1977), pp.1-4.

Wyatt, June. "Self-Determination Through Education: A Canadian Indian Example." Phi Delta Kappan , 58:5(1977), pp.405-423.

Wyatt, June. "Native Involvement in Curriculum Development: The Native Teacher as Cultural Broker." Interchange, 9:1(1978-79), pp.17-28.

Yukon Native Brotherhood. Cross Cultural Strategies: A Collection of Background Information for Teachers of Indian Students. Whitehorse: 1980. 216

TEACHER AIDES, TRAINING AND USE

Abbott, Jerry L. The Auxiliary Teacher Program; A Complete Manual and Guide. West Nyack, N.Y.: Parker Publishing Company, Inc., 1973.

Anthony, Robert. Interview, September 29,1983.

Bennett, William, Jr. and R. Frank Falk. New Careers and Urban Schools: A Sociological Study of Teacher and Teacher Aide Roles. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc., 1970.

Bowman, Gorda W. and Gordon J. Klopf. New Careers and Rules in the American School. New York: Bank Street College of Education, 1968.

Brighton, Howard. Handbook for Teacher Aides. Midland, Mich.: Pendell Publishing Co., 1972.

Brighton, Howard. Utilizing Teacher Aides in Differentiated Settings. Midland, Mich.: Pendell Publishing Co., 1972.

Brown, Robert, Jr. and Others. Development of and Supervision of a Building Teacher Aide Training Program Microfiche, Doctoral Disertation, Nova University, 1975, ERIC ED 113 811.

Bureau of Indian Affairs. Teacher Aide Guide for Navajo Areas. ERIC ED 049 844.

Canadian Education Association. The Use of Teacher Aides in Canadian Schools. Toronto: Canadian Education Association, 1 967 .

Csapo, Marg. Teacher's Help. Vancouver, B.C.: Center for Human Development and Research, 1975.

Center for Applied Linguistics. Handbook for Staff Development Workshops in Indian Education. Arlington, Va.: Center for Applied Linguistics, 1976.

Cheuvront, Robert F. The Use of Aides in Colorado. Denver: Colorado State Department of Education, 1968, ERIC ED 0246454.

Clough, Dick B. and Bonnie M. Clough. A Handbook of Effective Techniques for Teacher Aides. Springfield, 111.: Charles C. Thomas Publisher, 1978. 217

Clough, Dick B. and Bonnie M. Clough. Utilizing Teacher Aides in the Classrooms. Springfield, 111.: Charles C. Thomas Publisher, 1978.

Cornwell, George. "Teacher Associate Training: A Proposal." Unpublished Report, Prince George: College of New Caledonia, 1978.

DaSilva, Benjamin and Richard C. Lucas. Practical School Volunteer and Teacher Aide Programs. West Nyack, New York: Parker Publishing Company, Inc., 1974.

Educational Service Bureau Inc. Teacher Aides or Auxiliary School Personnel. Washington, D.C: Educational Service Bureau Inc., 1966.

Emmerling, Frank and Kanawhae Chavis. The Teacher Aide in North Caraolina's Comprehensive School Improvement Project. Raleigh, N.C: State Department of Instruction, 1967 .

Enns, John, Frank Dillon and Stuart McDowell. Implications of Employment of Auxiliary School Personnel. Toronto: Canadian Teachers' Federation, 1974.

Esbensen, T. "Should Teacher Aides Be More Than Clerks?" Phi Delta Kappan, Volume 44, 1966, p.237.

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Haig Brown, Alan. Telephone Interviews, 1982,1983.

Institute for Development of Educational Activities. Report, Expanding Volunteers in Teaching and Learning Programs. Dayton, Ohio, 1973.

Joyce, Bruce R. The Teacher and His Staff: Man, Media and Machines. Washington, D.C.: National Commission on Teacher Education and Professional Standards and Center for the Study of Instruction, 1967.

King, A. Richard. "The Native Indian 'Paraprofessional' in British Columbia." Northian, 11:3 (1975), pp.22-27.

Klopf, Gordon J., Garda W. Bowman and Adena Joy. A Learning Team: Teacher and Auxiliary. Washington, D.C: Bank Street College of Education, 1969.

