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Isborrowabilityborrowable? UriTadmor MaxPlanckInstituteforEvolutionaryAnthropology Papertobepresentedatthesymposium LanguageContactandtheDynamicsofLanguage:TheoryandImplications Leipzig,10-13May2007   “Thewordsofanylanguagecanbedividedintotwobroadcategories,closed andopen...Theclosedcategoriesarethefunctionwords:pronounslikeyou andshe;conjunctionslikeand,if,andbecause;determinerslikeaandthe;and afewothers.Newlycoinedorborrowedwordscannotbeaddedtothese categories,whichiswhywesaytheyareclosed.” (O’Grady,Dobrovsky,andAronoff1989:89)  “[T]houghitistruethatsomekindsoffeaturesaremoreeasilytransferredthan other...socialfactorscanandveryoftendoovercomestructuralresistanceto interferenceatalllevels.” (ThomasonandKaufman1988:15)   Manyclaimshavebeenmaderegardingwhichclassesofwordsaremore(orless) borrowablethanothers.Inparticular,ithasbeenclaimedthatmembersofclosed sets,suchasnumeralsandpronouns,arelesssusceptibletoborrowingthan membersofopensets;thatfunctionwordsingeneralareborrowedlessthancontent words;andthatcorevocabularyitemsarelesslikelytobereplacedbyloanwords thanspecializedones.Theseideaswerefirstformulatedbasedontheanalysisof ‘OldWorld’languages.Inthispaper,Iwillexploreborrowedvocabularyinsome languagesofSoutheastAsiathatcastdoubtonthesegeneralizations.Inthese languages,membersofclosedsets(suchasnumeralsandpronouns),function wordsingeneral,andcorevocabularyitems(likebodypartsandkinshipterms)are atleastasborrowableasmembersofopensets,contentwords,andspecialized

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vocabulary,respectively.Moreover,itappearsthatborrowabilityitselfisa borrowablefeature.Inotherwords,thefactthat,forexample,pronounsandbody parttermsarecommonlyborrowedthroughoutSoutheastAsia,isduetocontact.  Inapreviousconferencepaper(Tadmor2006),Iexploredaveryspecific sociolinguisticsettingwhichmayresultingreaterborrowingofhighfrequencywords (basicvocabulary,functionwords)thanothervocabulary.Inparticular,Idiscussed thecaseofafewlanguagesspokenbysmallDayak(indigenousnon-)groups inwestern.Forprobablyoveramillennium,DayaksinthispartofBorneo havebeenunderthepoliticalandeconomicdominanceofMalay(ic)-speakers,and havebeenunderpressuretoassimilatetotheirlanguageandculture.Many individuals,sometimesentiregroups,shiftedtoMalay(ic)astheirfirstlanguage,and quiteafewalsoconvertedto.Someothergroups,whilealsocomingunder Malaydominance,hadonlylimitedcontactswiththedominantMalayicspeakers. TheydidnotacquiresufficientproficiencyofMalayictoshifttoitfromtheir indigenousLandDayaklanguages.Rather,theyborrowedextensivelyfromMalay whilemaintainingtheirownlanguages.TheycouldnotborrowspecializedMalay vocabulary,becausetheywerenotfamiliarwithit;sotheyborrowedhighfrequency wordswithwhichtheywerefamiliar,suchbodyparts,basicverbs,numerals,color terms,andoccasionallysomefunctionwords.Fromasociolinguisticpointofview thisprocessmaycanviewedaspartialrelexification;perhaps,givenmoreexposure toMalay,theirlanguageswouldhavebeencompletelyrelexified,orperhapseven perfectacquisitionofMalaywouldhavetakenplace.Soitisnotsurprisingthat mostlybasicvocabularywasaffectedbythisprocess.Asimilarsituationhasbeen observedonmainlandSoutheastAsia,wherespeakersofAslianlanguages borrowedmuchoftheirbasicvocabulary,butlittleelse,fromMalay(GérardDiffloth, personalcommunication).  Inthispaper,Iwouldliketodiscussaverydifferentandmorewidespread sociolinguisticsetting,whichhasalsoledtosubstantialborrowingofhighfrequency

