For the Degree of Denton, Texas May, 1980

REPRESENTATIONALISM IN WOVEN TAPESTRY TECHNIQUE PROBLEM IN LIEU OF THESIS Presented to the Graduate Council of the North Texas State University in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements For the Degree of MASTER OF FINE ARTS By Lynne Dees, B.F.A. Denton, Texas May, 1980 TABLE OF CONTENTS Page LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS . iv Chapter I. INTRODUCTION . 1 Problem Origin of Study Methodology History of Representational Tapestry Influences Upon My Work II. THE REPRESENTATIONAL TAPESTRIES . 18 Choosing the Design Preparing to Weave Execution of the Tapestry Tapestry Finishing, Displaying, and Evaluation III. CONCLUSIONS . 56 APPENDIX . 58 BIBLIOGRAPHY . 62 SLIDES .............................. ............. 63 iii LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS Plate Page I. Slits.. 28 II. Single Interlocking Technique . 30 III. Method of Connecting Weft Threads . 31 IV. "Lazy Lines" . 33 V. Use of Slits in Areas of Connected Wefts . .34 VI. Splicing of Wefts . .35 VII. Location of Weft Splices . 37 VIII. Weft Bubbling . 40 IX. Meeting Places of Multiple Wefts in a Solid Color Area . 42 X. The Securing of Weft Ends . 43 XI. The Maori Edge . 50 XII. The Mounting Board .. 0 . 0.0.0 . 52 iv CHAPTER I ORIGIN OF STUDY My interest in pictorial representationalism began when I started painting and drawing as a child, and my concern for working realistically continued and developed through my undergraduate years in college. I then applied this interest to three-dimensional fiber sculptures which represented realistic objects. Through these sculptures, I learned how to apply my knowledge of color mixing and application as a painter to the medium of fiber to achieve a representational end product. In January, 1978, I became interested in using and mixing yarns in such a way as to create representational woven tapestries. Problem In this investigation I explored the working processes used in a representational approach to contemporary woven tapestries. A brief discussion of the origins of representational woven tapestries with concentration upon Twentieth Century textiles was followed by an analysis of the influences upon my work by artists and stylistic trends. I then discussed the process of my work in four steps and answered the following questions: 1. In choosing subject matter for a tapestry, what 1 2 initially attracted me to a particular design? How were my choices of the subject matter for each weaving influenced by my experience as a realistic painter and by my growing knowledge and increasing awareness of the possibil- ities inherent in fiber? How did I arrive at a goal or initial concept for each tapestry? 2. What steps were taken in the planning and prepa- ration for weaving a representational tapestry? Were alterations to the original design necessary for more ease in weaving and for a more successful end product, and if so, what? What materials could be used to produce the most satis- factory results? 3. What traditional weaving techniques were success- fully applied to the production of a representational tapestry? Did difficulties or changes arise in the actual weaving process which were non-existent in the planning stage? If mistakes were made, how could they be corrected? 4. What was the most secure and aesthetically pleasing method of finishing a tapestry? What was the best method to hang and display a tapestry? How could the success or failure of each piece be evaluated? 3 Methodology Notations made in my journal were the main source of information for the documentation of the entire weaving process. My sketchbooks, research notes, personal observations, and knowledge gathered from reading provided additional information. Eleven representational woven tapestries served as the final products of this investigation. 4 History of Representational Tapestry Tapestry is a weaving technique in which the horizontal weft threads interlace with and completely hide the vertical warp threads.1 Most tapestries depict pictoral scenes, so the weft threads are manipulated in such a way as to repre- sent various shapes. Due to the scarcity of remains of ancient tapestries, most of our knowledge of the origins of tapestry weaving has come from written documents and from paintings, sculptures, and prints depicting the art of weaving in progress. One literary reference to tapestry-making is in the story of Pe- nelope, who was waiting for Ulysses to return from a voyage. Upon the completion of a tapestry she was weaving, Penelope was to select a husband. In order to ward off her many suit- ors, she unravelled at night this tapestry which she wove during the day.2 Some of the earliest fragments of the tapestry technique have been found in Egyptian royal tombs, including that of Tutankhamun. Early tapestry weaving often consisted of woven strips or small pieces which were used on the edges of clothing, or used for funerary purposes. This was also true of Babylonian and Greek tapestry work. The Romans were probably the first civilization to produce 'Technical terms are defined in the glossary. 