Levin, Henry M., ed. Community Control of Schools. New York: Clarion by Simon & Schuster, 1970.

Littlejohn, Joseph E. A Handbook for Teachers and Aides of the Choctaw Bilingual Education program. Durant, Okla.: Southeastern State College, 1971. ERIC ED 054 902. 218

Mcllhenny, Anne. The Role of ParaprofessIonal in the ESL/Bilingual Program. Microfiche MA Thesis, Hunter College of New York, 1979. ERIC ED 179 088.

McManama, John. An Effective Program for Teacher-Aide Training. West Nyack, N.Y.: Parker Publishing Company, Inc., 1972.

More, Art. A Solid Link in the Chain, The Aboriginal Teaching Assistants7 Training Programme: an Evaluation. Sydney, N.S.W. Department of Education, University of Sydney, 1978 .

More, Art. Collection of papers: Bella Bella Teacher Aide Training Program. University of British Columbia, 1982. More, Art. "Lytton Review Action Committee Phase 1 Report." Vancouver: University of British Columbia, 1981.

More, Art. "Lytton Teaching Assistants Training Program: Interim Evaluation." Unpublished Paper, University of British Columbia, 1982.

More, Art. "Paraprofession Training Program, Nisgha School District." Unpublished Paper, University of British Columbia, 1979.

More, Art. "Proposal for a Teacher Education Program for Small Numbers of Community-Bound People in Relatively Isolated Communities." (Working Draft), University of British Columbia, 1980.

More, Art. "Proposal: Nisgha Language Teacher Training Program 1981/82." Unpublished Paper, University of British Columbia, 1981.

More, Art. "Prospective Education Programme for Nisgha Schools." Unpublished Paper, University of British Columbia, 1978.

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Noble, Gaile P. "Report on the Native Teacher Associate Training Program for October, 1979-July, 1980.", Unpublished Papers, College of New Caledonia, 1980.

Northwest Territories Department of Education. Classroom Assistant Training Manual: Eastern Arctic Certificate, 1978. 219

Northwest Territories Department of Education. Class room Assistant Training Manual: Eastern Arctic Diploma, 1978.

Northwest Territories Department of Education. Classroom Assistant Training Manual: Western Arctic Certificate, 1978.

Northwest Territories Department of Education. Classroom Assistant Training Manual: Western Arctic Diploma, 1978.

Ornstein, Allen C, Harriet Talmage and Anne W. Juhasz. A Paraprofessional's Handbook for the Teacher Aide. Belmont, Cali.: Fearon Publishers Inc., 1975.

Pearl, Arthur and Frank Riessman. New Careers for the Poor: the Non-professional in Human Services. New York: Free Press, 1965.

Plater,J. "Indian Teacher Aide Training Lillooet Program." Journal of the Supervisors of Instruction, 2:1(1973) , pp.13-17.

Pomfret, A. "Involving Parents in Schools - Intervention Technology." Interchange, 3:2/3(1972), pp.114-130.

School Aides at Work: Catskill Area Project in Small School Design, 1959.

Shank, Paul C. and Wayne McElroy. The Paraprofessionals or Teacher Aides: Selection, Preparation and Assignment. Midland, Mi: Pendell Publishing Company, 1970.

Snow, Lawrence. Using Teacher Aides: A Guide for Teachers, Principals ... and Aides. Highland Park, N.J.: Educational Systems Inc., 1970.

Steere, Caryl, Patricia Kukulski, Albert Kukulski and Joseph Steere. Indian Teacher-Aide Handbook. Tempe, Arizona: Arizona State University, 1965, ERIC ED 024488.

Sunderlin, Sylvia, ed. Aides to Teachers and Children. Washington, D.C.: Association for Childhood Education International, 1968.

Welty, Don A. and Dorothy R. Welty. The Teacher Aide in the Instructional Team. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1976.

Wright, Betty Atwell. Teacher Aides to the Rescue: Program Guideslines to Better Home - School - Community Partnerships . New York: The John Day Company, 1969 .