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vocabularyinlanguagesofSoutheastAsia.Thisprocessaffectedlanguagesonthe othersideofthespectrum,spokenbylarge,socio-politicallydominantgroups.  Onecategoryofwordsthathaslongbeenconsideredasespeciallyresistantto borrowingispronouns.Indeed,lookingatthepronouninventoryofmostIndo- EuropeanandSemiticlanguages,whichhavebeenstudiedextensivelybylinguists sincetheearly19thcentury,itappearsthatpronounsareamongthemoststableand conservativepartsofthelexicon1.Forexample,allthepronounsofmodernHebrew, Amharic,andstandardreflectProtoSemiticforms.Asimilarsituationexists inmostmajorIndo-Europeanlanguages.Englishhasoneexceptionthathighlights therule:itborrowedthe3PLpronountheyfromScandinavian.Becausepronouns areunusuallystable,conservative,andresistanttoborrowinginOldWorld languages,theyareincludedinSwadeshlists,whicharesupposedtobeofuniversal application.  YetthesituationinlanguagesofSoutheastAsiaisverydifferentfromthatwhichwe normallyencounterintheOldWorld.Tostartoffwithjustafewexamples,themost neutral1SGpronouninstandardIndonesianissaya,aloanwordderivedfrom

Sanskrit.Theonly3PLpronounmeréka,wasborrowedfromOldJavanese,andthe

2PLpronouniskalian,wasborrowedfromMinangkabau,acloselyrelatedyetdistinct language.Indeed,eventhebaseofkalian,kali‘time’,isaloanwordfrom.  AcompleteinventoryofpronounsusedinMalay-Indonesian,especiallyifcolloquial varietiesareconsidered,runsintothedozens,andincludesmanyotherloanwords. AndthisisnotauniquesituationinSoutheastAsia.Ancomparativestudyof pronominalreferenceinSoutheastAsialistsseveraldozenpronounseachforThai, Burmese,andVietnamese(Cooke1968).AlthoughCooke’sstudywasconcerned

1Thisisnottosaythatpronounsintheselanguagesdonotchangeovertime.Pronominalparadigms areoftensubjecttochangebyanalogy,leveling,andsyncretism(inadditiontophonologicalchange). However,borrowingintothepronominalsystemsofIndoEuropeanandSemiticlanguagesisvery rare.

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withsemanticsandsyntaxratherthanwithetymology,itispossibletoidentifymany loanwordsamongthesepronouns.Somescholarshavealreadyremarkedonthe unusuallylargeinventoriesofpronounsinSoutheastAsianlanguages,andone study(ThomasonandEverett2001)specificallymentionsSoutheastAsiaasanarea wherepronounsarepronetoborrowing.  Interestingly,thisprofusionofpronounsinSoutheastAsiaseemstobearelatively recentphenomenon.Inmostlanguagefamiliesspokenintheregion,itispossibleto reconstructlimited,wellstructuredinventoriesofpronouns,thatlooklikethe‘normal’ pronominalsystemsofOldWorldlanguage.ThepronounsofProtoTaiareone example(theformsarefromLi1977)2:  Table1:ReconstructedpronounsinProtoTai  ProtoTaimeaning ProtoTaireconstruction Thaireflex

1SG *ku kuu

2SG *su sƖƖ

3SG *man man

1PL *rǟu raw

2PL *mǵč mǵč

3PL *khlau kháw  Inthesamevein,onemightarguethatthepronominalsystemofMalay-Indonesian isextremelyconservative.AllsixpronounsthatarereconstructibletoProto AustronesianhavereflexesinmodernMalay-Indonesian.LiketheThaiforms,their phonologicalformsarealmostidenticaltothereconstructedones,despitethemuch

2Lididnotdistinguishbetweensingularandplural2ndpersonpronouns;botharesimplyglossedas ‘you’.However,comparativeevidencefromAustro-Taisuggeststhat*suwassingularand*mǵčwas plural.TheProtoTaireconstructionswereaccessedviathewebsiteoftheCenterforResearchin ComputationalLinguistics,Bangkok(http://crcl.th.net/).

