In the gardens of Norman , (twelfth century A.D.)

MarcoMASSETI Laboratori di Antropologia eEtnologia Dipartimento di Biologia Evoluzionistica “Leo Pardi” dell’Università di Firenze via del Proconsolo, 12 –I-50122 Firenze (Italia) [email protected]

Masseti M. 2009. —Inthe gardens of Norman Palermo, Sicily (twelfth century A.D.). Anthropozoologica 44(2): 7-34.

ABSTRACT Thispaperisaimed atverifyingthesignificanceofthezoomorphicimages represented in the 12 th century picture of the Genoard , the “earthly paradise”, ofPalermo (Sicily)contained in anillumination in the Liberad honorem Augusti byPietrodaEboli,12 th centuryA.D.(Berne, Burgerbibliothek, Codex120). Based on analysesoftheliteraryandiconographicdocuments andoftheavailableosteologicalevidence, atentativeidentification ofthe zoologicalspeciesrepresented ismade, in relation totheNormancultural ambitandwhatcanbeassumed abouttheiroccurrencein mediaevalSicily. Thestudyoftheanimalsdepicted couldenhanceourunderstandingofthe specialised —butstill debated —useofthe Genoard ,whilealsoyielding different readings from those traditionally offered by literary and architectural KEYWORDS criticism and/or historical and artistic texts. Hence, it offers an opportunity to Medieval Sicily, Norman Palermo, reviewtheosteologicalmaterialyielded bymodernarchaeologicalresearch Islamic culture, conducted in Sicily,underscoringwhatcouldbeconsidered thefirst appearanceof exotic mammals, certain exoticspecies.Italsoprovidesacueforreflection on thefaunistic birds and reptiles, Islamic Spain and Portugal, rebalancingwhichwasimplemented alsoinothercontinentalandinsularareasof Crete, thenorthernMediterraneanintheperiodofArab influenceand/orthose Norman England, earthly paradise, immediatelyfollowing.Perhaps,withcertain consequencesthatcouldapparently viridarium . alsohaveinvolved thecontemporaryNormanculturalworldofGreatBritain.

RÉSUMÉ Dans les jardins de la Palerme normande, Sicile (XIIe siècle, apr. J.-C.) Le but de cet article est de montrer l’importance des figures zoomorphiques représentéesdansl’imagedu Genoard ,le«Paradisterrestre»,àPalerme (Sicile), une enluminure contenue dans le Liber ad honorem Augusti de Pietro da Eboli, XIIe siècle, apr. J.-C. (Berne, Burgerbibliothek, Codex 120). Basée surlesanalysesdesdocuments iconographiquesetlittérairesetsurles

ANTHROPOZOOLOGICA • 2009 • 44 (2) © Publications Scientifiques du Muséum national d’Histoire naturelle, Paris. 7 Masseti M.

déterminationsostéologiquesdisponibles,unetentatived’identification des espèceszoologiquesreprésentéesest réalisée, enrelation avecl’apport cultureldes NormandsetcequipeutêtreconsidérécommedeleurfaitenSicilemédiévale. L’étude desanimaux dépeints pourraitaméliorernotrecompréhension de la MOTS CLÉS singulière—maistoujours débattues—fonction du Genoard ,enproposantune Sicile médiévale, Palerme normande, lecturedifférentedecellestraditionnellementoffertesparl’analyselittéraireet culture islamique, architecturaleet/ouparlestextesàportée historiqueetartistique.Parailleurs,cet mammifères exotiques, oiseaux et reptiles, articleproposeuneréflexion surlerééquilibragedelafaunequiaétéaccompli Espagne et Portugal islamique, égalementdansd’autresrégionscontinentalesetinsulairesdunorddela Crète, Méditerranée durantlapériode d’influencearabeet/oucellequiasuivi Angleterre normande, paradis terrestre, immédiatement.Peut-être, dansunecertainemesure, cetapport pourraitaussi viridarium . avoirinfluencélemonde culturelnormandcontemporain de laGrande-Bretagne.

INTRODUCTION theArab word riyàd isused torefertoagreen, private space that evokes the image of the Roman In the second half of the 12 th century, a park for peristyle . It was an uncovered area, almost always hunting and other courtly delights was created for surrounded byporticoes,andfeatured paved paths WilliamII,just behindtheroyalpalaceofPalermo, andasystemofirrigation based on basinsand in thesouthernpart ofthecityin frontofwhat conduits.Inviewofits particularposition,the was later called the “Conca d’Oro”. This park was Genoard must hencehaveappeared aspacethat called the Genoard , or Gennoardo , a name deriving embodied a specialised concept of the urban park. from the gennat al-ard , signifying “earthly Insuchparkstherarest plants originatingfrom the paradise”.Thiswasnotaspecificname, butwas East were cultivated, in line with a tradition bor- shared byall theMuslim gardensofdelights,which rowed directlyfrom theArab world( cf. Lupo1990). weredesigned toresembletheparadiseoftheKoran. Variouspreciousandexoticplants areillustrated Animageoftheappearanceofthe Genoard has in the miniature, among which we can recognise a survived in a 12 th century illumination illustrating vine, otherfruittreesandseveralpalms.Butthe ThecityofPalermo in mourningforthedeathof “earthly paradise” was also home to a special fauna WilliamII,contained in the Liberad honorem whichincluded ornithologicalandmammalian Augusti byPietrodaEboli (Berne, Burgerbibliothek, species, the presence of which within the park was Codex120II,98 recto )(Kölzer&Stähl1994) motivated notonlybyaestheticreasonsbutalso (Fig. 1). This manuscript was written and illumi- practical ends connected with hunting. nated in Palermo between 1195 and 1197 ( cf. Sir- Based on analyses of the literary and iconographic agusa1904;Cuomo 2001),afterthedeathof documents andoftheavailableosteologicalevi- William II in 1189. It consists of an illuminated dence, a tentative identification of the zoological chronicleoftheevents thattook placein thedecade species represented in Pietro da Eboli’s miniature between 1189-1197 (Kölzer & Stähl 1994). In the is made, in relation to the Norman cultural ambit miniaturein whichthe Genoard appears itisset and what can be assumed about their occurrence within thecontextofPalermo andispart ofthe in mediaevalSicily.Ambiguoushistoricalevidence same, entirelyoccupyingoneofthesectors into compounded bymisidentificationsandcontextual whichthecitywasdivided, correspondingapprox- disturbance, as well as the traditional trade in skel- imatelytotheindividualquarters.The Genoard etalanddentalelements togetherwithpartsof consisted ofagreenarea,enclosed andirrigated, hides, have all contributed to confuse our under- considered practicallya riyàd belongingtothe standing of the mediaeval distribution and spread royalpalace( cf. Amari1939;Bellafiore1996; — natural and/or artificial — of native and exotic Masseti 2006). As Zangheri (2006) also explains, animalsalongtheMediterraneanshores.Thestudy

8 ANTHROPOZOOLOGICA • 2009 • 44 (2) In the gardens of Norman Palermo, Sicily (twelfth century A.D.)

of the miniature, therefore, offers an opportunity for meditation on the faunistic rebalancing which wasimplemented alsoinothercontinentaland insular areas of the northern Mediterranean in the periodofArab influenceand/orthoseimmediately following.Perhaps,withcertain consequencesthat couldapparentlyalso haveinvolved the contem- poraryNormanculturalworldofGreatBritain. Furthermore, thestudyofthezoologicalspecies depicted could enhance our understanding of the specialised —butstill debated —useofthe Genoard , whilealsoyieldingdifferentreadingsfrom those traditionallyofferedbyliteraryandarchitectural criticismand/orhistoricalandartistictexts.Infact, the analysis of the iconographic elements can pro- vide validcomplementaryinformation forthestudy of ancient environmental features, and enables the unequivocalrecognition ofthespeciesportrayed ( cf. Masseti 2001). Arecapitulation oftheexistingbibliographyon the archaeozoologyofmediaevalSicilyisanadditional aim of this study.

