International Journal of Erosion Control Engineering, Vol.3, No.1, 2010

Review Glacial Lake Outburst Flood Disaster Risk Reduction Activities in

Samjwal R. BAJRACHARYA

International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development (Khumaltar Lalitpur, PO Box 3226 Kathmandu, Nepal)

The climate variability and global climatic change has brought tremendous impact on the high mountainous glacial environment. About 6% of glacier area has been decreased in the Tamor and sub-basins of eastern Nepal from 1970’s to 2000. The Himalayan glaciers are shrinking, retreating and lowering its surface. Consequently the lakes formed at the glacier snouts are expanding rapidly in most cases. The ICIMOD in 2001 mapped 2323 glacial lakes and out of it 20 lakes were identified as potentially dangerous glacial lakes in Nepal however, three lakes were removed from the list of dangerous glacial lakes. As an impact of global warming 50 lakes is growing and 22 new lakes have been formed after 2000. Almost all the glacial lakes are situated at high altitude of rugged terrain with harsh climatic condition. Hence to carry out the physical mitigation work on these lakes are impractical but the awareness and adaptation measures can be carried out to reduce the GLOF risk. As a pilot case study GLOF risk reduction activities were carried out in Everest region downstream of , one of the fastest growing lakes in the Himalaya.

1. INTRODUCTION work was carried out in Tsho Rolpa by reducing the water level by three meters that cost almost US$ 3 The glaciers serve as a water tower of fresh water million. To mitigate the GLOF risk from this lake, supply as well as repository of information for the water level should be reduced by 20 m in exploring quaternary climate changes as they remain successive phases. Due to harsh climatic conditions sensitive to global temperature conditions [Houghton and remoteness, it became very expensive and and others, 2001; Oerlemans 1994]. The difficult to complete the project. Alternative information of glaciers and glacial lakes are solutions that are reliable and applicable to Nepal imperative to comprehend global warming and to should be identified. reduce GLOF risk in the Himalayan region. The 2. STUDY AREA study of ICIMOD in 2001 revealed 3,252 glaciers and 2,323 glacial lakes [Mool and others, 2001]. Nepal Himalaya of about 840 km stretch is Due to the impact of global warming, glaciers are centrally located on the southern lap of 2400 km melting rapidly [Fujita and others, 2001; long Himalayan range. The northern part of Nepal is Bajracharya and others, 2006, 2007], resulting in the high elevated with mostly snow and ice covered decrease of ice mass balance with the formation and rugged terrain and southern part is flat and low expansion of substantial number of glacial lakes elevation, hence almost all the glaciers and glacial behind the loose moraine [Watanabe and others, lakes are situated in the northern part of Nepal. 1994] with the fear of glacial lake outburst floods. Nepal has opened its borders to foreigners only after The rapid accumulation of water in such lakes can 1950, and therefore there were no studies conducted lead to a sudden breach of unstable moraine dams. A on glaciers and glacial lakes before then. In the early number GLOFs have been reported in the region in 1960 to 1970, some studies were initiated by foreign the last few decades, particularly from the eastern scientists and Nepalese professionals were involved region [Mool and others, 2001; Yamada and others, only after the Dig Tsho GLOF in 1985.

1998; Richardson and Reynolds, 2000; Bajracharya 3. GLOBAL CLIMATE CHANGE and others, 2007, 2009]. The ICIMOD identified 20 such lakes as potentially dangerous in 2001; however, The global average temperature had increased by three lakes have been removed from the danger list approximately 0.75 ºC in 100 years in the last (Bajracharya 2007). In 2000 physical mitigation century, [IPCC, 2001], and the temperature in the 92

