REPRESENTATIONALISM IN WOVEN TAPESTRY TECHNIQUE

PROBLEM IN LIEU OF THESIS

Presented to the Graduate Council of the

North Texas State University in Partial

Fulfillment of the Requirements

For the Degree of

MASTER OF FINE ARTS

By

Lynne Dees, B.F.A.

Denton, Texas

May, 1980 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS . . . iv

Chapter

I. INTRODUCTION ...... 1

Problem Origin of Study Methodology History of Representational Tapestry Influences Upon My Work

II. THE REPRESENTATIONAL TAPESTRIES ...... 18

Choosing the Design Preparing to Weave Execution of the Tapestry Tapestry Finishing, Displaying, and Evaluation

III. CONCLUSIONS ...... 56

APPENDIX ...... 58

BIBLIOGRAPHY ...... 62

SLIDES ...... 63

iii LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

Plate Page

I. Slits...... 28

II. Single Interlocking Technique ...... 30

III. Method of Connecting Weft Threads . . . . . 31

IV. "Lazy Lines" ...... 33

V. Use of Slits in Areas of Connected Wefts . .34

VI. Splicing of Wefts ...... 35

VII. Location of Weft Splices ...... 37

VIII. Weft Bubbling ...... 40

IX. Meeting Places of Multiple Wefts in a Solid Color Area ...... 42

X. The Securing of Weft Ends ...... 43

XI. The Maori Edge ...... 50

XII. The Mounting Board .. 0 . . . 0.0.0 . . . . . 52

iv CHAPTER I

ORIGIN OF STUDY

My interest in pictorial representationalism began when

I started painting and drawing as a child, and my concern for working realistically continued and developed through my undergraduate years in college. I then applied this interest to three-dimensional fiber sculptures which represented real- istic objects. Through these sculptures, I learned how to apply my knowledge of color mixing and application as a painter to the medium of fiber to achieve a representational end product. In January, 1978, I became interested in using and mixing yarns in such a way as to create representational woven tapestries.

Problem

In this investigation I explored the working processes used in a representational approach to contemporary woven tapestries. A brief discussion of the origins of represen- tational woven tapestries with concentration upon Twentieth

Century textiles was followed by an analysis of the influ- ences upon my work by artists and stylistic trends. I then discussed the process of my work in four steps and answered the following questions:

1. In choosing subject matter for a tapestry, what

1 2 initially attracted me to a particular design?

How were my choices of the subject matter for each weaving influenced by my experience as a realistic painter and by my growing knowledge and increasing awareness of the possibil- ities inherent in fiber?

How did I arrive at a goal or initial concept for each tap- estry?

2. What steps were taken in the planning and prepa- ration for weaving a representational tapestry?

Were alterations to the original design necessary for more ease in weaving and for a more successful end product, and if so, what?

What materials could be used to produce the most satis- factory results?

3. What traditional weaving techniques were success- fully applied to the production of a representational tapestry?

Did difficulties or changes arise in the actual weaving process which were non-existent in the planning stage?

If mistakes were made, how could they be corrected?

4. What was the most secure and aesthetically pleasing method of finishing a tapestry?

What was the best method to hang and display a tapestry?

How could the success or failure of each piece be evaluated? 3

Methodology

Notations made in my journal were the main source of information for the documentation of the entire weaving pro- cess. My sketchbooks, research notes, personal observations, and knowledge gathered from reading provided additional in- formation. Eleven representational woven tapestries served as the final products of this investigation. 4

History of Representational Tapestry

Tapestry is a weaving technique in which the horizontal weft threads interlace with and completely hide the vertical warp threads.1 Most tapestries depict pictoral scenes, so the weft threads are manipulated in such a way as to repre- sent various shapes.

Due to the scarcity of remains of ancient tapestries, most of our knowledge of the origins of tapestry weaving has come from written documents and from paintings, sculptures, and prints depicting the art of weaving in progress. One literary reference to tapestry-making is in the story of Pe- nelope, who was waiting for Ulysses to return from a voyage.

Upon the completion of a tapestry she was weaving, Penelope was to select a husband. In order to ward off her many suit- ors, she unravelled at night this tapestry which she wove during the day.2 Some of the earliest fragments of the tap- estry technique have been found in Egyptian royal tombs, including that of Tutankhamun. Early tapestry weaving often consisted of woven strips or small pieces which were used on the edges of clothing, or used for funerary purposes. This was also true of Babylonian and Greek tapestry work. The

Romans were probably the first civilization to produce

'Technical terms are defined in the glossary.

2Madeleine Jarry, World Tapestry: From Its Origins to the Present (New York, 1968), p. 12. 5 tapestries for display in public buildings, a custom which is still in effect today.

Coptic weaving of the Third through the Seventh Centu- ries A. D. exhibits numerous techniques that are used in modern-day tapestry work. These tapestries, which contained the shading technique called hatching, utilized a thinner linen thread for the warp with a thicker wool thread for the weft. Though primitive in craftsmanship and in stylistic maturity, Coptic tapestry influenced later tapestries of the

Western world.