FAUNAOFTHE “EARTHLYPARADISE”. THERINGED-NECKED PARAKEET F ig.1.—The twelfth-century illumination of the Genoard ,the “earthly paradise”, from the Liber ad honorem Augusti by Pietro Intheillumination from the Liberad honorem da Eboli (Berne, Burgerbibliothek, Codex 120). Augusti , an exotic green bird is portrayed perching on the trunk of a palm tree. This can tentatively beidentified asaring-necked parakeetorrose- Greece,Turkey(Long1981;Goodman1982; Kinzel- ringed parakeet, Psittacula krameri Scopoli, 1769, bach1986; Paz1987; Hollom etal .1988; native of most of the Ethiopic and Oriental zoo- Wittenberg 1988; Goodman & Meininger 1989; geographicalregions(Kinzelbach1986; Howard Bakig&Khiyami Amihorani 1992; Kasparek1992; & Moore 1991). The species is well established in Evans&DouweDijkstra1993; Boyla etal .,1998 ) , severallocalitiesoftheWesternPalaearctic,beyond and several Aegean islands (Masseti 2002a). its natural distribution. It has been introduced by Thering-necked parakeetisaspecieswhichhas maninmanyareasofEurope, NorthAfrica and been regularly exported as a cage bird since antiq- theNearEast (Aschenborn1990;Perrins1990; uity (Spanò & Truffi 1986), and it is possible that Hays1995;Hagemeijer&Blair1997). Inthe even in Hellenistic times birds escaping from cap- WesternMediterraneanbasin,ring-necked parakeet tivity became feral in the region of the Nile delta coloniesaretodayrecorded from Spain andthe (Paz1987). Theoccurrenceofthisbirdin medieval Balearicislands,theItalianpeninsula,Sicily,the has been exhaustively documented in the , Croatia and the Dalmatian coast worksofseveralauthors,suchasDiener(1967), (Peres-Chiscano 1969;Spanò&Truffi1986; Ribemont (1990), Mc Munn (1999). Among the Iapichino & Massa 1989; Lo Valvo et al . 1993). In manyexamplesofancientartisticrepresentation the Eastern Mediterranean region, the species has ofthespecieswecanmention themosaicsfrom beenreported from ,Israel,,Syria, Santa Maria Capua Vetere (southern ), dating

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F ig.2.—Bowl of lustre-painted ware, originating from the church of S. Andrea in Pisa, of Almohade production, dating to the first quarter of the 12th century.

F ig.3. — Persian bronze perfume-burner dating to the 9 th cen- tury, which decorated the facade of San Frediano in Lucca. tothe1 st centuryB.C.(ArchaeologicalMuseum ofNaples),thoseofDafne(Antiochia,southern Turkey),from thefirst halfofthe3 rd century (Louvre, Paris),andfrom SanLorenzoinPanisperna ishproduction datingtotheAlmohade period, (),datingtotheearly1 st centuryA.D.(Museo morespecificallythefirst quarterofthe12 th century dellaCentraleMontemartini)(Pernice1938; (Gisbert 1992; Contadini 1993). Theornitho- Lassus1938;Morricone1963; ÁlvarezMartínez logicalrepresentation oftheBerneillumination et al . 2001). A beautiful representation of the bird wouldthereforeappeartobelongtotheIslamic appears alsoinadetail ofthemosaicsfrom thecathe- iconographictradition alreadyexpressed in afamous dral of , in the vicinity of Palermo, dated Persianbronzeperfume-burner,theso-called gallo- between1180and1190A.D.(cf. Kitzinger1960), falco ,datingtothe9 th centurywhichdecorated the almost contemporarytothe Liberad honorem facade ofSanFrediano,in Lucca (Gabrieli & Augusti . Scerrato 1979; Bernardini 1993) (Fig. 3). The fal- con is the quintessential figurative symbol of both theMuslim emirandtheChristianprince.Intimes FALCONS, PIGEONS, ANDDOVES of peace, the main activity of both was to train for war,somethingtheydidbypracticingvarioustypes IntheBerneminiature, theimagesoftwobirds ofhunting,amongwhichtheart offalconry,of represented among the leafy fronds of the higher ancientOrientalorigin,surpassed all others trees,canbetentativelyidentified asfalcons.Infact (Masseti2006). InEuropefalconrybecame they reveal considerable affinities with the almost theprerogativeofthenobility(Zeuner1963; contemporarydecoration ofabowloflustre-painted Cummins1988). Therearenumeroustexts address- ware, originating from the church of S. Andrea in ing the argument, and in particular the popularity Pisa(MuseoNazionaleofSanMatteo,Pisa:inv. thatthistypeofhuntingenjoyed in Italyin the n. bacino 232) (Fig. 2). This is an artefact of Span- Middle Ages. Among these, we can mention Lupis

10 ANTHROPOZOOLOGICA • 2009 • 44 (2) In the gardens of Norman Palermo, Sicily (twelfth century A.D.)

(1975),VandenAbeele(1994),Boccassini (2003), Hernandez Carrasquilla 1994). The main sites for Malacarne(1998and2003). Norshouldweforget the provision of these birds for the Norman palace thattwoofthemost importanttreatiseson falconry ofPalermo werethelonecragsoftheislandof — the Dancus Rex and the Guillelmus falconarius ,thecliffsoftheEgades,,and ( cf. Tilander 1963) — were written at the court of Lampedusa,severalpromontoriesoftheSicilian theNormankingsofSicily.Consequently,itis coast andafewinlandmountains(Bresc,1980) logical to assume that falcons were greatly valued (Fig.4). TheimportanceoftheMaltesearchipelago in the courts, and were hence frequently protected asasourceoffalconsevenatthetimeofFrederickII byedicts andspeciallaws.InmediaevalEurope is recorded in Boehmer’s regesta (1881-1894). Sev- peregrine, Falcoperegrinus Tunstall,1771,and eralcenturieslater,in 1647,Giovanni Francesco gyrfalcon, F.rusticolus L.,1758, wereonlypossessed Abela,archaeologist andcommanderoftheKnights bypeopleofthehighest rank (royalty,thehigh of Malta, confirmed these islands as a site that was nobilityandhigh-rankingclergy),goshawk, Accip- particularlyadapted totheprovision ofbirdsof iter gentilis (L., 1758), and sparrow-hawk, A. nisus prey to employ in falconry. (L., 1758), both by people of high rank and by the Toreturntoourillumination from the Liberad lowernobilityandrichcommoners (Wood& honoremAugusti ,theevergreentree represented at Fyfe 1955; Lindner 1955; Prummel 1997). How- thetoprightoftheBerneminiatureconcealswithin ever,noneoftheartisticartefacts mentioned above its foliagetheimageofanotherbird.Here, however, featuresdiagnosticelements suchastoenablea thetaxonomicattribution ismoredifficultbecause specificattribution.Anumberofarchivedocuments oftheabsenceoficonographicdiagnosticpheno- indicatetheperegrineandthesaker, F.cherrug typicpatterns.Thebirdjust mentioned couldbe J.E. Gray, 1834, among the species of falcon most tentativelyidentified asarepresentativeofthe sought-after for hunting at the Norman court of taxonomicgroupoftheColumbiformes:perhaps Sicily(Bresc1980). Amongtheveryrarebone aferalpigeon, Columba livia Gmelin,1789,char- remains of the genus Falco yielded by the archaeo- acterised byawhitecoatcolourlikethoserepre- zoologicalexploration ofmediaevalSicily,arethose sented in thedecoration ofthepalaceofZisa of the hobby, F. subbuteo L., 1758, from the castle (1164/65-1166),in Palermo ( cf. Bellafiore1994). of Fiumedinisi (), dated between the end Osteologicalfragments ofColumbiformesare ofthe13 th centuryandthefirst halfofthe14 th cen- availablefrom averyfewSicilianmediaevalsites. turyA.D.(Villari1988). Furthermore, bonesof Rockdovesand/orferalpigeons,woodpigeons, Accipitridae, suchasthegriffon vulture, Gypsfulvus Columba palumbus L.,1758, andturtledoves, Hablizl,1783,andrepresentativesofthegenus Streptopeliaturtur (L.,1758),too havebeenpro- Aquila ,havebeenrecorded from thesiteof vided bytheexcavation ofthecastleofFiumedinisi Calathamet(13 th century),in north-westernSicily (Villari1988). Woodpigeonshavealsobeen (Sarà2005). Probablyattributabletothesame reported from Calathamet(Sarà2005),while taxonomicfamilyaretwoisolated humerioriginat- osteologicalremainsofrockdoveshavebeen ing from the Mediaeval levels of the site of Segesta documented atPalazzoSteri,in Palermo (Lupo2006- (Di Martino 1997). An ulna of griffon vulture was 2007). alsofoundin the15 th centuryarchaeologicalcontexts yielded bytheexploration ofPalazzoSteri,in Palermo (Lupo 2006-2007). No other remains of birds of “HUNTING” FELIDSANDDOMESTIC prey have been recorded in any of the remaining CATS scantarchaeozoologicalstudieson mediaevalSicily, such as Bossard Beck (1984) and Bedini (1999). Among the animals represented in the miniature Similarly,in themediaevalsitesofthewestern of the Liber ad honorem Augusti , we can also iden- Mediterranean, in the Iberian peninsula, very few tify a caracal, Caracal caracal (Schreber 1766), the osteological remains of raptors have been provided felidofNear-EasternandAfricandistribution which byarchaeozoologicalresearch( cf. Hernandez1993; wasutilised attheorientalcourts,especiallyfor

