L'albatros HURLEUR. Dynamique De Population, Structure Et Diversit

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L'albatros HURLEUR. Dynamique De Population, Structure Et Diversit EMMANUEL MILOT DISPERSION ET GÉNÉTIQUE CHEZ UN OISEAU MARIN LONGÉVIF : L’ALBATROS HURLEUR Dynamique de population, structure et diversité génétiques, consanguinité Thèse présentée à la Faculté des études supérieures de l’Université Laval dans le cadre du programme de doctorat en biologie pour l’obtention du grade de Philosophiae Doctor (Ph. D.) DÉPARTEMENT DE BIOLOGIE FACULTÉ DES SCIENCES ET GÉNIE UNIVERSITÉ LAVAL QUÉBEC 2009 © Emmanuel Milot, 2009 Pointe Basse, Crozet, janvier 2004 Résumé L’impact écologique et évolutif de la dispersion et de la consanguinité peut être exacerbé chez les espèces insulaires. Les albatros, en particulier, ont un mode de vie exceptionnel qui soulève plusieurs questions à cet égard. Dans cette thèse j’aborde certaines de ces questions. En introduction (chapitre 1), j’énonce des hypothèses spécifiques à l’espèce d’étude, l’Albatros hurleur (Diomedea exulans), en lien avec la dispersion, la dynamique des populations, et la génétique. Cependant, la découverte fortuite d’une diversité génétique très pauvre chez cette espèce a nécessité une redéfinition majeure des objectifs et hypothèses initiaux de la thèse. Donc, les patrons de diversité génétique chez deux espèces « sœurs », les Albatros hurleurs et d’Amsterdam (D. amsterdamensis), sont d’abord étudiés au chapitre 2. Des simulations supportent l’hypothèse voulant que ces deux espèces aient hérité leur faible diversité de leur ancêtre commun qui vivait il y a quelque 0,8 million d’années. Par conséquent, les albatros semblent défier l’opinion répandue voulant qu’une faible diversité génétique réduit nécessairement la viabilité d’une espèce. L’objectif du chapitre 3 était d’identifier explicitement le modèle de dynamique populationnelle correspondant le mieux à la réalité des Albatros hurleurs. Les populations de l’ensemble de l’aire de répartition s’avèrent très peu différenciées au plan génétique. Tous les génotypes forment un seul groupe homogène selon une analyse de groupement, suggérant que les colonies actuelles pourraient descendre d’une même population ancestrale qui avait une faible diversité génétique. À l’opposé, les données de relecture de bagues indiquent qu’environ un oiseau par cohorte a émigré de son île natale au cours des dernières décennies. De ce fait, les données génétiques ne reflètent pas les faibles taux de dispersion contemporains, vraisemblablement parce que les populations n’ont pas atteint l’équilibre migration–dérive. Un modèle de dynamique de métapopulation impliquant la colonisation récente de plusieurs îles semble compatible avec les bas niveaux de diversité et de structure génétiques, bien que d’autres facteurs ont sans doute contribué au façonnement du patron génétique. La diversité et la structure génétiques limitées soulèvent des questions à propos de la consanguinité et de ses effets. Dans le chapitre 4, les données probantes relatives à la consanguinité chez l’Albatros hurleur sont passées en revue. L’hypothèse que le succès reproducteur décroît avec l’accroissement de la similarité génétique des partenaires a aussi été testée en utilisant des données moléculaires et sur l’histoire reproductive des couples. ii Bien que l’analyse ne supporte pas cette hypothèse, on ne peut exclure la possibilité que ce résultat découle du manque de résolution des marqueurs étant donné la très faible diversité génétique des albatros. Quelques perspectives sur des aspects reliés à la consanguinité (p. ex. son évitement, la purge génétique), basées sur la littérature récente, sont également proposées. En somme, l’étude du cas « albatros » mène à plusieurs hypothèses stimulantes et démontre la complexité de mettre au jour la dynamique de la consanguinité chez les espèces longévives. Dans le chapitre 5, à défaut de pouvoir faire des analyses d’assignation populationnelle (en raison du manque de résolution génétique), le jeu de données sur les albatros, ainsi qu’un second jeu sur le Saumon Atlantique (Salmo salar), ont servi à explorer le comportement d’une méthode d’assignation appliquée de façon routinière en biologie. Les résultats démontrent que des aspects importants (estimation du taux d’erreur, détection de migrants) sont liés à la conformité des données empiriques aux prémisses des tests. Ils soulignent aussi l’importance de valider la procédure d’assignation à l’aide de simulations préliminaires. Cette contribution méthologique se veut en quelque sorte une réponse au manque d’uniformité dans l’application de ces méthodes. Pour conclure, je passe en revue l’ensemble des connaissances sur la dispersion des Albatros hurleurs et je propose une perspective sur les causes de la dispersion et de son évolution chez ces oiseaux. Cette thèse apporte un éclairage nouveau