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Nepal Himalaya had increased by 0.15 to 0.6 ºC per others ,1999], which is two to eight fold higher than decade in the last three decades [Shrestha and the global average temperature. In the recent decades, there had been a significant Mt. Everest region is shrinking at all sides with the increase in the global average temperature. Each year fear of disappearing by 2060 [Asahi and is recorded as hottest year since 1987 on the global others ,2006]; the Valley glaciers in the Mt. Everest record from 1880 to present [Ekwurzel, 2006; IPCC, region are retreating at a rate of 10 to 60m per year 2007; the Independent, 2007]. on average [Bajracharya et al, 2007] and glacier Most climate models show that a doubling of pre- surface lowering by 0.4m per year [Bolch, 2008]. industrial emission of greenhouse gases is very likely The glacier retreat in consequence with glacial lake to raise the temperature of the earth between 2 to 5 formation and expansion is anticipated more in ºC in global mean temperatures between 2030 and coming years due to global temperature rise. 2060 [IPCC, 2007]. Several new studies suggest up to a 20 percent chance that warming could be greater 5. GLACIAL LAKES than 5 ºC. If annual greenhouse gas emissions The first and homogeneous inventory of glacial remained at the current level, concentrations would lakes of Nepal was carried out by ICIMOD in 2001 be more than treble pre-industrial levels by 2100, based on the topographic maps of Survey of India at raising the temperature of earth by 3 to 10 ºC, the scale of 1: 63,360. These topographic maps were according to the climate projections [Stern review, based on the aerial photographs of 1957-59 with 2007]. consecutive field work and published in 1963 -1982. 4. GLACIER RETREAT The lakes larger than 0.0005 sq km at an elevation higher than 3,500 masl were mapped from these The climate variability and global climatic change toposheets. The total number of lakes was 2,323 with had brought tremendous impact on the high the total area of 75.7 sq km. Among these 20 glacial mountainous glacial environment [Bajracharya and lakes are identified as potentially dangerous (Table others, 2006, 2008; Houghton and other, 2001; 1). Oerlemans, 1994]. From 1970 to 2000, The second generation glacial lake inventory was approximately 6 percent of glacier areas have carried out by ICIMOD in 2009 using the landsat decreased in the Tamor and Dudh Koshi sub-basins satellite images of 30m resolution. Due to low of eastern Nepal [Bajracharya, 2006, 2009]. Since resolution of the image the lake area covering 0.0018 the early 1970 and more rapidly in recent decades, sq km (2 x 1pixel) and greater were mapped. The the Himalayan glaciers are shrinking, retreating and total number of lakes mapped was only 1,466 with surface lowering [Bajracharya and others, 2009; the total lake area of 64.77 sq km. The average lake Bolch et al, 2008a; Fujita and others, 2001, 2009; area mapped in 2001 was 0.0326 sq km where as the Khromova and others, 2003; Paul, 2002; Paul and average lake area mapped in 2009 was 0.0442 sq km. The number of lakes in 2009 has been reduced others, 2004]. For example, the AX010 Glacier of drastically due to merging of supraglacial lakes and

Table 1 Status of Glacial Lakes and GLOF in Nepal [ICIMOD, 2001/2009 and Bajracharya et al. 2005] Years Items 2001 2005 2009 Number of Glacial Lakes 2323 1466 Total Glacial Lake area (sq km) 75.70 64.77 Glacial Lake area larger than 0.02 sq km − Total number 411

− Associated with mother glaciers 347 − Distance to glacier at less than 1 km 330 Growing Glacial Lakes 50 Glacial Lakes formed after 2000 22 Potentially dangerous Glacial Lakes 20 17 17 GLOF in Tibet/China damage inside Nepal 10 GLOF in Nepal 12

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Fig. 1 Distribution of potentially dangerous glacial lakes in Nepal. Tamor: A - Nagma, B - (?); Arun: C - Lower Barun; Dudh Koshi: D - Lumding, E - Imja, F - Tam Pokhari, G - Dudh Pokhari, H - (?), I - (?), J - Hungu, K - East Hungu 1, L - East Hungu 2, M - (?), N - West Chamjang, O - Dig Tsho; Tama Koshi: P - Tsho Rolpa; Budhi Gandaki: Q - (?); Marsysngdi: R- Thulagi; Kali Gandaki: S - (?),T- (?).

mapping methodology and hence, the average lake after 2000 [Bajracharya, 2005, 2006] (Table 1). If area has been increased significantly. the lakes continue to form and grow in the present trend with respect to the climate change it is 6. POTENTIALLY DANGEROUS anticipated that the number of potentially dangerous GLACIAL LAKES glacial lakes will increase with a high possibility of Out of 2,323 glacial lakes 20 were identified as GLOFs in near future. potentially dangerous in 2001 (Fig. 1); however, three lakes (F: Tam Pokhari, O: Dig Tsho, and I: unnamed in Dudh Koshi basin) were removed from the danger list as the area of the lakes have been reduced drastically due to outburst [Bajracharya, 2007, 2008, 2009]. As an impact of global warming, 50 lakes are growing and 22 new lakes have formed

1986 2007 2007 a. Namche micro-hydropower b. Moraine dam breach in 1985 c. Marginal settlements site Fig. 2 The Dig Tsho GLOF damaged the slope in 1985 but the damage continuing throughout the year.