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F ig.4. — Map showing the main sites for the provision of birds of prey in mediaeval and post- Sicily and the circum- Sicilian islands, including the Maltese archipelago, with the localisation of the sites of Castello di Fiumedinisi (Messina), Segesta (), and Calathamet (Castellammaredel Golfo, Trapani) (data from Abela 1647; Bresc 1980; Villari 1998; Di Martino 1997; Sarà 2005). huntingbirdfauna( cf. Lydekker1896)(Fig.5) Italy as far back as the 11th century is documented (Masseti 2009a). The strength and vigour of this by a detail in the frescoes of the church S. Angelo wild cat are said by those who have witnessed it to in Formis, Capua (Caserta) (Masseti 2009). These besomethingmarvellous.Nineteenth-century paintings are dated between 1072 and 1078/1087 observers testifytotheabilityofthespeciestocatch (Ragghianti1968;Paradiso1998; cf. Causa1965). birds on the wing, for it has been known to steal The animal is represented in the scenic context of uptoacoveyoffrancolins,ordesert partridges, the“sacrificeofNoah”,apparentlyhavingjust and at the instant of their rising to spring into the captured two cranes (Fig. 6). As far as is presently airandknockdownonewitheachforepaw known,however,no boneremainsof C.caracal (Harting 1883). The use of caracals for hunting in have been provided by any of the archaeozoologi-

12 ANTHROPOZOOLOGICA • 2009 • 44 (2) In the gardens of Norman Palermo, Sicily (twelfth century A.D.)

F ig.5. — Caracals are medium-sized felids which were utilised F ig.6. — Detail of the Thanksgiving of Noah in the wall paintings at the oriental courts, especially for hunting birdfauna. Haifa, of the eleventh-century basilica of Sant’ Angelo in Formis at Israel (photo by Marco Masseti). Capua (Caserta), (photo by Domenico Caiazza). cal explorations of Sicily and/or of southern Italy. ofdocuments discovered byBoehmer(1881-1894). The case of the caracal is, in certain respects, sim- Later, on 12 April 1273, Charles I of Anjou also ilar to that of the falcons. We have already noted ordered his camerario in Malta,RobertoCaforo, how Sicilian archaeozoological data for the latter to capture eight leopards agrestes in the usual spots are scarce, not to say totally lacking. For other sec- andtohavethemtransported tohim,accompanied tionsofthenorth-westernMediterraneantoo,such byfaithfulandtrusted expertsin ordertoavoid astheIberianpeninsulaforexample, therearevery accidents (A.M. 1917). Nevertheless, it seems that few mediaeval bone finds of birds of prey, consid- thefirst Italiantogenuinelyappreciatethisfelid ering what must have been the considerable diffu- wasNicolad’Estewhohadtheopportunityto sion of such birds in the milieux of the aristocratic admire its skill in hunting on the island of courts,atleast judgingfrom theabundanceof in thecourseofajourneytoJerusalemin1314. literarysourcesandtherelated iconographicdocu- From this time on there are records of the presence ments.Thisillustrateshowitisnotalwayspossible ofcheetahsaboveall in thecourtsofnorthernItaly, todocumentthepast presenceofacertain zoo- such as those of the Sforza and Visconti in Milan, logical species in a specific territory and/or a par- as well as the Este court in Ferrara (Perosino 1958; ticular cultural context, solely on the basis of the Erba1999),andlateralsoincentralItaly,atthe dataoffered byarchaeozoologicalresearch,especially Medicicourt ofFlorence( cf. Heikamp1965; whenwearedealingwithanimalsthatwereutilised Masseti 1991; Masseti 2009). byan elite ,suchasaristocraticfalconers andhunters. Moreover,anoticeablediffusion in Sicilyofthe Sincethe13 th centurythereisalsoliteraryand domestic cat, an animal of proven oriental origin artisticevidenceincontinentalItaly,Sicilyand ( cf. Zeuner1963; Clutton-Brock1981;Hem- nearbyislandsfortheuseofanotherspeciesoffelid mer1990;Malek1993; Masseti2002b),canbe in huntingactivities:thecheetah, Acynonixjubatus traced to shortly after the year 1000, vestiges hav- (Schreber1766). FrederickII ofHohenstaufen ingbeenfoundin theexcavationsatthe“A.Salinas” (1194-1250), known as Stupor Mundi , must have regionalarchaeologicalmuseumofPalermo,in learnt the art of hunting with this carnivore from chronological contexts referred to the second half theSicilianArabsasfarbackasthe13 th century of the 10 th -early 11th century (Sarà 1997). Prior to (Fig.7). Toacquirethe huntingleopards from North thisdiscovery,theoldest Sicilianfindsofthedomes- Africa,theEmperorapplied on morethanone tic cat dated to the 12 th century, found in a pit of occasiontoPaolinodaMaltaandtothe credenziere thecastleofFiumedinisi(Villari1995)andat of Palermo and Sicily, as illustrated by a number Brucato(Bossard-Beck1984). Bothsitesyielded

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F ig.7. — Detail of the mosaic decoration of the Sala di Re Ruggero in the Norman Palace of Palermo. remainsbearingbutcheringcutmarksandtracesof western world from at least the start of the 6 th cen- burns (Villari 1995), as has also been documented tury B.C., possibly even earlier ( cf. Toynbee 1973; from othersitesin centralItaly,includingRocca Malek 1993; Masseti 2002b). Known in western Ricciarda, near Arezzo (Tuscany) (end of 14 th cen- Europe from at least the early centuries of our era, tury-second half of 15 th century) (Corbino 2009), alreadyattheendoftheRomanEmpirethedomes- andin severalothersitesof14 th -18 th centuryEurope tic cat was present more or less everywhere. Bobis ( cf. Villari 1995). In Sicily the domestic cat is also (2000) believes that its diffusion was undoubtedly presentin 13 th centurylayers in Calathamet favoured by the trade routes, in particular the tin (Sarà2005),butisnotcomprised amongthefauna road that linked the British Isles to the Mediter- originatingfrom theexcavationscarriedoutin two ranean. However, the Roman army too must have sitesofmediaevalPalermo,PalazzoBonagiaand represented a crucial carrier for the penetration of PalazzoSclafani (Sarà1997). Morerecently,remains theanimalinnorthernEurope, sincenumerous oftheanimalwereyielded bythearchaeological fortresses guarding the Rhine-Danube limes were exploration of Palazzo Steri, again in Palermo, in hometocats.Nevertheless,accordingtotheresults 14 th and15 th centurycontexts(Lupo2006-2007). of research carried out by MacKinnon (2004), cat Alreadyknowninclassicalantiquity( cf. Herodotus, bones were infrequent in most Italian Roman sites TheHistories ,II:66-67),andverylikelyalready between the Republican period and late Antiquity tamed in NeolithicCyprus(Vigne etal .2004),the (endofthe6 th centuryB.C.-6 th centuryA.D.), animal made its first sporadic appearances in the havingbeenbeingfoundin only16(approximately

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20%) of the 146 rural and urban sites considered fact,theperiodin whichthe Liberad honorem in the study. Although the presence of the domes- Augusti wasproduced wasthemomentin time tic cat in Europe is amply documented by a range correspondingtothespreadoftheAlmohadculture ofdocuments datingtotheearlyMiddleAges,prior (12 th -13 th century),referred towhichisthefirst to any Islamic influence ( cf. Bobis 2000), it may appearance of the common genet, Genetta genetta nothavebecomewidespreaduntil theestablish- (L.,1758),asclearlydemonstrated byMorales mentoftheArabculture, in concomitancewith (1994), through the finds of the Portuguese site of which the cat finally became more extensively dif- Mértola.Theintroduction in theIberianpeninsula fused, atleast in thecountriesofthenorthern of another African carnivore, the Egyptian mon- MediterraneanandwesternEurope.Inthisregard, goose, Herpestesichneumon (L.,1758),hasrecently it is interesting to note that in the towns of medi- beendocumented bythediscoveryofwhatRiquelme- evalBritain too thereissomeevidencethatthe Cantal et al. (2008) regard as the oldest remains of frequency of domestic cats increased in the years mongoose in Europe. This is a skull found in the following the Norman conquest (O’Connor 1982 Cave of Nerja in southern Spain (Malaga), AMS and1992),thatis,from thesecondhalfofthe dated 885 +/- 40 years BP, and thus again referable 11th century( cf. Rowley1999;Crouch2002). totheperiodoftheAlmoravidandAlmohaddomin- Effectively,theattemptmade byBietti etal .(1990) ion ofAndalusia.However,thatdescribed by andDeGrossiMazzorin (1997)toplacetheappear- Riquelme-Cantal etal. (2008)isnotthefirst mon- ance of the domestic cat in the West much earlier, goose that appeared in Europe, but rather the old- namely around the middle of the 8 th century B.C. est remainsofthiscarnivoreknowntodatefor (EarlyIron Age),failstobeconvincing(Mas- Spain (Masseti 2009b). In effect, the oldest record seti2002b). IntheIberianpeninsulatoo,themore of this carnivore available to date for the European consistentspreadoftheanimalappearstocoincide territorycomesfrom theislandofSant’Antioco, with the full affirmation of Islamic culture. Finds off the south-western coast of , where an referred tothedomesticcathavein factbeenyielded osteologicalfragmentofthespecieswasdiscovered by the exploration of the Spanish sites of Granada in a Punic cistern dated to the 5 th -4th century B.C. (Califalperiod, 10 th -11th century)(Riquelme1992), (Campanella&Wilkens2004;Carenti& CalatravaLaVieja(Almohade period)(Morales Wilkens2006)(Fig.8). Furthermore, geographical, Muñiz et al . 1988), Saltés (Huelva) (12 th -13 th cen- culturalandzoologicaldataprovide circumstantial tury)(Lentacker&Ervynck1999),Motril (Granada) evidenceindicatingtheAlmohadinvaders asthe (16 th -18 th century) (Riquelme Cantal 1993), and agents responsiblefortheintroduction intothe thePortuguesesiteofAlcáçovade Mértola(second Balearics of another species of mammal, the Alge- half of the 12 th century-first third of the 13 th cen- rian hedgehog, Atelerix algirus (Lereboullet 1842), tury)(TellesAntunes1996). Nevertheless,itcannot during the 13 th century (Morales & Rofes 2007), beruled out,asSarà(1997)observed forSicily, whereas Holocene remains of reptiles, such as the that for the Iberian and the Italian peninsulas too Mediterraneanchameleon, Chamaeleochamaeleon theabsenceoffindsforslightlyearlierhistoric (L.,1758),areavailabletoexplain its ancientintro- periods may very plausibly be attributable to the duction in theprovinceofMalaga(Talavera& lackofexcavationsandtheabsenceofspecific Sanchiz1985). AccordingtoPleguenzuelos& archaeozoological studies. Feriche(2003),theAndalusiandiffusion ofthe latterspecieswasalreadydocumented in thelit- eratureoftheArabianperiod.Infact,theArab OTHEREXOTICMAMMALS historian Ibn al Jatib (Loja 1313-Fez 1375), refer- ANDSOMEINTRIGUING REPTILES ringtotheregion ofAlmuñécar(Granada),records that “ el camaleón se asa (para consumo humano) en It is not really so surprising that living exotic car- estas tierras ” [ in these parts the chameleon is roasted nivores had been imported into Italy and Sicily for [ forhumanconsumption]] (Molina,1983). His- some time. In the southern Iberian peninsula, in toricalaccounts on theoccurrenceofthisreptile