2Madeleine Jarry, World Tapestry: From Its Origins to the Present (New York, 1968), p. 12. 5 tapestries for display in public buildings, a custom which is still in effect today. Coptic weaving of the Third through the Seventh Centu- ries A. D. exhibits numerous techniques that are used in modern-day tapestry work. These tapestries, which contained the shading technique called hatching, utilized a thinner linen thread for the warp with a thicker wool thread for the weft. Though primitive in craftsmanship and in stylistic maturity, Coptic tapestry influenced later tapestries of the Western world. Though the art of tapestry-making was practiced in numerous parts of the world, European tapestries dominated until well into the Twentieth Century. European tapestry began its era of importance around 1350-1400, and France became the leader in tapestry-making for the next six hundred years. Previously, tapestry weavings had been created for use in daily life as saddles, sacks, clothing, and as small decorative hangings with repeated motifs. Beginning about 1360, the weaving of tapestries depicting historical scenes began, and this tendency did not die out until the end of the Nineteenth Century. Tapestry of the Medieval and later periods had not only an aesthetic purpose but a functional purpose as well. Most tapestries were made for secular use to decorate and insulate the drafty palaces and villas. A few, small, odd-shaped tapestries were woven to fit into cor- ners and side aisles of churches which contained too many 6 large windows to permit the installation of mural-sized tapestries. Paris was the intellectual capital of the West during the Middle Ages, and tapestry-making flourished under the reigns of Charles V, his son Charles VI, and Philip the Bold. These rulers supported tapestry-making by raising the social status of weavers and by commissioning much work for their palaces. Tapestries became much sought-after items, due to their resistance to wear and tear during the repeated han- dling and moving of them by the nobility. Tapestries were a practical form of art for rulers who liked to take their possessions with them to their country palaces or off to war. Most Gothic tapestries depicted historical, literary, and religious themes. Popular subject matter included events like the Destruction of Troy, the adventures of King Arthur, The Annunciation, and heroes such as Hercules and Caesar. Most tapestries were woven in several panels depicting numerous scenes. The greatest weaving series of the Medieval era was the Angers Apocalypse, a huge seven-part tapestry displaying 105 scenes which was commissioned by the brother of Charles V. 3 Also a popular theme for paintings of the era, the Apocalypse was typically Gothic in style with its stilted, unrealistic, and flat figures which were set in lof- ty architectural surroundings. Medieval tapestry-makers 3 Jarry, p. 30. 7 limited themselves to between fifteen and twenty colors. From this palette, fifteen colors were used in the Apocalypse. Most Medieval tapestries were woven on the high warp loom and contained thirteen to fifteen warp ends per inch. Due to the lack of foot treadles, the high warp loom produced weavings more slowly; however, the end product was more accurate. The high warp weaver worked on the front side of the weaving and was able to view the entire work. The more expensive tapestries were worked on this type of loom, whereas the low warp looms wove the less important works. Low warp tapestries contained about ten ends per inch. These looms produced less accurate renditions of the cartoons, due to the fact that the tapestry must be woven from the back. The accuracy of the design and color could only be checked with a hand mirror. Large workshops produced most of the tapestry weavings of the Medieval and Renaissance eras. The first noteworthy workshop was at Arras. Wealthy noblemen patronized these high warp weavers, who supplied tapestries to the House of Burgundy. The Tournai workshops flourished in the late 1500's, when the first known tapestry-making regulatory ordi- nance was published. Tapestries from these workshops ex- hibited the typical Medieval style. Figures were shaded in a primitive manner, outlining was used, picture planes were quite crowded, and lettering was often used to clarify that 8 which was shown pictorally. Often the use of embroidery and painted areas enhanced these tapestries. During the Renaissance, painting became the major art form, and tapestry gradually became a subordinate art with its only purpose being to copy paintings. This copying later led tapestry-making to its downfall in the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries. However, during the Renaissance tapestry-making reached a high point socially and econom- ically. The industry became more regulated, and weavers began earning their pay according to their skill and gained status in society.

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