Yukon Native Brotherhood. "Paraprofessional Program for Remedial Tutors in Yukon Schools." Unpublished Paper, 1979. APPENDIX A

Interview Checklist for Program Leaders

How did the program get started?

Who attended the first meetings or discussions?

When did you become involved?

Who approached you with the plans for the program?

How did the band and the school agree to start the program?

How many meetings did it take to set up the program?

What form did these meetings take?

Have there been ongoing meetings between the band and the school?

Do the program developers meet with the band to discuss the program?

Do the program developers meet with the school administrators to discuss the program?

Do the program developers meet with the teachers to

discuss the program?

The most successful meetings have been:

one to one discussions

informal group discussions over coffee

formal discussions in a guided situation

formal presentations to groups

open meetings with individuals speaking 221

COMMENT:

13. Has outside help been available to program

developers ?

14. How was the outside help contacted?

15. Does the outside help visit the program at regular

intervals ?

16. How have the assistants been involved in planning the

program?

17. How have the teachers been involved in planning the

program?

18. What are the avenues used to gather input from

assistants and teachers?

19. Describe some changes that have been made in

response to ideas from the participants. 222

Appendix B

Interview Checklist for Program Developers

1. How did the program get started?

2. When did you join the program?

3. How do you define your job?

4. What is the basis for the program?

5. What are the components of the course?

6. What written materials are there?

7. Who prepares the written materials?

8. Who presents or teachers the courses?

9. Who coordinates the program?

10. How often are workshops held?

11. What form do the workshops take?

12. Who attends the workshops?

13. How are the workshops evaluated?

14. Are the workshops adapted to local needs and

condit ions ?

15. Are tutorials held? Comment

16. How is the program financed? Appendix C 22'

I. Interacting Duties

Frequency Competency

F 0 N 1 . Tutors small groups of students under direction of teacher A B C D

F 0 N 2. Tutors individuals upon request A B C D

F 0 N 3. Reads to children A B C D

F 0 N 4. Tells stories A B C D

F 0 N 5. Corrects students' work A B C D

F 0 N 6. Supervises class during short absences of teacher A B C D

F 0 N 7. Supervises playground and hallways A B C D

F 0 N 8. Circulates in class to help students with exercises and projects A B C D

F 0 N 9. Assists students in the library A B C D

F 0 N 10. Helps students organize study time A B C D

F 0 N 11. Helps students complete homework assignments A B C D

F 0 N 12. Assists teacher in planning lessons A B C D

F 0 N 13. Assists with excursions and sports days A B C D

Comments: Appendix C 22!

II. Cultural Infusion

Frequency Competency

F 0 N 1. Tells legends and stories A B C D

F 0 N 2. Uses Thompson words in conversations with students A B C D

F 0 N 3. Uses local examples when explaining concepts to students A B C D

F 0 N 4. Prepares native and local teaching aids A B C D

F 0 N 5. Shares own experiences with teacher and students A B C D

F 0 N 6. Assists teachers integrate Thompson language and lore into curriculum A B C D

F 0 N 7. Assists teachers develop "hands on" experiences for students A B C D

F 0 N 8. Assists teacher arrange demonstration rather than direction lessons A B C D

F 0 N 9. Allows students to have input in planning and discipline A B C D

F 0 N 10. Arranges peer group learning experiences A B C D

F 0 N 11. Demonstrates the legitimacy of native response time to questions or speech A B C D Comment s: Appendix C 226

III. Non-Interacting Duties

Frequency Competency

F 0 N 1 . Can design and construct bulletin boards A B C D

F 0 N 2. Demonstrates legible manuscript and cursive writing A B C D

F 0 N 3. Demonstrates competency in office machine operation (duplicators, typewriters, telephone) A B C D