sur la signification et l’impact du monomorphisme génétique dans les populations naturelles, sur la dispersion et la dynamique populationnelle chez une espèce longévive, et propose une vision sur l’interaction entre ces facteurs et l’histoire de vie. iii Abstract The ecological and evolutionary impact of dispersal and inbreeding may be exacerbated in insular species. Albatrosses, in particular, have an extreme way of life raising several questions in that regard. In this thesis, I address some of these questions. In the introduction (chapter 1), I enounce hypotheses that are specific to the study species, the wandering albatross (Diomedea exulans), in relation to dispersal, population dynamics, and genetics. However, the fortuitous discovery of a very poor genetic diversity in this species led to substantial modifications of the initial objectives and hypotheses of the thesis. Thus, the patterns of genetic diversity in two sister species, the wandering and Amsterdam (D. amsterdamensis) albatrosses, are studied in chapter 2. Simulations support the hypothesis that the two species inherited a poor genetic diversity from their common ancestor, some 0.8 million years ago. Albatrosses thus appear to challenge the widespread view about the negative consequences of genetic depletion on species survival. In chapter 3, the objective was to identify explicitly which model of population dynamics best applies to the wandering albatross. Populations exhibited little genetic differentiation across the species’ range. All genotypes grouped together in a cluster analysis, suggesting that current colonies have derived from one ancestral source that had a low genetic diversity. In contrast, band re-sighting data indicated that about one bird per cohort has dispersed among islands in the past decades. Therefore, low contemporary dispersal rates are not mirrored by genetic data, presumably because populations are not at migration–drift equilibrium. A metapopulation dynamics model involving the recent colonization of several islands seems consistent with the very low levels of both genetic diversity and structure within the wandering albatross. Yet, other factors likely contributed to shape current genetic patterns. The limited genetic diversity and structure raise questions about inbreeding and its effect. Thus, in chapter 4, evidence for inbreeding in the wandering albatross is reviewed. The hypothesis that reproductive success decreases with increasing genetic similarity between mates was also tested using molecular data and pair breeding histories. While the hypothesis was not supported, a lack of resolution from the markers cannot be ruled out given the very poor genetic diversity in albatrosses. Some perspectives about inbreeding-related aspects (e.g. inbreeding avoidance, purging) based on recent literature are also proposed. Overall, this wandering albatross case study leads to several stimulating hypotheses and shows how iv complex the understanding of inbreeding dynamics in a long-lived species may be. In chapter 5, failing to successfully apply population assignment methods (because of the lack of genetic resolution), data on Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) were used in addition to the albatross dataset to explore the performance of an assignment method routinely used in biological investigations. Results show that critical aspects (error rate estimation, migrant detection) relate to how test assumptions are met by empirical data. They also stress the need to validate the assignment procedure with preliminary simulations. This methodological contribution is to some extent a response to the absence of uniformity in the way these methods are generally applied. To conclude, using empirical evidence on dispersal in wandering albatrosses, I suggest perspectives on the causes and the evolution of dispersal in these birds. This dissertation provides new insights about the significance and implications of genetic monomorphim in natural populations, about dispersal and population dynamics in a longlived seabird, and proposes a vision about the interaction between these factors and life history. Avant-Propos Pourquoi quitter le sol natal et émigrer quand on peut rester tranquillement dans son chez- soi douillet et familier, pour justement y élever sa petite famille ? C’est du moins ce que semblent se demander les albatros. De notre point de vue d’Occidentaux bénéficiant du confort de la vie moderne, la sédentarité, avec ce qu’elle implique d’économie d’énergie, est attrayante. On dit pourtant de l’Homme moderne qu’il est de plus en plus nomade. Mais pourquoi les albatros, eux, s’obstinent à nicher à quelques mètres du lieu qui les a vu naître ? Ils sont pourtant capables de parcourir en une journée, et sans trop d’effort, des centaines de kilomètres d’océan pour s’alimenter. Essayer
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