Though the art of tapestry-making was practiced in nu- merous parts of the world, European tapestries dominated until well into the Twentieth Century. European tapestry began its era of importance around 1350-1400, and France be- came the leader in tapestry-making for the next six hundred years. Previously, tapestry weavings had been created for use in daily life as saddles, sacks, clothing, and as small decorative hangings with repeated motifs. Beginning about

1360, the weaving of tapestries depicting historical scenes began, and this tendency did not die out until the end of the Nineteenth Century. Tapestry of the Medieval and later periods had not only an aesthetic purpose but a functional purpose as well. Most tapestries were made for secular use to decorate and insulate the drafty palaces and villas. A few, small, odd-shaped tapestries were woven to fit into cor- ners and side aisles of churches which contained too many 6 large windows to permit the installation of mural-sized tap- estries.

Paris was the intellectual capital of the West during the Middle Ages, and tapestry-making flourished under the reigns of Charles V, his son Charles VI, and Philip the Bold.

These rulers supported tapestry-making by raising the social status of weavers and by commissioning much work for their palaces. Tapestries became much sought-after items, due to their resistance to wear and tear during the repeated han- dling and moving of them by the nobility. Tapestries were a practical form of art for rulers who liked to take their possessions with them to their country palaces or off to war.

Most Gothic tapestries depicted historical, literary, and religious themes. Popular subject matter included events like the Destruction of Troy, the adventures of King Arthur,

The Annunciation, and heroes such as Hercules and Caesar.

Most tapestries were woven in several panels depicting nu- merous scenes. The greatest weaving series of the Medieval era was the Angers Apocalypse, a huge seven-part tapestry displaying 105 scenes which was commissioned by the brother of Charles V. 3 Also a popular theme for paintings of the era, the Apocalypse was typically Gothic in style with its stilted, unrealistic, and flat figures which were set in lof- ty architectural surroundings. Medieval tapestry-makers

3 Jarry, p. 30. 7 limited themselves to between fifteen and twenty colors. From this palette, fifteen colors were used in the Apocalypse.

Most Medieval tapestries were woven on the high warp loom and contained thirteen to fifteen warp ends per inch.

Due to the lack of foot treadles, the high warp loom pro- duced weavings more slowly; however, the end product was more accurate. The high warp weaver worked on the front side of the weaving and was able to view the entire work.

The more expensive tapestries were worked on this type of loom, whereas the low warp looms wove the less important works. Low warp tapestries contained about ten ends per inch. These looms produced less accurate renditions of the cartoons, due to the fact that the tapestry must be woven from the back. The accuracy of the design and color could only be checked with a hand mirror.

Large workshops produced most of the tapestry weavings of the Medieval and Renaissance eras. The first noteworthy workshop was at Arras. Wealthy noblemen patronized these high warp weavers, who supplied tapestries to the House of

Burgundy. The Tournai workshops flourished in the late

1500's, when the first known tapestry-making regulatory ordi- nance was published. Tapestries from these workshops ex- hibited the typical Medieval style. Figures were shaded in a primitive manner, outlining was used, picture planes were quite crowded, and lettering was often used to clarify that 8 which was shown pictorally. Often the use of embroidery and painted areas enhanced these tapestries.

During the Renaissance, painting became the major art form, and tapestry gradually became a subordinate art with its only purpose being to copy paintings. This copying later led tapestry-making to its downfall in the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries. However, during the Renaissance tapestry-making reached a high point socially and econom- ically. The industry became more regulated, and weavers be- gan earning their pay according to their skill and gained status in society. Weavers of flesh and face earned more than weavers of foliage and background.4 Most tapestries depicted historical or literary scenes executed in the repre- sentational Renaissance style. The demand for tapestries grew at an incredible rate, and the workshops were so or- ganized that tapestries were produced efficiently and quickly. Edicts were passed to prevent plagiarism by weav- ers of other countries. Tapestry weavings from Paris were exported to nobility all over the world. Begainning about

1550, the demand for the Parisian tapestries grew so great that the technique deteriorated and originality was lost in the mass production. Despite some excellent works based on cartoons by Raphael and his chief pupil Giulio Romano, the majority of tapestries woven during the heyday of Renaissance

4 Jarry, p. 142. 9 weaving had already begun to lose some of the originality and vitality typical of the Medieval period.

Recognizing that tapestries were an important trade item and because he knew that tapestries were a popular art form, Francis I set up the first royal tapestry workshop, which was financed by the state. Though the primary purpose of the workshop was to produce tapestries for royalty, the weavers were allowed to produce weavings for private commis- sions. During the next two centuries, most tapestry workshops in Europe became state owned and operated.

The excellent organization of the tapestry. workshops in seventeenth century France was due to the interest of

Henri IV. He gave permission to two Belgian emigres,

Francois de La Planch and Marc de Comans, to settle near the

Seine River to set up a tapestry workshop. In this workshop, the exacting "Flemish style" of tapestry-making was produced on low warp looms. In 1662, Louis XIV bought the hotel of the Gobelin family and gave this name to all the tapestry workshops in Paris, including the Seine River organization.