F 0 N A. Demonstrates competency in audio-visual machine operation A B C D

F 0 N 5. Previews fi1ms/fi1mstrips A B C D

F 0 N 6. Orders audio-visual materials A B C D

F 0 N 7. Cares for instructional aids, books and materials A B C D

F 0 N 8. Cares for sports equipment A B C D

F 0 N 9. Cares for art materials A B C D

F 0 N 10. Organizes and files student records A B C D

Comment s: Appendix C 227

IV. Liason Duties

Frequency Competency

F 0 N 1. Counsels students with personal problems A B C D

F 0 N 2. Counsels students concerning vocational plans A B C D

F 0 N 3. Helps students with school routines and rules A B C D

F 0 N 4. Explains problems on behalf of teachers and principals to parents A B C D

F 0 N 5. Explains problems on behalf of parents to teachers and principals A B C D

F 0 N 6. Increases teachers knowledge about "Things Indian" (present and past) A B C D

F 0 N 7. Works with teacher on problems of individual students A B C D

F 0 N 8. Increases communication between teacher and students A B C D

Comment s:

VI. Other useful teacher assistant competencies to be

developed

1. Appendix C 228

3.

4.

5.

VII. Indian language programs are viewed by anthropologists as essential to the preservation of Indian cultures. The Thompson language program has been expanded rapidly in the Elementary School this year. Please comment on the program as you have observed it.

A)List ways the program has been effective.

b)List ways the program can be improved next year.

VIII. Thompson Curriculum materials are being developed by the band. What types of materials would you like to have developed for your use to make the Thompson culture part of your teaching? 229

APPENDIX D

Teacher Assistant Questionnaire

1. How old are you?

2. What is your sex?

female male

3. What is your marital status?

4. How many people , if any, are dependent on you for their support ?

5. What is your status?

status Indian non-status Indian non-Indian

6. How many years were you working, including years as a housewife, before you entered the program?

7. Was your work related to teaching?

yes no

8. If your answer to question 7 was "yes", how was your work related to teaching?

worked with young people

worked with instructional materials

communicated with community members

kept detailed records

other - Comment please 230

9. What was the highest education level achieved by your parents ?

10. What was the highest grade level you achieved at the time you left school?

11. Indicate the number of years you spent ineach of the following schools.

Number Indian Integrated Indian Integrated of School School Residential School While Years in Home While Living School Living Away Communi ty at Home From Home

0

1-3

4-6

7 or more

12. I have lived

in Lytton all my life.

in B.C. all my life.

in Canada all my life.

in countries other than Canada.

13. I have children attending the Lytton schools.

yes

no 231

14. As you think back on your school experience as a student, which of the following statements best describes you?

I enjoyed school and did well in my studies.

I enjoyed school but was never better than an average student.

I knew I had to attend school but getting an education was not important to me.

Going to school was unpleasant for me and I wanted to get away from it as soon as I could.

other(please explain)

15. As you were growing up, was there anyone close to you who strongly influenced you to continue your studies and do well in school?

yes

no

sometimes

16. If you answered the previous question "yes", who was the most influencial person?

mother

father

grandmother

grandfather

other relative (please specify)

teacher

friend

other (please specify) 232

17. Which of the following statements best accounts for why you are taking the Teacher Assistant Training Program?

I want to train for a steady job with a good income.

I want to prepare myself to serve the Native Indian people as a teacher assistant.

I want to prepare myself for entry into N.I. T.E.P .

I want to become a Thompson Language teacher •

I want to prepare myself for leadership work with my people , not necessarily related directly to teaching

I had nothing better to do and the opportunity to be included in the program came up.

Somebody talked me into it.

other (please specify)

Listed below are a number of possible problems you may have faced as a student teacher assistant. Please rate each of these according to how important each was in affecting your adjust ment to the program. Use the following system for your rat ings.