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longertimespan(5,500years).Malay-IndonesianpronounsthatreflectProto Austronesianreconstructionsarelistedintable2.  Table2:Malay-Indonesianpronounsderiveddirectly fromProtoAustronesian  ProtoAustronesian ProtoAustronesian Malay-Indonesian meaning form3 reflex

1SG aku *aku

2SG (eng)kau *kaSu

3SG ia *ia 1+2 kita *kita

1PL kami *kami

2PL kamu *kamu  Yet,aswe’veseenabove,thepicturepresentedintables1and2ismisleading, becauseinadditiontoreflexesofthereconstructedpronouns,bothThaiandMalay- Indonesianhavemanyotherpronouns,someofwhichareactuallymorecommonly usedthatthemodernreflexesofthereconstructedforms.Wecantherefore concludethantheoldaxiomaboutpronounsbeingparticularlyconservativeistrue, butdoesnotinanywayprecludethepossibilityofpronounborrowing.  Lowernumeralsareanotherclassofwordswhichhavehardlybeenaffectedby borrowinginOldWorldlanguages.Again,thesituationinSoutheastAsiaisrather different.Malay-Indonesianborroweditswordfor‘three’,tiga,fromIndo-Aryan;it completelyreplacedtheOldMalayform,tlu.HighJavanesethenborrowedtheword fromMalay,asthecounterpartofLowJavanesetelu.AnotherIndo-Aryannumeral borrowedintoHighJavaneseisdasa‘ten’.Malayborrowedtheelement-belas‘- teen’fromJavanese,toformnumeralsbetween11and19,asinduabelas‘twelve’

3ProtoAustronesianpronounsoccurredinvariousallomorphs.Thoselistedherearetheoneswhich gaverisetothemodernMalay-Indonesianforms.Forafulldiscussion,seeRoss2006.

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(literally‘two-teen’),whereOldMalayhadsa-puluhdua(literally‘one-tentwo’). ClassicalMalayalsoborrowedfromJavanesethesimilarelement‒likur,whichforms numeralsfrom21to29,butthesehavebecomeobsoleteinmodernMalay- Indonesian.AsforTailanguages,theyborrowedalltheirnumeralsotherthan‘one’ and‘two’fromChinese(andinsomecontexts,eventhoseareused).Khmerinturn borrowedthetermsfor30,40,50,60,70,80,90,and100fromThai.  Termsforbodypartshavealsobeenborrowed.TheMalay-Indonesianwordfor ‘head’,kepala,wasborrowedfromSanskrit.Itcompletelyreplacedtheindigenous word(h)ulu,whichnowsurvivesonlyinafewcompoundsandinthefigurativesense of’headofariver’.ThesameSanskritwordalsoreplacedtheoriginalKhmerword for‘head’;itsforminmodernKhmeriskbaal.InThai,theindigenoustermfor‘head’, hƖa,persistssidebysidewiththemorepoliteterm,sƒƒsà,derivedfromSanskrit. SeveralotherbasicbodypartsinThaiaresaidtoderivefromChinese:khæ̌æ̌n‘arm’ (MiddleChinese*kien),khæ̂æ̂č‘shin’(MiddleChinese*ǩieč),andkhƐƐ‘leg’(Middle Chinese*khau‘legbone’)(TitimaSuthiwan,personalcommunication).TheHigh Javanesewordsasta‘hand’,sirah‘head’,andgrana‘nose’,areallderivedfrom Sanskrit.  KinshiptermsinsoutheastAsianlanguagesaresimilartopronounsinthattheyare particularlypronetoborrowing.ThestandardMalay-Indonesiantermsfor‘father’ (bapak)and‘mother’(ibu)werebothborrowedfromOldJavanese.Thepoliteterms for‘son’and‘daughter’,putraandputri,bothderivefromSanskrit,asarethepolite termsfor‘brother,sibling’(suadara)aswellas‘husband’and‘wife’(suami,istri).  Thaihasalsoborrowedkinshiptermsextensively,althoughtheoriginalTaitermsare allstillcommonlyusedasthelesspoliteandlessformalcounterparts.Thusphǚ̂ǚ ‘father’isusedsidebysideitspolitecounterpartbìdaa;mæ̂æ̂‘mother’isused alongsidemaandaa;andlûûk‘child’isusedalongsidebùt.Asimilarphenomenon canbeseeninKhmer.Vietnameseborrowedtermsforhusbandandwife,parents’ siblings,andgrandparentsfromOldChinese.