ANTHROPOZOOLOGICA • 2009 • 44 (2) 15 Masseti M.

F ig.8. — Geographical locations of the Cueva of Nerja (Malaga), in southern Spain, and of the island of Sant’Antioco, off the south- western coast of Sardinia, compared with the extant distribution of the Egyptian mongoose, Herpestes ichneumon (L., 1758), along the western Mediterranean shores. arealsoavailableforSicily(Masseti,in press). Today, (1871,1872and1881),refertotheancientoccur- chameleons are also reported from several islands rence of Nile crocodiles, Crocodylus niloticus Lau- of the Mediterranean, such as Malta, and renti, 1768, in several rivers of Sicily. Delfino et al . Cyprus, where it is likely that their occurrence is (2007), among others, do not rule out that such mainlyduetohumanintervention (Corti&Lo introductions may have been made by the . Cascio 2002; Arnold & Ovenden 2004; Masseti, Morespecifically,anaturalist ofthestandingof in press) (Fig. 9). Rafinesque Schmaltz (1814) noted that: “ This ter- Formerscholars,suchasMongitore(1743),Scasso rible animal native to the Nile and some other rivers Borrello (1798),RafinesqueSchmaltz(1814),Minà of Africa and Asia had never been found in Europe: Palumbo (1863), Palermo (1858), and Doderlein nevertheless Ihavecertain proofthatitoncelivedand possibly still exists in some rivers of the island: it was sightedin particularin therivers ofthesoutherncoast, but was also found of old in the Papireto , the stream that runs beneath the city of Palermo”. Indications ofthepast presenceofcrocodileswerealsoreported from the Garaffello (or Garraffello)stream—which at the time was in the environs of Palermo, but is nowundergroundtoo,asaresultoftheurban developmentoftheSiciliancapital—from another watercoursein thevicinityofMessina(possiblythe Alcantara ?),andfrom the Amenano riverofCatania (Fig. 10). Tradition holds, moreover, that the last surviving exemplar was killed in the famous Fonte del Ciane of Syracuse, since when it has also been F ig.9.—Mediterranean chameleon, Chamaeleo chamaeleon knownasthe LagodelCoccodrillo (Pratesi& (L., 1758), shot in the naturereserve of G ћ adira, north-eastern Malta (photo by Marco Masseti). Tassi1974)(Fig.11). The Papireto riverin Palermo

16 ANTHROPOZOOLOGICA • 2009 • 44 (2) In the gardens of Norman Palermo, Sicily (twelfth century A.D.)

F ig.10. —Sicilian water bodies associated with the presence of crocodiles by authors of the past, including Mongitore(1743), Palermo (1858), Minà Palumbo (1863), Doderlein (1871, 1872 and 1881), with the localisation of Fonte del Ciane, also known as Lago del Coccodrillo. was,again accordingtotheancientaccounts,a habitatparticularlyadapted totheloricate.The oldest description of this river is to be found in the accountofKalbidPalermo penned bytheIraqi travellerandgeographerAbûal-Qâsim Muhammad IbnHawqalin973 A.D.Hewasin factableto observe: “… a shallow vale covered in papyri used for writing,whichIbelievedwasonlytobefoundin Egypt, but which they use here to make cables for the shipsandthosefewsheets ofpaperrequiredforthe sultan. ” According to the eminent scholar of Sicil- ianIslam,MicheleAmari(1935):“ TheEgyptian F ig.11. —Nineteenth-century idealised representation of the plant,ministerofancientknowledge,broughtpossibly appearance of the river Ciane, in the vicinity of Syracuse, which is still characterised by the presence of a dense papyrus thicket. bytheGreekstoSyracuseandbytheArabstoPalermo, We can note the incongruous presence of several sacred ibis, grew idly there up to the sixteenth century, when the Threskiornisaethiopicus Latham, 1790, birds that aretobe ponddriedoutbutthenameremained, andeven found only in Africa and the Near East, which the artist chose to include to accentuate improbable similarities with the natural today it is still called the Papireto ”. In the full flush environment of the Nile (from Strafforello 1893).

ANTHROPOZOOLOGICA • 2009 • 44 (2) 17 Masseti M.

F ig.12. —Stuffed Nile crocodile, which probably originally belonged to the Garillo pharmacy in Palermo, and then passed to the shop of a pork butcher in the “Vucciria” market. Palermo, privatecollection (photo by Rosario Daidone; courtesy Gruppo Editoriale Kalós, Palermo).

of the 18 th century, the erudite Sicilian Antonino Mongitore(1743)wasstill abletoreferto:“ the Crocodiles that, despite being native to the Nile, have beenfoundon morethanoneoccasion in thePapireto ”. Itisstill saidthatoneofthesereptilesdied in F ig.13. — Artistic representation of an adult female of pheasant in a detail of the mosaic decoration of the basilica of Monreale, Palermo whenthechurchofSanProcopio collapsed Palermo. in theyear1726 (Quatriglio 2007). Theembalmed skin of the last of the Sicilian crocodiles is reputed to have been conserved in a private collection in Masseti2002band2003),isrecorded in Sicilysince Palermo (Daidone2006; Quatriglio 2007)(Fig.12). the13 th century.Infact,asfarasispresentlyknown, the exploration of Calathamet provided the oldest Sicilianbonesofthespecies,datingtothe13 th cen- ALLOCHTHONOUS GAME-FOWLS tury.Thearchaeozoologicaldatain factconfirm the theories regarding the first introduction of the Scantosteologicalremainsofadultpheasants, Pha- species on the island, which authors such as Amari sianus colchicus L.,1758, figure among the human (1937)andOrlando(1958)considermayhave waste products dating to the 11th and the 12 th cen- occurred followingthereturnofthefirst Crusades, turies of the settlement of Brucato in the vicinity oralternativelyhavebeeneffected bytheArabs of Termini Imerese, north-western Sicil, (Bossard (Amari 1937). Also according to Baldacci (1964), Beck1984)(Fig.13). However,accordingtoBresc Pratesi(1976),andPerco(1981) followingArrigoni (1980),thediffusion ofthisgalliformin12 th - Degli Oddi(1929),thespeciesmayhavebeen 15 th centurySicilycouldhavebeenlargelyrestricted introduced into the island — and then to the rest to north-east of the island. In fact, certain ancient of Italy and Europe — during the time of the Cru- literarydocuments attest tothediffusionofthe saders. Johnsgard (1988) is instead of the opinion species along the slopes of Etna and in Mascali, in that the historical diffusion of the species in Sicily the surroundings of , around 1185. was probably the result of early introductions by Moreover,theoccurrenceoftheblackfrancolin, theMoors andSaracens.AproposthisBaccetti Francolinus francolinus (L., 1766), another bird of (1992), partly following Baldacci (1964), observes continentalNearEasternorigin ( cf. Johnsgard1988; that in Italy and Spain, comprising the respective