1.... Not Important

2.... Somewhat Important

3.... Very Important

18. The work load of academic work was very heavy.

19. The language of the instructors was difficult to understand.

20. The tasks assigned in the classroom were not explained. 233

21. The students did not know what a teacher assistant wa s .

22. There wasn't enough time to get to know the students well.

23. The world of being an assistant was entirely new to me, and was very confusing for the first three months.

24. The teachers were unsure of which tasks they could assign to me.

25. The visiting workshop instructors were here for too short a time.

26. The workshops were not always pertinent to what I was doing in the classroom.

27. I felt separated from the life I had been leading.

28. I felt unable to do as well as the other teacher assistants.

29. I had difficulty in organizing my time and getting assignments done when required.

30. Adjusting to school routine was difficult for me.

31. Being treated as a student again was hard for me.

32. Responsibilities to my family cut into time for studying.

33. I found it difficult to talk to my leaders about difficulties I was having in the program.

34. I found it difficult to talk to teachers about what they expected of me.

35. Financial assistance was inadequate.

36. I was too tired in the afternoons to do coursework.

37. Preparing curriculum materials was too specialized a task for me. 234

38. The community did not understand the teaching assistant role.

What are 1 or 2 of the most difficult problems you continue to face as a teacher assistant?

39.

40.

Listed below are a number of statements about the program with which you may agree or disagree. Indicate the strength of your feelings in the following way.

5... Strongly Agree

4... Agree

3... Undecided

2... Disagree

1... Strongly Disagree

41. I find that the other teacher assistants are the greatest source of help when I run into difficulty.

42. I find it easy to talk to the teachers in the schools if something is bothering me.

43. People from the community understand the program and think it is good.

44. The teachers in the schools have always been friendly and helpful.

45. The teachers in the schools have sometimes been friendly and helpful. 235

46. Teachers in the schools have expected me to be an expert on Native Indians because I am in the program.

47. My study skills and knowledge of the basics have improved a great deal since I started the program.

48. My knowledge about teaching has increased greatly since I started the program.

49. My admiration for teachers has increased since I started the program.

50. I have gained a lot of confidence in myself since I started the program.

51. The principals and their staff welcome teacher assistants and make us feel valuable.

52. I don't know the instructors from U.B.C. very well because they are not with us very long during their visits.

53. I feel the instructors were aware of our problems and made their workshops relevent to our situation.

54. I have learned a great deal about being an Indian and teaching Indian students in the program.

55. I feel that our program recognizes that Native children and youth have special needs, and it is preparing us well to meet those needs.

56. I feel that the teachers in our schools recognize that Native students have special needs and use teacher assistants to better meet those needs.

57. The program has assisted me in coming to grips with my personal bad experiences in Indian - non-Indian relationships. 236

The following questions provide more personally formulated answers. Please feel free to comment as fully or as briefly as you wish. Use the backs of pages if necessary. Information will be coded and only used to improve plans for future programs.

58. If you have concerns about the program, did you feel that the instructors and co-ordinators were willing to listen to you and work towards improving the situation?

yes no such a situation never came up

comment

59. Do you have a formal procedure in the program to use when you have a problem or concern with the program of s tudies ?

yes no don't know

comment

60. Overall, I would rate the program as :

excellent

good

fair

not doing what it should be doing

comment 237

61. Please identify the two strongest points of the program,

A)

B)

62. Please identify the two weakest points in the program.

A)

B)

63. What three things do you think could be done to improve the program?

A)

B)

C) APPENDIX E

SCHOOL STAFFING, TEACHER AIDES AND AUXILARIES (from the B.C.T.F. Handbook)

Policies

23.F.01 - That a more equitable distribution of men and women should be included in school staffs at all levels.

23.F.03 - That the teacher has prime responsibility for: (a) diagnosing the learning needs of pupils; (b) prescribing the learning activities; (c) implementingthe learning activities; (d) evaluating the learning activities. (1975 AGM,p.13)

23.F.05 - That auxiliary school personnel assisting in a classroom situation must do so under the direct supervision of a qualified classroom teacher. Auxiliaries whose tasks are of a general supportive nature and who are not working under the direct supervision of an individual teacher shall be under the direction and supervision of the school itself. (1975 AGM,p.75)

23.F.07 - That auxiliary school personnel include those adults who serve, in a volunteer or paid capacity, to assist the teaching and administrative staff in the performance of duties. This assistance shall be under the direction and supervision of the teaching and/or administrative staff. "Direction" means teaching and learning activities will be designed, initiated and evaluated by teachers; "supervision"means the activity will be carried out in such a place and manner that the teacher can readily conduct ongoing evluatiouxiliary school personnel include such persons as teacher aides, school aides, library aides, supervision aides, lab assistants, markers and child care workers; excluded are school secretaries and janitorial,maintenance and transportation staff. (1975 AGM,pp.73-74) (1976 AGM,p.97)