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7. GLACIAL LAKE OUTBURST FLOOD sections including wash out of three bridges. The DISASTER Dig Tsho GLOF of 1985 in the Dudh Koshi sub- basin damaged the Namche micro-hydropower The sudden breach of moraine dammed glacial lake station, 14 bridges, cultivated lands and many more deliver unexpected debris flow - GLOF - causing [Vuichard and Zimmerman, 1987]. The damaging catastrophic damage along the lower terraces of phenomenon occurs at the river valley sides of high downstream of the lake [Bolch et al., 2008b; altitude where the harsh climatic condition allows Watanabe et al., 1994, Bajracharya et al., 2005; very slow growth of vegetation. Once the slope is Hambrey et al., 2008]. The past record shows that at disturbed by the GLOF, it remained unstable due to least one catastrophic GLOF event had happened at high erosive nature of rain, snow and wind than the an interval of three to 10 years in the Himalayan natural slope stabilization in high altitude. Hence the region. Nepal had already experienced 22 undamaged settlements, landforms and infrastructure catastrophic GLOFs including 10 GLOFs in during the GLOF are now exposed to the active Tibet/China damaging inside Nepal (Table 1) landslides and erosion scars (Fig. 2) making this area reported by Bajracharya et al. (2007), Mool (1995), at high-risk. The damage caused by GLOF is not a Mool et al. (2001), Reynolds (1998), Yamada et al. one-time occurrence; it is followed by continuous (1998;2000), Yamada and Sharma (1993). The erosion phenomena with the threat of danger Zhangzangbo GLOF of 1981 in Tibet (China) did a throughout the year with short-and long-term lot of damage in China and Nepal. It even caused environmental and socio-economic hazards. severe damage to the Nepal - China Highway

Table 2 GLOF events that have occurred affecting inside Nepal No. Date River basin Lake Latitude Longitude Tibet Autonomous Region, China 1 Aug 1935 Sun Koshi Tara-Cho 28° 17’ 00” 86° 08' 00” 2 21 Sept 1964 Arun Gelhaipco 27° 58' 00” 87° 49' 00” 3 1964 Sun Koshi Zhangzangbo 28° 04' 01” 86° 03' 45” 4 25 Aug 1964 Trisuli Longda 28° 37’ 01” 85° 20’ 58” 5 1968 Arun Ayaco 28° 21’ 00” 86° 29' 00” 6 1969 Arun Ayaco 28° 21’ 00” 86° 29' 00” 7 1970 Arun Ayaco 28° 21' 00” 86° 29' 00” 8 11 Jul 1981 Sun Koshi Zhangzangbo 28° 04' 01” 86° 03' 45” 9 27 Aug 1982 Arun Jinco 28° 00' 35” 87° 09' 39” 10 6 Jun 1995 Trisuli Zanaco 28° 39’ 44” 85° 22’19” Nepal 11 About 450 years ago Seti Khola Machhapuchhre 28° 31' 13" 83° 59' 30" 12 3 Sept 1977 Dudh Koshi Nare 27° 49' 47" 86° 50' 12" 13 23 Jun 1980 Tamor Nagma Pokhari 27° 51' 57" 87° 51' 46" 14 4 Aug 1985 Dudh Koshi Dig Tsho 27° 02' 36" 86° 35' 02" 15 12 Jul 1991 Tama Koshi Chhubung 27° 52' 37" 86° 27' 38" 16 3 Sept 1998 Dudh Koshi Tam Pokhari 27° 44’ 20” 86° 50’ 45” 17 Unknown Arun Barun Khola 27° 50' 33" 87° 05' 01" 18 Unknown Arun Barun Khola 27° 49' 46" 87° 05' 42" 19 Unknown Dudh Koshi Chokarma Cho 27° 54’21” 86° 54’48” 20 Unknown Kali Gandaki Unnamed 29° 13' 14" 83° 42' 09" 21 Unknown Kali Gandaki Unnamed 29° 07’03" 83° 44' 19" 22 Unknown Mugu Karnali Unnamed 29° 39’00” 82° 48’00”