18 ANTHROPOZOOLOGICA • 2009 • 44 (2) In the gardens of Norman Palermo, Sicily (twelfth century A.D.)

islands, over the course of the centuries numerous introductionsofthisbirdtook place, andithas beenpossibletodocumentforlongperiodsoftime thepresenceofvariouspopulationsofuncertain origin.Thediffusion oftheblackfrancolin,as observed byMaluquer&Travé(1961) andby Muntaner et al . (1983), coincides with surprising precisionwith thehistoricterritoryof dominion oftheCatalan-AragoneseConfederation,which comprised Sicily starting from 1282 and took in evenmoreeasterlyregionsduringthefollowing century( cf. Rodríguez-PicaveaMatilla2006),thus offering ample possibilities of contact between the variousareasoftheMediterranean.Duringthis period, blackfrancolinswerefrequentlythesubject of lively interest on the part of kings and nobles, possiblyduetotheirvalueasexcellentmeatand prized courtly game, as we can glean from a num- berofliteraryandlegaldocuments.Inorderto F ig.14. —Two of thelast specimens of black francolin, Fran- protect the fowl, severe legal provisions prohibited colinus francolinus (L., 1766) (the male is on the left), to have the hunting and poaching of the species. One of survived in Sicily,still preserved at the Doderlein Museum of Zoology of the of Palermo (photo by Maurizio Sarà; the oldest documents indicating the value of this courtesy Doderlein Museum of Zoologyofthe Universityof bird is a letter sent by the Spanish king Peter IV of Palermo). Aragon,from SicilytothegovernorofMallorca dated 26 May1368: Thisletterinformson the delivering to the latter island of several individuals regarded as a consequence of the combined effect of pheasants and francolins “ in order that they shall ofhuntingandlandreclamation (Amari1937; breedandmultiply ”(Maluquer&Travé1961). Pratesi 1976; Iapichino & Massa 1989). The fact However,evidenceoftheformeroccurrenceof nevertheless remainsthatthearchaeozoological francolins in the Balearics, is to date restricted to exploration ofCalathametattests thatthisandother a single mounted specimen without data, still pre- gamespecies,suchastheEuropeanorcommon served in themuseumatMahon (Menorca):no fallowdeer, Damadamadama (L.,1758),were furthermention oftheintroduction ofthisbird already present in 13 th century Sicily, where they- and no other trace of it are available (Bannerman survived uptothe19 th century(Sarà2005; &Bannerman1983). Theextinction ofthespecies cf. Burgio etal. 1998). Asfarasispresentlyknown, in Sicily must have taken place in the second half theexploration ofthelattermediaevalsitealso ofthe19 th century,morespecificallyin 1869,when provided theoldest recordfortheoccurrencein the last individual was killed in the surroundings SicilyoftheGuineafowl, Numida meleagris L., ofFalconara(Caltanissetta)(Doderlein 1873; Arri- 1766 (Sarà2005),probablyimported from the goni Degli Oddi 1929; Ghigi 1968; Massa 1976; Levant,asreferred byFrederickII in his Dearte Iapichino &Massa1989;LoValvo etal. 1993). venandicumavibus ( cf. Lamblard1975and2003). Twoofthelast specimensoffrancolinthatsurvived InthecentralMediterranean,theimportanceof in Sicilyarestillconserved attheDoderlein Museum Sicilyfortheproduction ofgame-fowlisconfirmed of Zoology of the University of Palermo (MZUP at least up to the end of the 15 th century, as indi- AV 662  ; MZUP AV 663  ) with an autograph cated, for example, in a letter from Michele Verino labelbyPietroDoderlein (Ragusa[], writtenpriortoMay1487( Descriptio villaecaianae… 2February1805-Palermo,25March1895)(Fig.14). Florence, Biblioteca Laurenziana,ms.Plut.90sup., Thisrecentextinction ofthespeciesin Sicilyis 28. fol. 39r-40r: Epistola ad Simonem Canisanium,

ANTHROPOZOOLOGICA • 2009 • 44 (2) 19 Masseti M.

foot of the Caucasus Mountains, where the river Phasis ( cf. Toynbee 1973),nowcalled Rion or Rioni had its source.

FALLOWDEER, RABBITS ANDCAMELS, WITHASHORT DIGRESSION ON GAZELLES

Ontheotherside oftheMediterraneanbasin,Arabs are also regarded as responsible for the temporary reintroduction oflargegameon theislandofCrete. For the record, it was previously believed that the common fallow deer survived on this island only uptotheRomanImperialandfirst Byzantine periods, as attested by the discoveries at the site of Eleftherna,nearRethymnon (Trantalidou1990; Nobis1993)andperhapsoftheByzantineage (6th-7thcentury)(see Wilkens1996). However, anotherfindingpostdatesthetimeoftheoccur- rence of the species to later periods. In 1980 the excavationsoftheearlymediaevalsettlementat Vori(Timbaki),in southernCrete, yielded one incomplete left antler of D. dama , from a pit dated to between the eighth and the 10 th century A.D. (Masseti1999). Thus,thisantler(totallength: 337 mm; brow tine: 154 mm; partial palm width: 69 mm) could document the occurrence of fallow deeron CreteevenintheperiodoftheArab domin- F ig.15. — Incomplete left antler of European or common fallow ion of the island (Masseti 1999), between 824 and deer, Damadamadama (L., 1758), from apit of the medieval settlement at Vori (Crete, Greece), dated to the time of the Arab 961 A.D. ( cf. Vallianos 1989) (Fig. 15). It cannot dominion of the island between the eighth and the tenth century beexcluded thatthisimportation involved animals A.D. (from Masseti 1999). originating from Anatolia, which is considered as the source of the majority of the fallow deer popu- lations founded by humans since Neolithic times qua Cajani rures laudes descrivit ). This document, (Masseti et al . 2008). Also in Sicily, as far as is pres- cited byTargioni Tozzetti(1773),recordstheimpor- entlyknown,thefirst certain evidenceforthe tation by Lorenzo dei Medici, for his model farm modernoccurrenceofthisdeerisverylate, starting in the Cascine of Poggio a Caiano, in the vicinity from theArab-Normanperiod(10 th -12 th century) ofFlorence, of“ phasidesAves…usqueexSicilia ” (Burgio et al. 1998). Other introductions of exotic [ birds from Phasis […] actually from Sicily ]. Effec- zoologicalspeciesappeartohaveoccurred on Crete tively phasianus or fasianus [ pheasant ]wasthename in thecourseoftheMiddleAges.Belon (1555), used byLatin scholars ofthestandingofColumella for example, described a bird from the latter island ( De Re Rustica, VIII: 8, 10) , Pliny the Elder ( Nat- whichfits thedescription ofablackfrancolin uralisHistoria :X,67 [132]) , Statius( Silvae ,I:6,77) ( cf. Handrinos & Akriotis 1997). and Martial ( Epigrams , III: 58, 16) to indicate the One of the most common sources of human food birdsoriginatingfrom easternAsiaMinor,from in mediaevalSicilywastherabbit, Oryctolagus the region of Colchis (modern-day Georgia) at the cuniculus (L., 1758). Archaeological research, car-