23.F.09 - That auxiliary school personnel may be used effectively to perform: (a) routine clerical duties; such as checking pupil attendance,distributing supplies and books, collecting and recording money, marking workbooks and exercises that may be checked by use of an answer key, recording marks as directed; (b) general housekeeping, such as maintaining bulletin boards, setting up equipment; (c) preparing teaching aids, such as charts, flash cards transparencies, stencils, tapes and pictures. (d) supervising in schoolbuildings, on playgrounds, in study halls and on field trips; (e) preparing and maintaining science and shop supplies and equipment; (f) supervising pupils and performing clerical duties in the library. (1975 AGM,p.74)

23.F.11 - That auxiliary school personnel may be used effectively to perform, on a one-to-one group basis, such instruction relted tasks as listening to students read and conducting drills. Auxiliary school personnel who have training in a specific area may be used as resource persons to demonstrate such skills or talents. In all instances such functions must be performed under the direction and supervision of a teacher; in no instance shall auxiliary school personnel assume diagnostic, perscriptive or evaluative responsibilitles,nor shall auxiliary school personnel independently initiate learning activities. (1975 AGM,p.74) (1976 AGM,p.97)

23.F.13 - That auxiliary school personnel shall not: (a) infringe in any way upon the responsibility of a teacher; (b) assume any instructional responsibilities in the absence of a teacher; (c) tutor or instruct on a one-to-one group basis; (d) provide any form of direct or independent remedial instruction. (1975 AGM.p.74)

23.F.15 - That, notwithstanding any other statements in this section, auxiliary school personnel shall not be used as alternatives for: (a) the lowering of the pupil/teacher ratio; (b) qualified professional personnel, including librarians.counsellors and teacher substitues; (c) adequate secretarial services; (d) adequate equipment. (1975 AGM, pp.74-75)

23.F.17 - That auxiliary school personnel assisting in a classroom situation must do so under the direction and supervision of a qualified classroom teacher. Auxiliaries whose tasks are of a general supportive nature and who are not working under the direction and supervision of an individual teacher shall be under the direction and supervision of the school staff. (1975 AGM, p. 75) (1976 AGM,p.95)

23.F.19 - That, when discussions are held or decisions made with respect to pupils that arise from the work of associated professionals, the teacher(s) of those pupils must be involved. (19 75 AGM,p.75)

23.F.21 - That district staffing requirements for professional teachers and, where appropriate, requirements for associated professionals and auxiliary school personnel be a matter of negotiation between the local association and school board. (1975 AGM,p.76)

23.F.23 - That conditions governing the selection, assignment, evaluation and dismissal of auxiliary school personnel be a matter of negotiation among local associations and school boards and employees' associations. (1975 AGM,P.76)

23.F.25 - That appropriate pre-service and in-service draining programs for auxiliary school personneland the teachers whom they work with be a matter of negotiation between the local association and the school board. (1975 aGM,p.76)

23.F.27 - That auxiliary school personnel should be hired as an addition to the allowable numbers of teachers rather then alternatives to teachers. (February 1976 Executive,pp 4-5) APPENDIX F 241