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 WhyhaveSoutheastAsianlanguagesborrowedextensivelywordsthattendtoresist borrowinginotherlanguages?TheThaiandJavanesetermsdiscussedaboveoffer someclearclues.Incaseswhereloanwordscoexistwithearlierindigenousterms, theyareusuallyusedastheirpoliteorformalcounterparts.Inotherwords,weare dealingwithhonorifics.  HonorificsoccurinvariouspartsoftheworldoutsideSoutheastAsia;perhapsthe bestknownarethoseofJapanese.InSoutheastAsia,thehonorificsofJavanese areparticularlywelldeveloped(andwellstudies),althoughtheyareusuallyknown as‘speechlevels’:HighJavaneseorKrama,andLowJavaneseorNgoko. However,theyoccurtooneextentoranotherinmanyotherlanguagesofSoutheast Asia,includingBalinese,Sundanese,Thai,andKhmer.Honorificscanbederivedby variousmeans,forexamplebyattachinghonorificaffixesorcliticstoordinarywords. Ordinarywordscanbephonologicallymanipulatedtocreatehonorifics,forexample byreplacingthecodawithadesignatedhonorificone,orbychangingcertainvowels inapredictableway.Sometimessynonymsofcertainwordsareselectedand ‘elevated’totheroleofhonorifics.Olderwordsthatsurviveintheliteraturebuthave disappearedfromordinaryspeechareparticularlyfavored.Allthesestrategiesfor derivinghonorificsareinternal:theyutilizealanguage’sownresources.However, drawingonexternalsources̶i.e.otherlanguages̶isalsoacommonwayof derivinghonorificsinSoutheastAsia.  Whileresistingtheurgetofallintoculturalstereotyping,itishardlydeniablethatthe majorofSoutheastAsia̶suchastheMalay,Javanese,Thai, Cambodian,andVietnamesecivilizations̶havebeenexceptionallyopenand receptivetoforeigninfluence,beitfromChina,fromIndia,fromtheMiddleEast,and morerecentlyfromtheWest.Thisopennessisreflectedintheirreligions,art,music, food,dress,andalsolanguage.Lexicalborrowingshouldthereforebeviewedinits widersocio-culturalcontext.Thecombinationofatendencyforformalized expressionsofrespect(includinglinguisticones),andontheotheropennessto

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borrowingfromforeigncultures(includingfromtheirlanguages),hasbeenamajor factorintheintroductionofloanwordsintothebasicvocabularyoftheirlanguages. Thisprocesscanbesummarizedasfollows:  1.ManyofthemajorlanguagesofSoutheastAsiahaveformalizedlinguistic expressionofrespect,intheformofhonorifics. 2.Bytheirnature,honorificsaffecthighfrequencywords(functionwordsand basiccontentwords)morethanlow-frequencywords(specializedvocabulary). 3.Honorificwordscanbederivedbyinternalorexternalmeans.SoutheastAsian culturesareparticularlyreceptivetooutsideinfluence,andhaveusedmany loanwordsashonorifics. 4.Overtime,honorificstendtograduallylosetheirhonorificvalue.Theythen becomeordinary,unmarkedwords. 5.Thismayleadtotwoconsequences.First,thereisaneedtocreatenew honorifics,toreplacesthe‘bleached’ones.Second,theoriginal(indigenous) words,originallyunmarked,nowgetdemoted,andcometobeperceivedas overlyfamiliarorevenimpolite.Eventually,theymaybeavoidedandbecome obsolete,theirplacetakenbythebleachedhonorifics. 6.Sincemanyofthese‘demoted’honorificswereoriginallyborrowedfromother languages,thisleadstothereplacementofbasicvocabularybyloanwords.  Letuslookatsomeconcreteexamples.TheMalaytermsfor‘husband’and‘wife’ arelakiandbini,bothwhicharereconstructibletoProtoMalayic.Sometimeinthe historyofMalay,suamiandistriwereborrowedfromSanskrit,asthehonorific counterpartsoftheoriginalMalaywords.Overtime,theseloanwordsbecame honorificallybleached,untiltheybecameunmarked,ordinarywords.Thispushed downtheoriginalwordslakiandbini,whichwerenowperceivedasimpolite.Avery similarprocesscanbeseeninThai,wheretheSanskritloanwordssƐƐmiiand phanráyaawereoriginallyhonorificcounterpartsoftheTaiwordsphƖaandmia. Eventually,theloanwordssƐƐmiiandphanráyaabecamehonorificallybleached, therebyturningtheindigenousphƖaandmiaintoimpoliteterms.Inbothlanguages,

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theresultwasthereplacementofnativebasicvocabularybyloanwords.Itisalso interestingtonotethattheVietnamesetermsfor‘husband’and‘wife’,chồngand vợ,arebothderivedfromChinese(Alves2007).