Two hundred and fifty workers, not including apprentices, wove in the royal Gobelins factory, and they made works for the royal residences, including Louis XIV's palace at

Versailles. These successful workshops produced tapestries for only about twenty years until unrest and financial dif- ficulties led to the temporary shut-down of the Gobelins in 10

1694.5 The rivalry of two controlling ministers of the

Gobelins split the weavers into two opposing groups which fought over stylistic and philosophical trends. Weaving was an art for the very rich, and the royal treasuries had over- extended themselves to the point that the expensive art of tapestry could no longer be accommodated. Not only were tap- estries expensive to buy, but funds were required after their installation to pay for security, cleaning, and trans- portation. These factors contributed to the gradual decline of tapestry as a major art form during the next two hundred years.

Tapestry weaving was totally reduced to an art of imi- tation during the Eighteenth Century. During this era, due to architectural and interior decoration changes, tapestries became smaller and were meant to be viewed more closely in the salons in which they were installed. The works lost their monumental quality. The rules of tapestry-making were abandoned, and the weaver lost his freedom to add, subtract, or to alter details of the original design or cartoon to exe- cute better the tapestry. To imitate more precisely the nuances of Baroque painting, new evanescent dyes were de- veloped, and as many as 14,400 different shades of colors were in constant use.6 These dyes were neither colorfast

5 Joseph Jobe, editor, Great Tapestries: The Web of His- tory From the Twelfth to the Twentieth Century (Switzerland, 1965), p. 97.

6 Jobe, p. 103. 11 nor durable. Often fading began before the tapestry was com- pleted. The desire to imitate paintings so perfectly became so great that the weavers began twisting two threads of dif- ferent shades together to obtain a third shade to copy bet- ter a color in the painting. State-owned workshops like

Aubusson, Felletin, and Beauvais mass-produced tapestries depicting national scenes and the heroic deeds of Napolean during the French Revolution. Tapestries were in such great demand that preliminary paintings, called cartoons, were copied as many as ten or twelve times.7

During the late Nineteenth Century, tapestry workers and the directors of the manufacturies realized that the art of tapestry had lost its prestige, and measures were taken to restore its integrity and stature as a major art form. Be- cause the new dyes were fading and deteriorating, official committees demanded a return to the original, restricted palette of durable colors. Workshop weavers returned to the appropriate techniques and the traditional dye methods best suited to their medium. Despite these measures taken by large groups, the major reforms of the art of tapestry took place in the workshops of individuals who designed and exe- cuted their own work.

Englishman William Morris is generally credited with the first attempt at the revival of tapestry in Europe.

7 Jarry, p. 240. 12

Morris, who loved Medieval tapestry, abandoned perspective and restricted his palette to the original fifteen colors used in Medieval weavings. His work was decorative, and he made no attempt to copy paintings. Frenchman Jean Lurcat, who experimented continuously with tapestry throughout his life, wanted to reestablish the mural character of tapestry.

Lurcat desired to elevate the art of tapestry above that of merely imitating painting. Like Morris, he eliminated per- spective, modeling, the horizon line, and the decorative border from his works. Lurcat and Francois Tabard, the

Aubusson tapestry master, were the major figures in the re- vival of tapestry in the early Twentieth Century.

Lurcat believed that tapestry was meant to be viewed as a monumental art in a public building.8 Most Twentieth Cen- tury tapestries, whether woven by workshops or by individ- uals, have been sold to large companies who display them on large wall surfaces. Like Medieval and Renaissance tap- estries, modern works continue to serve as an art for the public. The nobility and the Church patronized tapestries in past centuries. Banks, oil companies, schools, luxury liners, office buildings, and churches are the major patrons of modern-day tapestry. Modern architecture with its bare walls, lack of ornamentation, and large open spaces has been one factor in the revitalization of tapestry-making.

8 Job6, p. 152. 13

During the first half of the Twentieth Century, most tapestry-makers copied designs made by contemporary artists such as Dufy, Matisse, Calder, and Picasso, who designed car- toons only as a sideline to their other work. During the

1960's and 1970's, however, the number of tapestries de- signed by the actual weaver of the work has increased. In this way, tapestry has become a more personal art.

The most innovative works in tapestry of the Twentieth

Century have been executed during the last two decades.

Weavers have returned to the art of tapestry as an end in it- self. The International Tapestry Biennales which originated in 1962 in Lausanne, Switzerland, have displayed works which exhibit the wide variety of approaches to the art of tapes- try. Contemporary tapestry-makers have incorporated many un- conventional fibers into their works besides the traditional materials. Jute, hemp, nylon, plastics, and metals are a few of the materials which are in use today. 14

Influences Upon My Work

As an artist, I have fluctuated between working with painting and drawing and working with fibers. I have a love for many styles and media, but I have always desired to work in a representational manner. My painting style matured first, but during the last eight years, my intrigue with pic- torial realism has manifested itself in sculpture and most recently in representational tapestry. I feel that this re- cent work reflects the artistic and stylistic influences to which I have been exposed during the last decade.

The first artist I studied in depth was Belgian Sur- realist Rene Magritte. Magritte was not technically as excellent a painter as other Surrealists. His modeling and painting techniques were somewhat amateurish. However, I felt that I could understand his visions of reality because

I had worked in a similar manner. I was impressed with

Magritte's starkness, simplicity, and purity of colors, and his humorous and witty approach to the banalities of life.