Essential Topics Studied in Programs for Teacher-aides in Eastern Kentucky

1. Human Growth and Development of Children

2. Team Approach to Training and Working

3. Career Development of Auxiliaries

4. Introduction to Auxiliary Programs

5. Desirable Characteristics of Auxiliaries

6. Self-Improving of Auxiliaries in Etiquette, Dress and Grooming

7. Discovering the Learning Characteristics of Adults

8. Techniques of Group Discussions

9. Working Relationships Between All Personnel in the Schools

10. Benefits from Using Disadvantaged Persons as Auxiliaries

11. Understanding the Role of the Teacher in American Society

12. Improving Home-School Relationships

13. Preparing Display Materials, Such as Bulletin Boards, Charts, Graphs, Maps, and Posters

14. Becoming an Audiovisual Technician

15. Introduction to Clerical Skills

16. Assignment of Monitorial and Routine Duties to Auxiliaries

17. Health and Safety in the Schools

18. How to Conduct a Home Visit

19. Preparing and Scoring Tests

20. Working With Children Individually or In Small Groups

21. Introduction to Teaching

22. Introduction to Reading Instruction APPENDIX F 242

23. Introduction to Arithmetic Instruction

24. Sociological Conditions Affecting Learning in the Classroom

25. Self-Improvement of Auxiliaries in Basic Learning Skills

Source: Klopf et al., 1969, pp.128-129. APPENDIX G 243

Classroom Assistant Training Profile Department of Education Northwest Territories Western Arctic Certicicate, 2nd Edition

DEMONSTRATE A Enjoy Concentrate on Demonstrate a COMMITMENT TO working the children's willingness TEACHING with needs to work extra children time when needed 3

Demonstrate Follow Maintain positive appropriate habits attitude procedures in of towards the the event of punctuality school' s absenteeism ob j e c t ive s 4

Participate Demonstrate a Demonstrate in in-service willingness to willingness workshops upgrade to evaluate s tandard oneself English or Native language 7 8

B DEMONSTRATE Provide Cultural Provide Knowledge of KNOWLEDGE advice to the local child rearing OF LOCAL teacher practices CULTURE 1 2

Demonstrates a Identify specific willingness to community situations improve knowledge which may affect of local culture learning 3 4

C DEMONSTRATE Demonstrate knowledge Demonstrate knowledge KNOWLEDGE OF of resources in the of emergency EDUCATIONAL community procedures SYSTEM 1 2 APPENDIX G 244

D COMMUNICATE Provide Demonstrate a Read, write, and advice willingness to speak the local to the communicate languages teacher with children 1 2 3

Write using a Teach a Contribute to standardized standardized parent writing system writing system in-school where locally where locally interviews acceptable acceptable 4 5 6

Informally Informally Conduct home identfy the convey school visitations educational activities to with the expectations of the community in teacher the community a constructive way 7 8 9

Select Lead a group Develop and appropriate discussion use appropriate methods of with questioning communication children techniques 10 11 12

Comfort Paraphrase Use non-verbal children children's communi ca t ion when communicat ions techniques necessary 13 14 15

E ASSIST Teach in Demonstrate an Teach the WITH the Native ability to Na t ive TEACHING language teach a second language language where applicable 2

Demonstrate a Initiate a Assist in basic knowledge spontaneous es tablishing in subject learning and operating areas activity an activity centre 4 5 6 APPENDIX G 245

ASSIST Teach small Use Establish and WITH groups reinforcement maintain TEACHING techniques classroom (CON'T) routines 8 9

Assist in Share with a teacher maintaining the responsibilities discipline for supervising children 10 11

F DEMONSTRATE A BASIC KNOWLEDGE NOT APPLICABLE TO OF HOW CHILDREN LEARN CERTIFICATE

G PREPARE Translate Operate a Operate LEARNING learning variety duplicating MATERIALS materials into of A.V. equipment Native context equipment 1 2

H ASSIST WITH PLANNING Assist in planning and AND ORGANIZING organizing field trips LEARNING ACTIVITIES 1 APPENDIX H 246

Sample Perfomance Objectives, Standards, Activities and Evaluations from the Classroom Assistant Manual, Northwest Territories, Department of Education, 2nd Edition, 1978

A-8 Demonstrate a willingness to upgrade standard English or native language.

GIVEN CONDITIONS: Given the need to upgrade standard English and/orthe fluency in the native language

PERFORMANCE OBJECTIVES: - attend language classes. - display a willingness to read available material on English or native language upgrading. STANDARD(S) OR CRITERIA: - that the trainee has shown an effort to improve his/her ability to communicate in the language studied. LEARNING ACTIVITIES: - listen to tapes. - join in conversations using English or the native language. EVALUATION TECHNIQUE: - observation of improved standard of English being used in the classroom - provide interpreter service in the local native language.

D-ll Lead a group discussion with children

GIVEN CONDITIONS : Given that the trainee has gained experience in working with individual children.