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8.2 GLOF Vulnerability and Risk Assessment 8. GLOF Risk Reduction Activities The vulnerability of an area to a GLOF is assessed by calculating the probability of a direct or indirect Almost all of the dangerous and growing glacial hit by the GLOF. The GLOF vulnerability lakes are situated at remote and high altitudes with assessments of the downstream valley along Imja harsh climatic conditions. Hence to carry out the Tsho were carried out through visual inspections, physical mitigation works on these lakes are walkover surveys and additional information used expensive and impractical, but awareness and from the modeling and flood routing along the river adaptation measures can be carried out to reduce the valley. Most of the major settlements, infrastructure GLOF risk. and trekking routes are at lower terraces of GLOF The second generation inventory of glaciers and risk area (Fig. 3). The landslides that were generated glacial lakes were carried out in 2009 by ICIMOD to from 1985 GLOF is still active in Ghat and Phakding. understand the activity of glaciers and glacial lakes A new GLOF could trigger new instabilities in many in the context of global warming. As a part of pilot places and reactivate the old ones. The vulnerability case study, GLOF risk reduction activities were and risk assessment result will be helpful in planning carried out in the Everest region downstream of Imja and developing the area as well as to create Tsho. The study was continued successively by using awareness among the people living in the simulation of GLOF, vulnerability and risk downstream to reduce the GLOF risk. assessment, near real-time monitoring, real-time monitoring, networking of field sensor and 8.3 Near real-time monitoring transmission station, rural wireless internet The glaciers are retreating and the lakes associated connectivity and possible mitigation measures in the with the glaciers are rapidly increasing in size and Everest region in 2008. number in recent decades. Up-to-date database of the glaciers and glacial lakes are of utmost importance to 8.1 Simulation of GLOF understand the glaciers and glacial lakes activities, Using the Dam Break and HEC Ras models which is only possible through satellite images. possible extension of debris flow, flood depth and Clouds can be a major hindrance to satellite imaging travel time of debris and nature of flood propagation particularly during the monsoon season in the visible in the downstream was derived from the and infrared remote sensing range. Information hydrodynamic modeling [Bajracharya and others, missed due to cloud cover cannot be retrieved and is then accessible only by field observation, which is 2007a]. The spatial distribution of the flood was not possible to cover for all regions. An alternative analyzed by preparing inundation maps for the high solution is microwave remote sensing. Since flood level along the river (Table 3). This table helps microwave sensing can penetrate cloud cover, it is to estimate the arrival time of the flood, which is independent of weather conditions and is thus useful in reducing the GLOF risk. The result needs to suitable for year-round monitoring of glacial lakes. be verified, and if it is closure to the reality this type Since 2007, ICIMOD is using Synthetic Aperture of simulation can be replicated with some Radar (SAR) and Advanced Synthetic Aperture modification in other potentially dangerous glacial Radar (ASAR) data to monitor the growth of Imja lakes of the Himalaya. Tsho and its vicinity with the support of European

Space Agency (ESA). The RADAR can be used to

Table 3 Estimated flood arrival time and discharge from Imja GLOF Place Chainage (Km) Time (min) Discharge (m3S-1) Flood depth (m) Imja lake outlet 0.0 0.0 5461 Dingboche 7.52 13.9 5094 5.8 Orso 11.55 18.8 4932 5.5 Pangboche 13.65 21.3 4800 7.6 Larja Dovan 25.94 34.8 3223 6.9 Bengkar 29.67 38.8 2447 6.6 Ghat 34.58 48.4 2355 5.8