Magritte led a seemingly mundane life, but he looked beyond banality and saw the unexpected. In 1972, I felt very much like Magritte. I feel that much of the straightforwardness and simplicity of Magritte's work is present in my work today.

During the mid-1970's, I made numerous trips to the East

Coast, and I was exposed to the Renaissance and Medieval painting collections of the Metropolitan Museum of Art and the National Gallery in Washington, D. C. I spent hours 15 looking at the minute detail and tedious brushwork of the

Medieval tryptichs and portraits. Though I never had at- tempted such difficult work, I felt that I was ready to try representationalism. As a result, my paintings became more realistic and detailed, and I increased my desire for per- fectionism in color mixing and in the rendering of reality.

I believe that it was a natural step for me to turn to the art of tapestry, an art which demands meticulous attention and flawless technique.

Though I was not usually attracted to sculpture, I liked Claes Oldenburg's whimsical and joyful soft sculptures.

Oldenburg, like Magritte, took everyday objects and rear- ranged, shrunk, enlarged, and altered them until they created a new kind of reality. He made obvious the beauty of house- hold objects that have been present for many years which are normally taken for granted or are ignored. Like Oldenburg,

I have taken common objects out of context and have created them in an unexpected medium--fiber. Like Oldenburg's soft sculptures, my tapestries are presented as non-functional fine arts objects instead of functional objects of daily life.

My representational tapestries directly resulted from some investigations I had been doing of advertisements of the

1920's and 1930's in magazines such as Saturday Evening Post and Ladies Home Journal. I had also seen some early twen- tieth-century paper labels from wooden citrus crates. I began studying styles used in early twentieth-century 16 advertising art and discovered that most of the advertising of the day was original artists' work rather than photo- graphy. The artists, generally anonymous, frequently used close-up views of the products they were selling. These de- signs were depicted in bright colors and simple shapes.

Often there was a combination of geometric design and real- istic elements. In some instances, ads used several objects which related to one another in the making of the product.

This combination and tie-in of elements is obvious in the

"Heinz Tomato Soup Label".9 Occasionally, modern :can labels or pages in magazines which advertise a product will exhibit some of the same characteristics of early day labels. This simplicity of design, clarity of color, and straightfor- wardness of intent can be seen in the "Concho Tomato Label" and in the "Gold Tip Tomato Label".

During my transition from painter to weaver, I studied certain tapestry weavers of recent years. Though my work differs drastically, I especially enjoy the huge "super- realistic" mural tapestries by Swedish weaver Helena

Hernmarck. She depicts modern-day scenes and events, using a textural rosepath or brocade tapestry technique. New York tapestry weaver Michelle Lester works with such a flawless technique that she is able to recreate beautifully her hus- band's luminous, translucent watercolors. I was exposed to

9Each work of art is included in the slides. 17

Lester's working methods in an August, 1978, workshop. As a result, my work improved technically. I especially admire the textural qualities, naturalism, and muted colors in

Cynthia Schira's works. She weaves with ikat-dyed strips which result in soft, flowing, impressionistic textiles. I see a strong relationship between Schira's, Lester's, and

Hernmarck's work.

I feel that my weaving of the representational tapes- tries resulted partially from my studying of numerous artists, especially those currently working during the decade be- ginning in 1970. CHAPTER II

CHOOSING THE DESIGN

The primary step in the weaving of the representational tapestries was the selection of the subject matter. As the result of a suggestion made by a friend, I began weaving tapestries of antique citrus labels and magazine advertis- ments. Seeking out material from junkstores and antique shops satisfied my sense of nostalgia. I also gained insight into America's rich heritage in everyday advertising art.

When choosing a design to weave, I was initially attracted to the colors used and to the simplicity of shapes in the design. Color was the primary factor in my attraction to the "Transit Lemon Label". In the weaving of this tapestry,

I wanted to recreate the cheerful effect that the combination of citrus colors had upon me when I first viewed the label.

I chose to weave the "Concho Tomato Label" and the "Gold Tip

Tomato Label" for similar reasons. In these two tapestries,

I was attracted to the way in which the background color con- trasted dynamically with the central tomato figure. The repeated use of the color red in the tapestries was an un- conscious act. I did not become aware of this until I began reevaluating my work for this investigation. Nine of the eleven tapestries contained one or more shades of red. To- mato and tomato soup logos accounted for over one-third of

18 19 the tapestries, which was probably due to my preference for red.

Unlike the brightly colored works, the "Heinz Tomato

Soup Label" and the "Campbell Tomato Soup Label" were select- ed because of their more subtle color combinations. I es- pecially liked the use of the red in the "Campbell Soup" label, which served as the focal point amidst the brown, tan, and grey colors which constituted most of the design.1 The decision to weave the "Heinz Soup" label was made because I was attracted to the rich, harmonious color scheme. I chose to execute the "Santa Fe Weaving No. 1" because I believed that the hand-dyed yarns I planned to use would beautifully duplicate the pictorial image. Overall, the color scheme of a design served as the first consideration in my decision to weave a tapestry.

The second major factor which affected my choice of sub- ject matter was the subjective meaning of the design to me.