20 ANTHROPOZOOLOGICA • 2009 • 44 (2) In the gardens of Norman Palermo, Sicily (twelfth century A.D.)

ried outforexamplein thesiteofBrucato(Termini 3 rd -2 nd centuryA.D.,sinceremainsofrabbits have Imerese, Palermo)hasrevealed thatrabbits accounted beenprovided bythearchaeologicalexploration of for40.23%ofthefaunahunted bymanduring theislandsofNisidaandCapri,in theGulfofNaples, the13 th andthe14 th centuries(Bresc1980; andZembrain (Barrett-Hamilton 1912; Delort 1987). The abundance of the osteological Vigne1988;Albarella1992; Flux &Fullagar1992; findswouldappeartoconfirmthefrequencyof Flux 1994;Callou2003; Kaetzke etal .2003). their consumption (Beck-Bossard 1981; Bossard- Recent archaeozoological evidence, however, sug- Beck1980and1984;BossardBeck&Maccari- gests anearlierimportation ofthelagomorph, Poisson 1984). Thankstotheincomefrom the comprised betweenthe1 st centuryB.C.andthe Venatio cuniculorum ,diverseaccounts ofwhich 1 st century A.D., in the case, for example, of the have been preserved, we can confirm that the rab- sanctuary of Juno at Tas Silg on Malta (Masseti & bits also abounded in many other places in Sicily. De Marinis 2008). However, in view of the pos- Bones of rabbits have been reported, for example, sibly excessive antiquity of this latter datum, and from themediaevalSiciliansitesofSegesta(Di its chronological isolation, it cannot be excluded Martino 1997),Palermo (11th -14 th century) thattheanimalsdugdownfrom upperstratato (Sarà1997),Entella(first halfof13 th century) thelevelwheretheirremainswerediscovered.Rab- (Bedini 1999),andCalalthamet(13 th century) bits arepeculiartooffshoreislets,buttheywere (Sarà2005),butthedatacollected byBresc(1980) probably not imported onto the Eastern Mediter- triggered by an analysis of the literary documents raneanislandsbeforetheendoftheClassicalperiod availablefurthersupplementtheinformationon and/or the beginning of the Middle Ages (Kaetzke the diffusion of the species between the 12 th and etal .2003). Thisfactisfurtherunderscored bythe the15 th centuries,whilealsoshowingittohave lackoftoponymsreferringtorabbits in theEastern been much more extensive (Fig. 16). The mediae- Mediterranean basin. One of the first indications valoccurrenceofrabbits hasalsobeendocu- of the occurrence of the leporid on the islets of the mented from the islands of Lampedusa and Malta lattergeographicareaisfoundin theVenetian Book ( cf. Masseti&Zava2002b).InBrucatotherabbits of Bans , of the 14 th century, where the small islet appear to have been hunted (Bossard-Beck 1984), ofKouphonísi,offshoresouthernCrete, isdescribed butwedonotknowwhether,moregenerally,these asaprobablerabbit-warren(Rackham& were wild or already domesticated animals. In any Moody1996). Amongtheotherelements support- casetherabbitisundoubtedlyaspeciesthatwas ing the theory of a recent historical introduction introduced into Sicily, since it is completely extra- of the rabbit into the Eastern Mediterranean ter- neous to the post-glacial faunistic horizons of the ritories, we can consider the fact that Turkish peo- island( cf. Flux 1994;Masseti&DeMarinis2008). ple still refer to the species as the ada tavscan [ hare Thisspeciesisin factregarded asaHoloceneendemic of the islands ] (Masseti & De Marinis 2008). oftheIberianpeninsula(Rogers etal .1994; A domestic artiodactyl is also documented among Callou2003; Kaetzke etal .2003; cf. García& thespeciesexploited bytheMuslimsoftheIberian Bellido1967). Its artificialspreadresulted from peninsula:thedromedary, Camelusdromedaries L., exchangesbetweenhumansocietiesfrom prehistory 1758.However,thenumberofremainsofthis up to the Middle Ages (Callou 2004).The earliest camelid that have so far been registered from the recorded introductionsofrabbits outoftheirhome- Islamicperiodisscanty.Theseconsist essentially land date back to the second half of the 2 nd mil- of those yielded by the excavations of the cathedral lenniumB.C.(1.400-1.300 B.C.),whenthis ofGranada(Riquelme1992; Morales-Muñiz lagomorphwasapparentlyimported ontoMenorca, etal. 1995),Espino (Granada)andSanMiguel in theBalearicarchipelago,byancientsettlers from (Granada) (Morales-Muñiz et al. 1995), as well as the Iberian peninsula (Sanders & Reumer 1984). Alarcos(CiudadReal)andSanLuis(Seville) As far as is presently known, in the central Medi- (Moreno-Garcia etal .2007). InArab andNorman terraneanregion thefirst evidencefortheintroduc- Sicilythediffusion ofthedromedaryhasnotto tion ofthespeciesdatestonoearlierthanthe datebeenattested bythediscoveryofany

ANTHROPOZOOLOGICA • 2009 • 44 (2) 21 Masseti M.

F ig.16. —Map showing the main sites for rabbit hunting in mediaeval Sicily (data from Bresc 1980; BossardBeck 1984; Fragapane 1993; Bedini 1999; Sarà 1997 and 2005; Masseti & Zava 2002b). osteologicalremains,although 11th centuryliterary in 1154,wrotethegeographictreatisebetterknown sourcesrefertotheutilisation ofthecamelid( cf. De as the Book of Roger for the Norman king Roger II, Grossi Mazzorin 2006). observed that several of these featured a very inter- Regardingthecircum-Sicilianislands,itisinterest- estingfauna.Marettimo,in theEgadesarchipelago, ing to note that Idrisi, the Arab geographer who, forexample, wasinhabited bywildgoats andgazelles

22 ANTHROPOZOOLOGICA • 2009 • 44 (2) In the gardens of Norman Palermo, Sicily (twelfth century A.D.)

( cf. Amari & Schapparelli 1883; Rizzitano 1994). cies ( cf. Ciarallo 2004). In fact, at the top of the On Malta, not far distant, gazelles were let loose Berneillumination isthelegend: viridariūgenoard . in largeprivategroundsforhuntingpurposesin Severalauthors,suchasCaselli (1994)andLorenzi mediaevaltimes(Lanfranco1969),ason thenearby (2006), still regard the Genoard as a large park for isletofComino,whereasetofbonesfrom agazelle hunting located immediately outside the walls of ofundetermined agehasbeenuncovered from Palermo.But,in theillumination ofPietrodaEboli strata of soil and loose rocks (Boffa 1966). Several itisclearlyrepresented aspart oftheurbancontext, centurieslater,theaforementioned Abela(1647) occupying as already noted roughly the same area alsodescribed abayofMaltaas:“RamlatalGhoslien , astheothercitydistricts andconstitutinga Arenale delle Gazelle ” [ strand of the gazelles ]. Liter- continuation of the Halqah palatine complex. The ary references document the importation of these latter was the upper part of Muslim and Norman artiodactyls also on other Mediterranean islands, Palermo,enclosed within awall thatisolated itfrom suchasCyprus,again in mediaevaltimes therest ofthe Cassero (keep) oftheancientcity. (Flourentzos 1977), and Mallorca, in the Balearic The walls, clearly visible in the miniature, appear islands,betweenthe12 th andthe15 th centuries to make specific reference to the enclosed nature (LlabrèsRamis&VallespirSoler1983). Beyond ofthe Genoard ,theirrigated gardenthat:“… already the peculiar use of islands, since antiquity, as natu- represents the apex, the citadel girdled by walls which ral reservoirs of fresh meat ( cf. Masseti 1998), in must bedefendedfrom theattacksofherdsofmenand thepast centuriestheEuropeannobilityoften beasts, the verdant and luxuriant garden, set against regarded thesesameterritories,especiallythose the yellow of the vast reaches of the landed estates.” located near the mainland coasts, simply as game (Lupo 1990). The Genoard could well have been a preserves (Masseti & Zava 2002a). The importa- viridarium annexed to the royal palace of Palermo, tion ofgazellesintoSicilymayhavecontinued, functionallyconnected withthesystemofsuburban possibly without interruption, up to the 19 th cen- huntingparks.Inviewofthezoologicalspecies turywhenseveraloftheseungulateswerecomprised shown within this enclosure, it could have been a amongthegameoftheparkofthePalazzod’Orleans breedingarea.Effectively,the“earthlyparadise” in Palermo ( cf. DiMatteo2003). Imagesofgazelles must havehoused aspecialfauna,selected notonly are to be found in the mosaics of the ceiling of the foraestheticreasons,asin thecaseoftheparakeets, Sala di Re Ruggero , in the Norman Palace of Pal- but also for hunting purposes, among which fal- ermo.Thesemosaicshavebeendated totheSwabian conry was — as we have seen — foremost. Here, period(13 th century)(Bottari1966; Malig- theworldofthehuntwasnotrestricted tothe naggi 1991), considered to be later than those of experimentation of techniques for rearing birds of the walls of the same room which can instead be preybut,asalsonoted bySalvarani (1999),was referred to the time of William I, that possibly is also a lavish display of sophistication, a flaunting between1154 and1159( cf. DiPietro1954; of exotic and rare prey constrained to live in the Toesca 1955). Todate, however,no bonefragments “garden-paradise”andanostentation ofskillsin of Gazella sp. havebeenprovided bytheexcavation archery.Then,tocapitall,camethedisplayof of any of the mediaeval sites of Sicily. wondroushuntingfelidswhoseformidableleaps in ambush made them outshine even the best of hounds (Masseti 2009a). THE “EARTHLYPARADISE” ASA VIRIDARIUM THESICULO-ENGLISHNORMAN Toreturn toour12 th centuryminiature , theimage CONNECTION.CONCLUDING REMARKS of the Genoard proposed by the Liber ad honorem Augusti could be considered as a green space of the The of Sicily inherited structures of the viridarium type: a site devoted to the cultivation viridaria andhuntingparktypefrom previous inter alia of ornamental plants and medicinal spe- cultures.Theirconquest ofSicily,after1060,brought

ANTHROPOZOOLOGICA • 2009 • 44 (2) 23 Masseti M.