PERFORMANCE OBJECTIVES: - select appropriate methods of communication, i.e. verbal or non-verbal - maintain control of the group so that learning is taking place STANDARD(S) OR CRITERIA: - that the children participate in the discussion. - that the trainee is in control of the situation and maintaining student interest. - that the objectives of the particular discussions have been met. LEARNING ACTIVITIES : - develop and use appropriate questioning techniques. - develop and use appropriate visual aids. - experiment with different types of motivations and follow-up procedures. EVALUATION TECHNIQUE : - observation by the teacher that he/she is satisfied that the trainee has conducted the discussion to the standards indicated. APPENDIX I 247

Para Professional Program for Remedial Tutors in Yukon Schools, Yukon Native Brotherhood, Whitehorse, 1979

Analysis of Instructional Emphasis

Personal Development Communication Skills 220 hours Inter-personal Skills 35 hours Cross Cultural Education 35 hours 290 hours (48%) Working with Children Child Development 35 hours Resource Development with Children 17, hours Program Review 17, hours Language Arts (50%) 35 hours Mathematics (50%) 35 hours Orientation and Summary(50%) _ 17.5 hours 157.5 hours(26%) Supervision Skills School and Society 17 > hours Audio Visual Education 35 hours Supervision and Management 17 i hours Language Arts (50%) 35 hours Mathematics (50%) 35 hours Orientation and Summary (50%) 35 hours 157.5 hours(26%) TOTAL 605 hours (100%)

TENTATIVE SCHEDULE OF TOPICS

Wk 1 Jan 7 -Jan 1 1 Registration, orientation, introduction 2 Jan 14 -Jan 18 School and society 3 Jan 21--Jan 25 Cross cultural education 4 Jan 28--Feb 1 Child development 5 Feb 4--Feb 8 Tutorial skills - language arts 6 Feb 11 -Feb 15 Tutorial skills - mathematics 7 Feb 18 -Feb 22 Interpersonal skills 8 Feb 25--Feb 29 Audio and video skills 9 Mar 3 -Mar 7 Tutorial skills - language arts 10 Mar 10--Mar 14 Tutorial skills - mathematics 11 Mar 17 -Mar 21 SPRING BREAK 12 Mar 24'-Ma r 28 Interpersonal skills 13 Mar 31 -Apr 4 Cross cultural education 14 Apr 7 -Apr 11 Tutorial skills - language arts 15 Apr 14 -Apr 18 Tutorial skills - mathematics 16 Apr 21 -Apr 25 Child development 17 Apr 28 -May 2 Audio and video skills 18 May 5 -May 9 Tutorial skills - language arts 19 May 12 -May 16 Tutorial skills - mathematics 20 May 19 -May 23 Supervision and classroom management 21 May 26 -May 30 Resource development with children 22 June : 2-Jun e ! 6 Program review 23 June : 9-Jun e : 13 Program summary and conclusion APPENDIX J 248

Needs Assessment Survey, Dallas Independent School District Study

1. In your opinion are teacher aides adequately trained prior to employment In the D.I.S.D.?

Strongly Agree Strongly Disagree

1 2 3 4 5

2. In your opinion will teacher aides benefit by participating in a training program during Staff Development released time?

Strongly Agree Strongly Disagree

1 2 34 5

Please check the appropriate items;

3. What study areas would you recommend be included in a Teacher Aide Training Program?

Operation of school office machines

Operation of audio-visual equipment

Organizing and implementing a Cross-tutor Program

Physical Education Activities

Lunchroom Supervision

Assisting in clerical tasks of maintenance of health records and screening programs

Classroom management

Hall management

Construction and supervision of arts and crafts activities

Scoring teacher made tests

Monitoring small groups

Bulletin boards construction

Manuscript writing APPENDIX J 249

Cursive writing

Basic communication skills

Typing

Office filing

Record keeping

Library procedures

Bookroom operation

Teacher aide role

Understanding and working with school children

Others (List other study areas that you would like included in the training program)

1 .

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7 .

8.

Source: Brown et al., 1975.