I have never woven a tapestry which depicted a situation or a product about which I felt neutrally or had disliked. Most of the works had a story behind them which led to their making. The most personally significant tapestry was in- spired by a mid-winter excursion I made several years ago. I saw an American Airlines logogram on the side of an airplane which was hanging in the Smithsonian Air and Space Museum in

Washington, D. C. The resulting tapestry, "American Airlines

1 0 Shortened forms of titles will be utilized when the work has been previously listed on the same page. 20

Logo", represented my fascination with airplanes and with flying which symbolized freedom to me. Similarly, I was at- tracted to the neon flying horse which rotated atop the Mobil

Building in Dallas, Texas, and, as a result, I wove the

"Mobilgas" tapestry. My love for cooking with tomatoes mani- fested itself in the weaving of the four tomato tapestries.

The "Santa Fe Weaving No. 2" was taken from a tile mosaic dis- played on the front of one of the exhibition barns near Will

Rogers Auditorium in Fort Worth, Texas. Being native-born in Fort Worth, I had always been exposed to Western motifs, the stock show, and rodeo events, and this exposure prompted the weaving of this tapestry. In most cases I chose to weave from designs that I had collected which represented some bygone era in American advertising art.

In general, I selected designs which made the most di- rect and simple use of the elements of line, shape, color, and composition. I was especially interested in designs which were straightforward in their statements. For the

"Self-Portrait" I worked from a color slide, but chose to uti- lize the dynamic technique of a value drop-out in black and white. I was likewise attracted to the forcefulness and sim- plicity of the "Transit Lemon Label" and the "Handsum Orange

Label". The choosing of the designs directly related to my attraction to the composition.

My early choices of subject matter were guided by my intuition, for I had no guidelines by which to work to assure 21 the technical or artistic success of a tapestry. With no experience as a tapestry weaver, I rather naively blundered into this investigation and subsequently learned by trial and error. Though I knew how to render objects representa- tionally in paintings, I had no idea of how representation- alism could be achieved in flat tapestry technique with its rather rigid method of interlacing threads at right angles.

I knew that color areas were connected by weft joins, but I did not know how gradual shading could be achieved. I en- countered problems in my earlier works which I solved by trial and error, but gradually I built up a body of know- ledge from which I chose later designs.

As I became more experienced in tapestry weaving, I began to become more aware of how shapes, colors, and de- tails in the original design would affect the final tapestry.

My choices of subjects were influenced by the complexity and detail of a design with consideration for what size the work had to be woven in order to render successfully the details.

The forty-eight inch limitation set by the weaving width of my loom also affected my choices of designs.

Incorporating the knowledge I gained by working, I often excluded, added, or altered aspects of the design in order to execute better the tapestry. In certain instances, I chose to exclude the design entirely. Because of my artistic knowledge, I likewise deliberately changed details in all eleven tapestries to produce a cleaner, more straightforward, and less cluttered end product. 22

To attain more realistic renditions, I often chose de- signs which contained colors that were readily available.

I never made a final decision to weave a design until I con- sulted my yarn catalogues, but if I had my heart set on creating a particular tapestry, the lack of a yarn color did not prevent me from doing the work. Instead, I devised methods to obtain the color I needed.

Despite my knowledge as a painter and my growing knowl- edge as a tapestry-maker, my choice of designs usually was entirely determined by my subjectivity, not by logic or facts.

Often I wove a design just because I wanted to do it, even though I knew that the execution would be difficult. I feel that my ignoring the technical obstacles in order to create the tapestry was typical of my attitude throughout the en- tire investigation. I had a positive attitude about over- coming any problems that I would encounter, and in order to execute the design, I was prepared to meet and conquer any technical challenge that I faced.

The initial concept or goal that I set for each work was usually of a technical nature. In early tapestries, my desire was to recreate the design in tapestry form so that the letters were legible and the pictorial aspects were rec- ognizable. I set various technical goals based on difficul- ties that had occurred in earlier tapestries. I also deliberately planned to utilize techniques to which I had 23 recently been exposed. I often set out to discover the most appropriate ways to depict representational objects.

After prolonged contemplation over the factors which contributed to the selection of a design, it became evident that the color scheme was the primary factor in my decision.

The choices were also influenced by my subjective and intui- tive feelings about a specific design. My knowledge of the technical possibilities and difficulties in tapestry weaving never deterred me from executing a design that I really wanted to do. 24

Preparing to Weave

After selection of the design, I then began to prepare for the actual weaving of the work. The dimensions of the proposed weaving were my first consideration. My decision was dependent upon the size and the amount of detail which I wished to include in the final product. Since larger details were more easily executed, I often needed to enlarge the work accordingly. The original design or label was mounted by the corners with masking tape upon cardboard, then cov- ered with a slightly larger sheet of clear acetate. An exect grid of squares was drawn over the design. Next, I drew a grid on a sheet of eighty pound paper. The same number of squares was used on a much larger scale. Usually a one inch grid on my original design was expanded to a four of five inch grid on the cartoon. The design was then drawn off in full scale. I used watercolor or colored pencil to clarify obscure or confusing areas. I fount it necessary to shade in the details on the plate in the "Heinz Tomato Soup Label" to prevent confusion.