themintocontactwiththeclassicalandIslamic in the price lists of the Catania butchers, and also traditions of emparking and the keeping of beasts amongthearchaeozoologicalfindsofBrucato (Rowley1983; Rackham1986):traditionsthat (Bossard-Beck 1984; Burgio et al . 1998), Entella theywerelatertotransmittotherest oftheWestern (Bedini 1999),Segesta(DiMartino 1997),and World. Fiumedinisi(Villari1988). Themost abundant The Normans of Sicily gradually began to replace ruminant was, however, the above-mentioned fal- the areas spatially delimited by architectural struc- low deer (Bossard-Beck 1984; Di Martino 1997; tures,theso-called “paradises”ofIslamicinspiration, Burgio etal .1998;Bedini 1999;Sarà2005; through the creation of “parks”, much larger areas Lupo 2006-2007), the subject of numerous royal in which hunting was performed as an aristocratic orders, and also marketed in Palermo, followed by prerogative(Salvarani 1999). Theyalsodevoted theroedeer, Capreoluscapreolus (L.,1758),present particularattention tothecontrol andmanagement on themarkets ofbothPalermo andCatania of the woods and forests of Sicily and to the game (Bresc1980). Onetooth(P 4 )ofabrownbear, Ursus whichfoundrefugeandnourishmentwithin them. arctos L.,1758, hasalsobeenfoundamongthe They introduced the regime of the foresta, which faunisticremainsprovided bytheexcavation ofthe indicated the incultum strictlybelongingtothe mediaevalcastleatFiumedinisi(Villari1988). One demense, governed in line with the practice of the of the most coveted prey in this type of hunting at EnglishNormansbyfeudalreserverights controlled the Norman court must have been the wild boar, bytheroyalofficials,the forestarii (Willemsen1987; Susscrofa L.,1758, and/ortheferalpig,atleast cf. TrombettiBudriesi2000). Bresc(1980)has judgingfrom theabundantfindsofosteological traced a fascinating map of what must have been fragments andteethofthespeciesdiscovered, thedistribution ofthistypeofinfrastructurein the forexample, atthepalaceofSteriinPalermo Sicilianterritorybetweenthe12 th andthe15 th cen- (Falsone1974;Lupo2006-2007),oratBrucato turies; the same author inserts within the progres- itself(Bossard-Beck1984). Moreover,weshould siveprocess ofNormantransformation ofthe not overlook the fact that, at the mediaeval courts, previous Arab agricultural and forestry policies in hunting was not only an enjoyable pastime and a Sicily the introduction of the regime of the forest way of training for war, but also a mode of flaunt- asahuntingreservestrictlysupervised bythemon- ingone’ssocialprestigethrough theuncommon archandbythefeudalnobles.Moreover,themoun- privilegeofdisposingofraregame.Moreover, tainous ridge overlooking the Tyrrhenian Sea and variousstudieshaveshownthatthepercentage theIoniancoast betweenMessinaandSyracusewas represented bywildanimalsin thevictuallingof alsocloaked in anextensiveseriesofwoodsand themediaevalcourtswasactuallyquitemodest, parks,elected bytheNormansas loca congruavena- whilebred livestockplayed amuchmoreimportant tionibusetsolacis (literally, areassuitedtohunting role( cf. Bresc1980;Sosson 1980;Niedermann 1995; and leisure ) and a location for castles (Bresc 1980; Fiorillo 2005). cf. Tramontana1999; cf. Galloni 2000). FrederickII TheNormansruled Sicilyforoverahundred years. devoted particularattention tothemanagementof By the late 11th century, they were active not only the forested stretches of the island, within which on thelargeMediterraneanislandbutalsoinsouth- the exclusive hunting rights belonged to the sover- ernItaly,England, northernEurope, andtheLevant eign, a regime which was most likely introduced ( cf . Sykes 2007). Throughout the twelfthcentury, by the first Norman princes ( cf. Bresc 1980). The linksbetweenEnglandandSicily became increas- gamemust havebeenparticularlyabundant; in the ingly close, resulting in considerable political and forest, and often also in the solacia , big game hunt- culturalexchange(Cassady1986; Loud2003). This ingwasperformed.Varioushistoricdocuments, provided ampleopportunityfortheexchangeof includingseveralroyalordinances,togetherwith ideas and goods, such as the spread of Arab archi- the archaeological finds, confirm the variety of the tecturalinfluencefrom the11th centuryon,as large game. This consisted mainly of cervids. Red illustrated in theNormantowerofCanterbury deer, Cervus elaphus L., 1758, of Etna are featured (1070), the atrium or arcades of the Galilee chapel

24 ANTHROPOZOOLOGICA • 2009 • 44 (2) In the gardens of Norman Palermo, Sicily (twelfth century A.D.)

in DurhamCathedral,andArab overtonesin other forEnglishcommon law(Makdisi1999). There Britishbuildingsbetweenthe11th andthe12 th cen- wasaparticularperiodofincreased diplomatic tury ( cf. Ragghianti 1968). contactbetweentheNormansofSicilyand TheoccurrenceofSicilianartefacts in northern England, for a generation or so after 1160, culmi- European contexts in this period is not as surpris- nating in the visit of Richard I to the island during ing as it might seem, being evidence of a fairly well theThirdCrusade (Loud2003). Lateron,these documented trade with foreign countries. In this contacts were probably further strengthened with regard, wecanmention the oliphant from theSaint themarriageofFrederickII tothesisterofHenryIII Arnoul abbey of Metz, still preserved in the collec- of England in 1235. tions of the National Museum of the Middle Ages ThisculturalexchangebetweentheSicilianand (Musée national du Moyen Âge) in Paris. Consist- theEnglishNormansisalsodemonstrated by ingofhollowed elephants tusks,oliphants had Henry I’s park at Woodstock, which is thought to multiple functions in the Middle Age. Some were havebeenbased on Sicilianmodels.According used as musical instruments and drinking horns, to Rowley (1983), it is clear from 13 th century and while others contained relics, which explains why later documents that this park had a royal palace a number of them were conserved in church treas- and gardens, some of which, in the Moorish style, uries (Dectot 2003). The Metz specimen is char- used water as a principal design element. The leg- acteristic of Sicilian workshops of the last third of endarymaze, Rosamund’sBower,created by the 11th century, whose art was distinctly marked HenryII,grandson ofHenryI,neartheWoodstock byFatimidinfluences(Dectot2003). Another palace, is marked today by a fountain which was fragmentofoliphant,on displayin themuseum known as “Everswell”, and is probably the oldest ofCluny,butoriginallydestined toaGerman designed waterfeaturein Britain (Hopwood2004). church(Hatot&Broucke2008),canagain be Ithasbeensuggested thattheextensivechain of referred to the production of a workshop in south- hunting parks and villas ( solacia ), with their artifi- ern Italy. The importation of exotic materials and/ cial pools and fountains, created by the Norman or of the durable parts of allochthonous animals, kings outside the western walls of Palermo was the suchaselephanttusks,wasmerelythecontinuation inspiration forRosamund’sBower,possiblythe ofapracticewhichhadbeengoingon forcenturies earliest exampleofaestheticlandscapingin England — if not for millennia — whenever political and (Rowley1999). ThepalaceofZisa,oneofthemost economicalconditionswerefavourable.Thistradi- beautifulruralpavilionscomprised within the“ideal tion had its oldest roots in the trade that had been countryside” created by the Norman kings around plied betweenNorthAfrica,theMediterranean Palermo,hasacentralcourt across whichwater andtherest ofEuropesinceveryancienttimes from a springranthrough aseriesofbasinssetinto ( cf. Masseti2002b). the ground. According to Rowley (1983), this was It is amply established that, under the Normans, anorientalfeaturewhichtheNormanshadapprised Sicily became a focal point for the transmission of from the Arabs, and it recurs in the Alhambra pal- IslamiccontributionstomedievalEurope, amodel acein Muslim Spain.InSicilythere wasacontinu- andanexamplewhichwasuniversallyadmired itywhich,from thetimeofatradition already (Aubé 2006). Although less important than Spain, codified duringtheRomanperiod, alsoaffected theislandnevertheless played akeyrolein the Muslim and Norman constructions. According to transmission ofknowledgetoEurope(Lewis1993). Leone etal. (2004),thestructuralcomplexofbuild- AftertheNormansconquered theemirateofSicily ingsandisolated pavilions,gardens,poolsand andinherited its Islamiclegaladministration,Nor- artificial streams, all in the same area, harks back manlawcametobesignificantlyinfluenced by to the tradition originating in the “pavilion type” Islamiclawandjurisprudence.TheNormansin urbanpalacesin Romein the3 rd centuryA.D., theirturnintroducedanumberofNormanand that emerged once again in the 12 th century, albeit Islamiclegalconcepts toEnglandaftertheNorman withoriginalformulae, attheNormancourt of Conquest,andmayevenhavelaidthefoundations Sicily.

ANTHROPOZOOLOGICA • 2009 • 44 (2) 25 Masseti M.