TheIndonesianwordfor‘marry,married’showsafurtherdevelopment.Wedonot knowtheoriginalMalaytermfor‘marry’,butsincetherearegoodreconstructionsfor ‘husband’and‘wife’inProtoMalayic,weknowthattheinstitutionofmarriage existed,andmayassumethatProtoMalayichadawordforit.Theearliestrecorded Malaytermfor‘marry’iskahwin/kawin,aloanwordfromPersian.Itwasprobably borrowedasthepolitecounterpartofaMalayterm(ormayevenofaSanskrit- derivedtermwhichmayhavereplacedit)whichhassincebecomeobsoletethrough demotionbyhonorificbleaching.Afterkawinbecamebleacheditself,therewasa needforanewpolitetermfor‘marry’.Thegapwasfilledbyborrowingtheword nikahfromArabic.Thisdemotedtheearlierloanwordkawin,whichwasnow perceivedasimpolite;indeed,someIndonesiansclaimthatitisonlysuitablefor referringtocopulatinganimals.ThusmodernIndonesianhastwotermsfor‘marry’, bothmarked:kawin([-polite])andnikah([+polite]).WhenIndonesiansneededa neutralterm,forexampletorefertotheirownmarriageortothatofsiblingsorclose friends,theyturnedtothecurrentdominantsourceofborrowing:English.Thusthe mostcommonlyusedtermfor‘marry,married’incolloquialJakartaIndonesianis mérit4.  AsimilarexampleistheborrowingoftheEnglishpronounsIandyouintoSoutheast Asianlanguages,whentheexisting1stand2ndpersonpronounsallbecamemarked, eitherasrespectfulorasdisrespectful.Theuseofaiandyuuasneutralpronounsin ThaiwasalreadyobservedfourdecadesagobyCooke(1968:38-41).Exactlythe samepronounswerealsoborrowedintourbanPeninsularMalay,probablyeven earlier.FormanyMalaysianspeakers,thesehavebecomethedefaultpronouns,

4NotethattheEnglishwordmarryisalsoaloanword,againshowingthatwhilethisphenomenonis typicalofSoutheastAsia,itisnotrestrictedtoit.

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usedmostfrequentlyineverydayconversations.Morerecently,youhasalsobeen makinginroadsintoIndonesian,althoughnotai.  Ofcourse,thecreationofpoliteterms(orpoliteness-neutralterms)isnottheonly wayloanwordscanreplacenonborrowedhigh-frequencyvocabulary.Acompletely differentscenariowhichmayleadtosimilarresultsinthelanguagesofsmall oppressedminoritygroupswasbrieflymentionedatthebeginningofthispaper.For dominantlanguages,too,otherscenariosarepossible.Oneoftheseistransferfrom asubstratum(orsuperstratum)language.OneexampleistheuseofChinese pronounsbyethnicChineseinSoutheastAsia,includingthosewhonolongerspeak anyChineselanguage.EthnicChineseinoftenusethepronouns owé/gua‘1SG’andlu‘2SG’,bothderivedfromHokkien,whenspeakingIndonesian. EthnicChineseinoftenusetheverysamepronounswhenspeakingThai, inslightlydifferentforms:uáandlǵ́ǵ́.  InbothThailandandIndonesia,theseoriginallyChinesepronounsarenowalso usedbynon-Chineseaswell.InIndonesia,gua/guéandluaretheunmarked1st and2ndpersonpronounsinBetawi,theMalayvariantusedinBatavia,aswellasin JakartaIndonesian,whichdevelopedoutofit.InThailand,non-Chinesesometimes useuáandlǵ́ǵ́asasignofintimacyandequality,sincetheindigenous1stand2nd personpronounsinThaiareallmarked,eitherasrespectfulorasdisrespectful.  Substratuminfluencecanalsoresultintheintroductionofothertypesofhigh frequencyitems.JakartaIndonesian,forexample,hasborrowedmanyofitsbody partandkinshiptermsfromsubstratelanguages.Theselanguagesincluded principallyHokkien,Balinese,andCreolePortuguese(inthe17th-18thcenturies),and JavaneseandSundanese(inthe18th-20thcenturies).Borrowedbodyparttermsin JakartaIndonesianincludekuping‘ear’,jidat‘forehead’,dengkul‘knee’,sikut‘elbow’, bréwok‘beard’,kontol‘penis’,andtéték‘breasts’,andpuser‘bellybutton’.These areinadditiontostandardIndonesiankepala‘head’,kerongkongan‘throat’,and bahu‘shoulder’,allofwhichareloanwords,andmaybeusedinJakartaIndonesian