I made alterations to my cartoon before weaving. Small letters were eliminated from six of my tapestries which would have been impossible to weave legibly. Complex shaded areas were simplified before being drawn on the cartoon. To distinguish between small areas of similar colors, I numbered or lettered areas on my cartoon which corresponded to cer- tain yarn colors. The leaves on the "Transit Lemon Label", 25

"Gold Tip Tomato Label", and the "Concho Tomato Label" had to be altered and drawn off more simply for ease in weaving.

The simply shaded areas seemed to be the most successful.

In some cases it became necessary to add details to a design. Because of superficial lettering which obscured part of the advertisement, I had to recreate part of the leaves on the china in the "Campbell Tomato Soup Label". On both soup labels, I found it necessary to construct borders for the edges of the designs. In tapestry weaving, numerous color changes near the selvages cause structurally weak areas. In general, however, I discovered that relatively few alterations needed to be made.

After the cartoon was completed, the yarn selection was made. When using two-ply wool on a 7/4 linen warp set at six ends per inch, I discovered that I usually needed 1/2 pound of weft per square foot. After relying upon my exper- ience to estimate how many skeins of each color I needed, I ordered my yarn. As I grew accustomed to yarn ordering, es- timations became more accurate. Due to my large stock of yarns which I accumulated from leftovers of earlier weavings,

I found that I often did not need to order certain colors.

After ordering the yarn, I dressed the loom. I prepared the warp and threaded the loom. In most cases, only two har- nesses were utilized. After weaving in about four inches of cloth strips, I twined the warp to prevent unraveling. Then

I wove in three to four inches of weft. This gave enough 26 stable fabric upon which to attach my cartoon. To prevent the paper from tearing, I adhered masking tape on the back of the cartoon where the T-pins were to be inserted. I pinned the cartoon to the weaving, and by pressing it up toward the warp, I was able to mark the warp threads at the point where each shape or color ended. I used three or four different colors of waterproof felt-tip pens to make the distinctions between close joinings more discernible. I taped my original design to the loom castle directly in front of me so I could easily and quickly refer to it while working.

Careful evaluation of the design, drawing off the car- toon, and conscientious yarn ordering were my main concerns.

In many ways, I discovered that the preparation was the most difficult and tedious step in the entire process. I often procrastinated and literally experienced nightmares as a re- sult of having to make decisions about choosing colors.

After the supplies were ordered, I felt relaxed and confi- dent during the remainder of the weaving process. I found that if I took my time and planned cautiously and logically, much confusion and many errors could be avoided when the actual weaving process began. 27

Execution of the Tapestry

My first consideration while weaving concerned the creation of neat and sturdy weft joins. The legibility of lettering and the successful modeling of objects were total- ly dependent upon these carefully executed weft joins. I discovered the most advantageous techniques for each color change by practicing and by much experimenting.

Except for certain instances, the best method of han- dling the meeting places of wefts was to leave open places or slits. (See Plate I.) The utilization of slits resulted in the smoothest and least irregular joining line. The use of slits was most accomplished in the weaving of the "Camp- bell Tomato Soup Label", especially in the areas where shapes with gradual upward curves met. I found that slits could not be successfully utilized under the following circum- stances: (1) When using a color around only one warp thread. (2) When more than three or four weft turns met each other, thereby causing a slit which was too long and re- sulted in a gap. Usually two or less picks did not have to be sewed up. Three picks did not have to be sewed if the join was near other picks of four or more which were connect- ed. However, if the three-pick meet was adjacent to several unconnected two-pick joins, sewing the slit closed invisibly with nylon thread was required.

When slits could not be used, I sometimes connected the weft threads with a single interlocking technique. (See 28

i

Plate I--Slits 29

Plate II.) All weft threads must be free to move back and forth because the weft areas must be built up simultaneous- ly when using this technique. Due to the characteristic of tapestry weaving which requires areas to be built up sepa- rately and often unevenly, I could not always apply this type of meet and separate join to my tapestries. Instead, I devised a method of sewing one weft to another which had previously been woven in. I executed the lettering in all of my tapestries in this manner. To prevent having to sew in extremely lengthy pieces of yarn, I tried to lay in the larger areas first and then sew in the smaller area or details to the already existing areas. The weft thread had to be sewed into the other thread in an upward manner, with the needle leading away from myself and towards the reed. (See

Plate III.) I feel that this method of sewing wefts together produced the best results.

Due to the nature of tapestry weaving, the warp and weft threads interlace at right angles. This characteristic usually presented no problems except when I wove near-verti- cal lines. I could not execute precisely smooth diagonal lines because a slight stair-stepping effect occurred. When weaving in these areas, I learned several techniques which made the line smoother and visually more successful. In the

"Mobilgas" label, I used "lazy lines" to create a smoother diagonal in the weaving of the body of the horse. In this technique, I wove in two picks of one weft color over the 30

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4.

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Plate II--Single Interlocking Technique 31

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Plate III--Method of Connecting Weft Threads 32 built-up area of another color. Then I filled in the new color area. (See Plate IV.) I used "lazy lines" in areas of the "Handsum Orange Label" and in the "American Airlines

Logo".