AccordingtothechroniclerWilliamofMalmesbury Rowley (1983, 1999), a conceivable source could (c. 1080/1095-c. 1143), the menagerie of Henry I have been via the Sicilian connection. It is difficult at Woodstock was stocked with a wide variety of insteadtosubstantiatetheclaim ofaNorman exoticanimalsincludinglions, leopards ,camels, introduction of other animals, such as the rabbit. and lynxes, which the Norman king received from In fact, in the light of the available archaeozoolog- foreignrulers andfriends(Plot1705;Parnell 1999; icalevidence, itseemsmost probablethatthis Bartlett 2000). Itisimportanttonotethat—apart introduction datestothelatetwelfth-century from the lynxes, presuming that is that they were ( cf. Sykes 2007). However, a recent review of the not actually caracals — all these species could have evidenceconcluded thatfallowdeerin Britain originated from and/or the Levant. descendfrom animalsintroduced duringtheNorman Itisalsosaidthatthemenageriemayhaveincluded period (Sykes 2004 and 2007; Sykes et al . 2006). acrested porcupine(Plot1705;Rybot1972; The late 11th -early 12 th century would have been Ververs 1976; Landsberg 1998), which could have an appropriate time for the Normans of England been sent to Henry I by William of Montepellier tohaveacquired fallowdeerfrom theirSicilian (Hahn2003). But,in thiscasetooitseemsvery colleagues(Rackham1986; Sykes2007). Bythe likelythatitcouldagain havebeenprocured through 13 th centurythefashion forthiscervidhad theofficesoftheNormansofSicily,originating alreadyspreadtoWales,ScotlandandIreland either from the latter island or from North Africa. (Rackham1986).Therabbittoo appeared in England In fact, the distribution range of the crested por- atthebeginningofthe12 th century( cf. Rack- cupinestill extendsthrough Northernandsub- ham 1986). Its occurrence is documented by the Saharan Africa, but never any European countries discovery of bones in 12 th century levels at Exeter exceptforItaly,theislandofElba andSicily (Maltby1979),andsincethe13 th centuryin Rayleigh (Cabrera 1932; Corbet & Jones 1965; Nietham- Castle(Essex)(Hinton 1912-1913),andLaunceston mer1982; Lovari1993; DeMarinis etal .1996; Castle (Cornwall) (Albarella & Davis 1996). Vari- Amori & Angelici 1999). On the latter island and ousliteraryreferencesconfirmthesubsequentspread in the rest of Italy, the current presence of the spe- ofthelagomorph,in thecourseofthe13 th century cies could have an anthropochorous origin, deriv- ( cf. Veale1957). Pheasants werecertainlyin ing from importations made in even fairly recent Englandbythemid12 th centuryormayhave historical times (Masseti 2008). arrived in the late 11th , and the Normans possibly The possession and display of exotic animals was obtained themviaSicily(Rackham1986). Itseems considered asignofgreatprestigeandpowerin the highlypossiblethatall thesegame-speciesweresent courtsofmediaevalEurope(Ortalli 1985; from the large Mediterranean island as part of the Giese2008). Thus,trade in exoticanimalswas scheme of gift-exchange between rulers, and they commonplaceamongst rulers:evenintheearly mayevenhaveformed part ofHenryI’smenagerie. 9 th centuryCharlemagnewassentanelephant, It cannot be excluded that the conceptual founda- called Abul’Abbas,bytheAbbasidcaliph tionsofthetheoryof“natureconservation”,which (Hodges2000). ThroughoutEurope, andeven over recent centuries have been particularly devel- beyond, a considerable amount of evidence exists oped bytheAnglo-Saxon cultureanddisseminated to show that since mediaeval times wild game was totherest oftheworld,wereembedded in previous regularlytransferred from onehabitatintoanother, foreigntraditions,inherited from farafield, pos- normally for hunting purposes and to create game siblyfrom theearlyArabianculturethathadin parks( cf. Lehmann 1969;Chapman&Chap- turn imbibed them from Late Antiquity. Even in man1975;Macgregor1992; Masseti1996and thedaysofHenryIofEngland, thekeepingof 1999; Wiles et al. 1999). Moreover, regarding the exotic animals by royalty or nobility was hardly a introduction into Britain of certain zoological spe- newidea,buthadits roots in classicalantiquity, cies,suchasthefallowdeerandthepheasant, which according to Hahn (2003), endowed it not according to several scholars, including Chapman merely with respectability, but also with a certain & Chapman (1975, 1997), Rackham (1997), and continental jenesaisquoi,andsomethingofthe

26 ANTHROPOZOOLOGICA • 2009 • 44 (2) In the gardens of Norman Palermo, Sicily (twelfth century A.D.)

kudos oftheancients.Thus,in thecourseofthe AlbarellaU.&DavisS.J.M.1996.—Mammals 12 th century,aSicilianculturalconnection with andbirdsfrom Launceston Castle, Cornwall: decline in status and the rise of agriculture. Circaea. the Normans of Britain, possibly as we have sug- TheJournaloftheAssociation forEnvironmental gested borrowed from traditionsderivingfrom late Archaeology 12(1): 1-56. antiquity,mayindeed havebeenoneoftheoriginal ÁlvarezMartínezJ.M.,LavegneH.&Perales sourcesofthebynowglobalstoryofnature PiqueresR. 2001. — Mosaico Romano del mediter- raneo .MuseoArqueológicoNacional,Madrid; conservation,playingafundamentalroleofcultural Unión Latina, Paris. filterbetweentheLateAntiqueandtheModern A.M. 1917. — Sulla caccia in Malta nel passato. Archi- world. vium Melitense 3(1): 116-122. AmariG.1937.—Avifaunasicilianascomparsa.Il francolino. Diana 24: 1082-1084. AmariM.1935.— Storiadeimusulmani diSicilia . Acknowledgements Vol. 2. Romeo Prampolini Editore, Catania. In the course of this project I have been fortunate AmariM.1939.— Storiadeimusulmani diSicilia . to have the help of many friends and colleagues. Vol. 3. Romeo Prampolini Editore, Catania. I am particularly grateful to Elena Bedini, Anthro- AmariM.&Schapparelli C.1883.— L’Italianel “LibrodiRuggero”. Compilatoda Edrisi .Tipografia pozoologica, Livorno; Rosario Daidone, Palermo; Salviucci, Roma. Carolina Di Patti, Museo Geologico “G.G. Gem- AmoriG. & AngeliciF.M. 1999. — Hystrix cristata mellaro”,DipartimentodiGeologiaeGeodesia Linnaeus,1758, in Mitchell-JonesA.J.,AmoriG., dell’UniversitàdiPalermo;RossellaGiglio,Servizio BogdanowiczW.,KryštufekB.,Reijnders P.J.H., SpitzenbergerF.,StubbeM.,ThissenJ.B.M. per i Beni Archeologici della Soprintendenza per i Vorhalík V. & ZimaJ. (eds), The atlas of European Beni Culturali ed Ambientali diTrapani;Caro- mammals . Academic Press, London: 308-309. line Grigson, Institute of Archaeology, University Arnold N. &OvendenD. 2004. — A field guide to College, London;GrahamA.Loud, School ofHis- theReptilesandAmphibiansofBritain andEurope . tory, University of Leeds; Arturo Morales, Depar- Collins, London. Arrigoni Degli OddiE.1929.—Ornitologiaita- tamentode Biologıa,FacultaddeCiencias, liana. Ulrico Hoepli, Milano. Universidad Autonoma de Madrid, Madrid; Juan AschenbornC.1990.— Keepingandbreedingparrots. Manuel Pleguezuelos, Departamento de Biologia T.F.H.Publications,Inc.,NeptuneCity(NewJersey). Animal y Ecologia, Facultad de Ciencias, Univer- Aubé P. 2006. — Les empires normands d’Orient . Edi- tions Perrin, Paris. sidad de Granada; Maurizio Sarà, Department of BaccettiN.1992.—Francolino, in BrichettiA., Animal Biology of the University of Palermo; Gio- BaccettiN.&DeFranceschiP.(eds), Fauna van Battista Scaduto, Fondazione Federico II, Pal- d’Italia.AvesI.Gavidae-Phasianidae .Edizioni ermo;JoanMayol Serra,Governde lesIllesBalears; Calderini, Bologna: 792-799. BakigR.A.&Khiyami Amihorani H.1992.— Naomi J. Sykes, Department of Archaeology, Uni- Birds of Jordan . Arslan Ramadan Bakig, Amman. versity of Nottingham; Ch. Vallianos, Museum of BaldacciU. 1964. — Il francolino, sua reintroduzione Cretan Ethnology, Vori (Crete); and Bruno Zava, in Europa . Nistri-Lischi, Pisa. Wilderness-Studi ambientali, Palermo. Bannerman D.A. &BannermanW.M. 1983. — The birdsoftheBalearics .Croom Helm,London; Camberra. Barrett-Hamilton G.E.,1912.— AHistoryofBri- REFERENCES tish Mammals . Vol. 2. Gurney & Jackson, London. Bartlett R. 2000. — England under the Norman and Angevin Kings 1075-1225 . Clarendon Press, Oxford. AbelaG.F. 1647. — Della Descrittione di Malta Isola Beck-BossardC.1981. —L’alimentazionein un nel Mare Siciliano, con le sue antichità, ed altre noti- villaggio siciliano delXIVsecolo,sullascortadelle zie.LibroII.DeVariNomi dell’Isolaede’suiprimi fontiarcheologiche. Archeologiamedievale 8: 311-319. Abitatori :25,Malta.Ms.n.cat.664.e.1.British Bedini E. 1999. — I reperti faunistici del palazzo for- Library, London. tificatomedievale(SAS1/2), in “ Entella.Relazioni AlbarellaU. 1992. — La fauna, in ArthurP. (ed.), preliminaridellecampagnediscavo1992,1995, L’Isolaeil Santo.LachiesadiSanCostanzoalla 1997edellericognizioni del1998 ”. Annali della MarinaGrandediCapri,scavi1990 .Editoriale Scuola Normale Superiore di Pisa, Classe di Lettere e Scientifica, Napoli: 53-58. Filosofia 4: 15-35.

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Submitted on 6 June 2008; accepted on 27 April 2009.

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