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Dingboche

a. Possible GLOF impact in Dingboche village b. Field photograph Fig. 3 :GLOF Vulnerability assessment along the downstream of Imja Tsho monitor as often as monthly. The free download where networking of field sensors and transmission access to LANDSAT satellite image is a great stations are available. support in monitoring and mapping of glacier and glacial lakes. As an example the change detection of 8.6 Create global and local awareness Imja Tsho from 1979 to 2009 is shown in Fig. 4. ICIMOD and Asian Trekking jointly organised the Eco Everest Expedition 2008 program. Under this 8.4 Real-time monitoring program, different climate change awareness Scientific studies and regular monitoring of growing lakes is of utmost importance to prevent potential activities were carried out including the ICIMOD GLOF hazards. ICIMOD identified Imja Tsho in Information Centre at Everest Base Camp from 12 Everest region is one of the fastest growing lakes in April to 12 June 2008, 50 years repeat photography the Himalaya. With the cooperation of Department of Himalayan glaciers (Fig. 6); message from the of National Park and Wildlife Conservation Director General of ICIMOD read by Dawa Steven (DNPWC) and Keio University of Japan, ICIMOD is Sherpa from the summit of the Mt. Everest and aiming to monitor regularly and devise an early demonstrations of eco-friendly alternative energy. warning system using remote sensing geo-ICT tools GLOF Awareness Workshop was organised for the and techniques in the Imja Tsho (Fig. 5). The local people in Namche Bazaar (entry point to Mt. collected information like lake water level, total Everest) on “Climate change impact in the weather station and photographs collected from the Himalaya: Glacial Lake Outburst Flood (GLOF)” on web camera transmits through the stations to local 25 April 2008 with the contribution of Appa Sherpa, Internet Service Provider (ISP) in Namche Bazaar to 18-times Mt. Everest summiteers, Dawa Steven upload. This information is processed, scanned, Sherpa, leader of Eco Everest Expedition, Japanese filtered and again uploaded into the website by Asian team from Keio University and NHK TV team, Institute of Technology (AIT) ICIMOD experts, local media people, senior citizens (http://fsds.dc.affrc.go.jp/data4/Himalayan) for and about 50 local people (Fig. 7). stakeholders to view. 8.7 Early warning systems 8.5 Rural wireless Internet connectivity Early warning systems aim to detect impending The installation of networking of field sensor and GLOFs in sufficient time to relay a warning to transmission station can facilitate to commission people who might be affected so that they can move local area WIFI with the possibility to connect with to safer grounds. In 1997, the meteor burst early national telecom network and provide rural warning system with duel function of receiver and connectivity and access to information. Wireless transmitter was installed in Tsho Rolpa Lake and its Internet facilities are provided by Keio University at downstream areas. Due to poor maintenance and lack Chhukung, Pangboche, Tengboche and Dingboche of ownership, the system worked for only a couple of Villages and further could be added in other GLOF years and now not a single set exist in the field. risk area. The services will be limited within the area

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1962

1979

1989

1999

2009

Fig. 4 Growth of Imja Tsho from 1962 to 2009. Learning lessons from this, the effective and system is innovative in nature and will be first-of-its practical use of early warning systems will be an IT kind in the Himalayan region. It is necessary to based early warning system with clear ownership develop awareness and capacity of the local people guidelines. The use of geo-ICT tools and techniques who now have access to wireless internet, but not in will be a state-of-the-art in the region and the full capacity. internet connectivity will be the backbone to the overall system. The web-based early warning system can be developed at ICIMOD and disseminated through the internet and can be replicated in other basins of potentially dangerous lakes. This type of

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Message: “Let us care for Environment of Himalaya & strengthen its people’s determination and resilience”

Fig. 5 Networking of transmit station and field sensors to nearest ISP in Namche Bazar.

a: 1956: Fritz Muller; courtesy of Jack Ives b: 2006: G Kappenberger courtesy of A. Byers Fig. 6 Repeat photography of in 50 Years

Fig. 7 Glacial lake outburst flood (GLOF) awareness workshop in Namche Bazaar.