Another method that I discovered created a smooth near- vertical line when using colors that covered two, three, or four adjacent warps. Because of the narrowness of the verti- cal picks, the adjoining wefts of different colors had to be joined with a tapestry needle to prevent the occurrence of gaps. At the point of weft change from one warp to another,

I did not connect the two wefts, but I allowed them to weave in four picks utilizing the slit method. (See Plate V.)

This prevented the last weft pick on a warp from disappearing when the weft was packed closely together. I utilized this technique in the majority of my tapestries. I discovered that I did not need to employ this technique when creating a gradual diagonal line resulting from the coming together of large color areas. I found that this technique was im- possible to use when connecting single vertical picks. When used with adjacent wefts of two to four picks, however, the method created a smooth diagonal line.

Splicing was necessary when I needed to attach a new length of yarn. To prevent gaps where the spliced weft left a warp thread uncovered, I overlapped the old and new wefts.

(See Plate VI.) I found that when sewing in a weft which interlocked with an already existing area, I had to sew in 33

2

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I

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Plate IV--"Lazy Lines" 34

laV--seoSli ts iA r

Plate V--Use of Slits in Areas of Connected Wefts 35

Plate VI--Splicing of Wefts 36 the spliced threads as far away as possible to the point of the weft connection. (See Plate VII.) Failure to do this resulted in the new weft end pulling out when I put tension on the needle.

Another method to prevent the needle-threaded weft from pulling out was to leave its loose end hanging out of the front of the tapestry until the first turn was made. Then the new weft end could be clipped off flush with the surface of the tapestry. The loose end was also handy for pulling when the tension needed to be adjusted. I employed these techniques in order to control correctly my weft joins and weft tension, which were the major concerns in the process.

My secondary interest in these tapestries concerned techniques of shading which I needed to utilize in order to create a three-dimensional illusion. Five techniques were used for the modeling of objects. These included inlays, hatching, shading by color, yarn plying, and pick and pick.

In the "Transit Lemon Label", I used inlays of a light yellow color to ease the transition from yellow to the highlights.

This method caused unevenness in the weft height, which was corrected by weaving in extra picks of the lower areas.

I employed the more traditional hatching technique to shade the "Gold Tip Tomato Label", the "Concho Tomato Label", and the bucket in the "Heinz Tomato Soup Label". A larger form of hatching, which I call "wedging", was used for the sun rays in the "Handsum Orange Label". The hatching 37

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Plate VII--Location of Weft Splices 38 technique proved to be an excellent method for modeling cer- tain areas in my work, although it was tedious and confusing.

The simplest shading technique I utilized involved the weaving of adjacent areas with yarns of slightly different shades of a color. I used modeling of this type to represent the foliage in several tapestries. When similar yarn colors were available, I preferred this technique over the other methods, but I had to use a more complicated method of yarn re-plying when I could not obtain the proper yarns.

When a median shade of a color was required to ease the transition between a light and a dark color, I twisted to- gether one ply of each color to create a third shade.

Though spotty in appearance, the results were satisfactory, as seen in the silverware on the "Campbell Tomato Soup Label" and the hand and orange in the "Handsum Orange Label". The cup in the "Campbell Soup" label was very subtly shaded in this manner in order to separate it visually from the plate upon which it sits.

I used a pick and pick technique to create the shadow on the soup bowl in the "Heinz Tomato Soup Label". Using light and dark blue, I alternately wove in two picks of light blue and one pick of dark blue. The pick and pick tech- nique was used with re-plied yarn in the hand and the orange of the "Handsum" label. The five shading techniques I used created various visual effects which enhanced my representa- tional tapestries. 39

Though I made little use of textural effects, I did utilize some three dimensional yarn techniques. In order to best duplicate the foliage at the bottom of the "Santa Fe

Weaving No. 1", I treadled the loom, which was threaded on four harnesses, by raising various combinations of the har- nesses to obtain a loose weave. I created the grass near the bottom selvage of the "Santa Fe Weaving No. 2" in a similar manner. In this tapestry I also used rya knots of varying lengths to best illustrate the cow's tail. To attain a tex- tural effect in the "Heinz Tomato Soup Label", I stitched in by hand short lengths of light orange yarn to create the tomato seeds. As a result, the seeds appear to be slightly raised from the surface of the cut tomato. Despite oc- casional use of three dimensional effects, most of my works were woven in a flat tapestry method.

The use of several techniques benefited the appearance of the overall tapestry, especially the evenness of selvages.

To prevent the selvages from drawing in, I adjusted the ten- sion of each weft by bubbling the yarn. (See Plate VIII.)

When weaving a tapestry I discovered that the selvages would tend to distort where much weft joining occurred. As a re- sult, the selvages containing areas of a solid color seemed to shrink in, especially near the top and bottom. I con- trolled these difficulties by two means. First, I slightly pulled the weft tension in areas of much detail more tightly to prevent the extra slack which caused the selvages to 40

Plate VIII--Weft Bubbling 41 shift. I also used a technique which loosened the weft in areas of large solid colors. Instead of using a single weft which crossed the entire warp width, I used about four wefts of the background color and with each, crossed about one- fourth of the warp. I alternated the meeting places of the wefts in order to prevent visible slits. (See Plate IX.)