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aswell.Borrowedkinshiptermsincludenyak‘mother’,babé‘father’,engkong ‘grandfather’,nénék‘grandmother’,oom‘uncle’,andtante‘aunt’.Again,thesearein additiontostandardIndonesianbapak‘father’,ibu‘mother’,paman‘uncle’,bibi ‘aunt’,andotherborrowedkinshipterms.Theverycommonepithets/vocativesmas (formales)andmbak(forfemales)arealsoborrowed.  Finally,IwouldlikementionwhatDavidGilhastermed‘thechameleon-likenature’of Malay-IndonesianandotherlanguagesofSoutheastAsian.InMalay-Indonesian,it isconsideredamarkoffriendlinesstoassimilatelinguisticallytoone’sinterlocutor. DespitethefactthatIspeakfluentIndonesian,somespeakers,whentalkingtome, liketomixinasmanyEnglishwordsastheyknow,andeventrytospeakinwithan Englishaccent.Atfirst,Ifoundthisdisconcerting,andevenoffensive,beforeI realizeditwasinfactasignoffriendliness.Togiveanexamplefrom,ifan ethnicMalayisspeakingtoanethnicChinese,hemightusetheChinese-derived pronounsguaandlu,alreadymentionedabove.Similarly,whenaddressingafriend ofJavaneseethnicbackground,anIndonesianmayusetheobject-focus1stperson pronountak-.Thisphenomenonismostapparentinpronounuse,butextendswell beyondthat.ThesameIndonesian,whenspeakingtoaJavanese,maywelluse otherJavaneseterms,forexamplefor‘eat’,‘sleep’,or‘bathe’.Butheisunlikelyto useanyspecializedJavanesevocabulary,simplybecausehedoesnotknowit.This assimilatorytendencyisbasicallyperformance-based.Butwhenitoccursfrequently andregularly,itmaybecomepartofone’scompetence:basicChinesevocabulary maygetincorporatedintogeneralMalaysianMalay,andbasicJavanesevocabulary maybecomepartofgeneralIndonesian.  Wehavethusseenthathighfrequencyvocabulary̶includingfunctionwordsand basiccontentwords̶arequiteborrowableinSoutheastAsia.Thisisratherdifferent fromthesituationinotherpartsoftheworld,forexampleinEuropeandtheMiddle East.TheborrowabilityofhighfrequencyitemsinSoutheastAsiaisthusareal feature,whichspreadbycontactamongspeakersofdifferentlanguages.Inother words,borrowabilityitselfisaborrowablefeature.

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 References  Alves,Mark,2007.LoanwordTypologydatabaseforVietnamese.Loanword TypologyProject.  Cooke,JosephR.,1968.PronominalreferenceinThai,Burmese,andVietnamese. BerkeleyandLosAngeles:UniversityofCaliforniaPress.  Li,FangKuei,1977.AHandbookofComparativeTai.UniversityPressofHawaii.  Marsden,William,1812.AGrammaroftheMalayanLanguage.London:Printedfor theauthorbyCoxandBaylis.  O'Grady,W.,Dobrovsky,M.,&Aronoff,M.,1989).Contemporarylinguistics:An introduction.NewYork:St.Martin'sPress.  Ross,Malcolm,2006.ReconstructingtheCase-markingandPersonalPronoun SystemsofProtoAustronesian.In:StreamsConvergingIntoanOcean:Festschrift inHonorofProfessorPaulJen-KueiLionHis70thBirthday.EditedbyHenryY. Chang,LillianM.Huang,andDah-anHo.Taipei:AcademicSinica,521-563.  Tadmor,Uri,2006.TheLinguisticConsequencesofLongTermPatron-Client Relationship:DayaksandinWesternBorneo.Paperpresentedatthe workshop“Historicallinguisticsandhunter-gathererpopulationsinglobal perspective”.Leipzig,10-12August2006.  Thomason,SarahG.,andDanielL.Everett,2001.Pronounborrowing.Berkeley LinguisticSociety27:301-315.

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