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8.8 Encourage development activities in less Bajracharya, S.R., Mool P.K. and Shrestha B.R. (2007): Impact GLOF risk area of climate change on Himalayan glaciers and glacial The Everest region is one of the most popular lakes: case studies on GLOF and associated hazards in tourist destinations and hence many hotels, lodges Nepal and Bhutan. ICIMOD.119. and other infrastructures linger near or along the Bajracharya, S. R., Mool P. K. and Shrestha B. R. (2006): The trekking route. Most of the trekking routes are along impact of global warming on the glaciers of the Himalaya. the riverbank at lower terraces that might be easily In Proceedings of the International Symposium on washed out in case of GLOF. To reduce GLOF risk, Geodisasters, Infrastructure Management and Protection of it is necessary to discourage or stop development World Heritage Sites, 25-26 Nov 2006, Kathmandu: NEC, NSET Nepal, and EU Japan, 231-242. activities in GLOF risk area and encourage shifting Bajracharya, S.R. and Mool P.K. (2005): Growth of hazardous and development of new activities only in the low glacial lakes in Nepal. In Yoshida, M., B.N. Upreti, T.N. GLOF risk areas. Bhattarai and S. Dhakal, eds. International Seminar on 9. CONCLUSIONS Natural Disaster Mitigation and Issues on Technology Transfer in South and Southeast Asia – JICA Regional The rapidly growing glacial lakes will most likely Seminar, (2004): Proceedings, TU Nepal and JICA, 131– pose danger in near future and therefore it is vital 148. that these glaciers and glacial lakes need to monitor Benn, D., Wiseman S. and C. Warren (2000): Rapid growth of a for sound management of water resources and supraglacial lake, , Khumbu Himal, disaster risk reduction. Instead of constructing Nepal. Debris-Covered Glaciers, IAHS 264: 177-186. physical mitigation structure on the unstable moraine Bolch T., Buchroithner M. F., Pieczonka T. and Kunert A. and earthquake prone zone, it will be more feasible (2008a). Planimetric and volumetric Glacier changes in to create awareness for adaptation and/or reduce Khumbu Himalaya since 1962 using Corona, Landsat TM and ASTER data. Journal of Glaciology 54(187): 9. water level by safe breaching of the moraine dam. Bolch, T., Buchroithner M.F., Peters J., Baessler M.and However, the phenomenon is a challenge with limits Bajracharya S. (2008b). Identification of glacier motion imposed by the higher altitude, rarefied atmosphere, and potentially dangerous glacial lakes in the Mt. Everest remoteness of many of the locations and short region/Nepal using spaceborne imagery. Natur. Hazards working season due to near-freezing temperatures in Earth Syst. Sci. (NHESS), 8(6), 1329–1340. the area. Ekwurzel, B. (2006): Expected impacts of climate change in the U.S. Urban leaders initiative on infrastructure, Land use ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS: The author is grateful and climate change, Center of Clear Air Policy and Union to Basanta Shrestha and Pradeep Mool from of Concerned Scientists. ICIMOD for their support and cooperation in Fujita K., Sakai A., Nuimura T., Yamaguchi S. and R. Sharma preparing this document. (2009): Recent changes Imja glacial lake and its damming moraine in the Nepal Himalaya revealed by in situ surveys REFERENCES and multi-temporal ASTER imagery.Environ. Res. Lett. 4 Asahi, K., Kadota T., Naito N. and Ageta Y. (2006): Variations (2009) 045205 (7pp). of small glaciers since the 1970s to 2004 in Khumbu and Fujita, K., Kadota T., Rana B., Kayastha R.B. and Ageta Y. Shorang regions, eastern Nepal’ Data Report 4 (2001- (2001): Shrinkage of Glacier AX010 in Shorong region, 2004). GEN, CREH. NU Japan and DHM Nepal. 109 – Nepal in the 1990s. Bull. Glaciol. Res., 18, 51– 136. 54. Bajracharya, B., Shrestha A.B. and Rajbhandari L. (2007a). Gurung D.R., Bajracharya S.R., Shrestha B.R. and Pradhan P. Glacial lake outburst floods in the Sagarmatha region: (2009): Wi-Fi network at Imja Tsho (lake), Nepal: an hazard assessment using GIS and hydrodynamic modeling Early Warning System for Glacial Lake Outburst Flood. Mt. Res. Dev.27 336–44. ICIMOD (press). Bajracharya, S. R. and Mool P. K. (2009): Glaciers, glacial lakes Hambrey, M.J., Quincey D.J., Glasser N.F., Reynolds J.M., and glacial lake outburst floods in the Mount Everest Richardson S.J. and Clemmens S. (2008): region. Nepal. Annals of Glaciology, 50 (53) London, UK. Sedimentological, geomorphological and dynamic context 81-86. of debris-mantled glaciers, Mount Everest (Sagarmatha) Bajracharya, S.R., Mool P.K. and Shrestha B. R. (2008): Global region, Nepal. Quat. Sci. Rev., 27(25–26), 2361–2389. climate change and melting of Himalayan glaciers. In Houghton, J.T. and 7 others, eds. (2001): Climate change 2001: Ranade, P.S., ed. Melting glaciers and rising sea levels: the scientific basis, Cambridge, etc., Cambridge University impacts and implications, Hyderabad, India, Icfai Press. IPCC. (Contribution of Working Group I to the University Press, 28–46. Third Assess. Report) 100

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