I later determined that this method of preventing the sel- vages from drawing in was time consuming and tedious, and I compensated for selvage unevenness by adjusting the tension by the bubbling process.

The weavings contained ennumerable weft ends which I had to deal with in a structurally secure manner. The ends were dealt with in two ways. While weaving my earlier tap- estries I simply left the loose ends hanging out the back of the weaving. In the other tapestries I began weaving them in as I worked. With a tapestry needle, I threaded the weft end down vertically into the path of a warp thread which was covered with previously woven wefts. (See Plate X.) The end was then trimmed off even with the surface. As a result, the secured weft ends did not begin to unravel or loosen de- spite repeated handling of the works.

I frequently encountered difficulties which required an alteration or careful attention in order to correct the prob- lem. Many difficulties had not existed during the planning stage of the tapestry and became evident only when I began the actual weaving process. 42

l. ' I |

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Plate TX--Meeting Places of Multiple Wefts in a Solid Color Area 43

Plate X--The Securing of Weft Ends 44

The majority of my difficulties concerned the use of the cartoon. When rolling the warp forward to create more weaving area, the cartoon often slipped and when the warp was tightened, the cartoon did not match the previously marked dots on the warp. In addition, the warp threads ro- tated so that the dots could not be seen. To remedy this difficulty, I found it necessary to put the marks around the entire warp thread. I compensated for the slippage of the cartoon by measuring the distance from the grid lines to the reed in three or four places, then re-adjusting the cartoon to achieve a uniform distance. I then re-pinned the cartoon and checked my ink dots on the warp. If necessary, I re- marked them and wove according to the new marks. Due to my careful re-checking of the placement of the cartoon, my tap- estries were not affected by any pictorial distortion.

Often I found that though the cartoon was carefully drawn, I could not follow it precisely. Some areas I had drawn in were simply too small to weave. Since one vertical pick was approximately 1/4 inch wide, a vertical detail less than that width could not be woven. The removal of such small details usually did not affect the completed design.

Numerous vertical details in the background leaves of the

"Gold Tip Tomato Label" and in the green flowers on the plate in the "Campbell Tomato Soup Label" had to be eliminated be- cause they were too small to weave. 45

When weaving letters, at least one pick of background color had to be left between the letters to prevent them from running together. Often I had to disregard totally or modify my following of the cartoon in order to carry this out. This difficulty also occurred with pictorial details.

The weaving of a sharp vertical point also created dif- ficulties. If more than two or three picks were woven in around one warp thread, the point appeared to be spotty and disconnected. When weaving points such as leaf tips, the picks were limited to numbers of two or three.

The cartoon could also not be followed precisely when narrow areas of hatching were to be used. At least two warp threads had to be incorporated in the solid areas between the stripes. Modifications had to be made in the hatching on the sides of the tomatoes in the "Gold Tip Tomato Label" and the "Concho Tomato Label" because of this characteristic typical of the technique.

Another major unexpected situation which I encountered concerned the need to separate areas of the same color. I accomplished this in two ways. In the "Campbell Tomato Soup

Label", I differentiated between the soup cup and the plate by plying a slightly darker yarn with the tan color I used for the cup. To distinguish the line between the tomatoes on the right hand side of the "Heinz Tomato Soup Label", I used another method. I wove in with one vertical pick a darker orange between the two shapes. This solution created 46 an outline, but I did not feel that it distracted from the pictorial statement.

Another major difficulty which I encountered while weaving dealt with yarn tension problems. Due to the ir- regular height in my weft, the warp tension became uneven.

When this occurred, I wove more slowly and carefully. With- out failure, the warp tension eventually returned to normal.

Weft tension likewise went beserk for seemingly unknown reasons. When utilizing "lazy lines" which travel at oblique angles to the warp, the weft became extremely tight when packed down. To correct this, it was necessary to remove the weft and to bubble it more. After some practice, I was able to prevent this difficulty by deliberately weaving in

"lazy lines" with an extremely loose tension.

Despite the care I took, a small bulge occurred at ev- ery warp turn when I used the pick and pick technique. I determined that the best method for preventing the disorder was to avoid the technique whenever practical.

I encountered another difficulty with weft tension when

I failed to bubble the weft adequately when weaving one di- rection while adequately bubbling the yarn when weaving the opposite direction. This carelessness resulted in the pro- tuberance of every other warp, as seen in parts of the "Mobil- gas" label. To prevent the repetition of this problem, I more carefully bubbled the yarn in later tapestries. 47

Difficulties which I encountered during the weaving stage often resulted as flaws in the final product. The most obvious flaws manifested themselves as the unevenness of selvages or bulging and wrinkling of the fabric of the tapestry. My use of eccentric wefts caused the fabric to buckle in several tapestries. After completion, the irregu- larities could not be corrected.

Another irreversible mistake was the unevenness of the selvages in several of the weavings. As I became a more ex- perienced weaver, this difficulty was eliminated from other tapestries.

Before I devised a means of correcting "disappearing" vertical wefts, several small letters and details in a few of the tapestries appeared illegible or incoherent. To rem- edy this, I hand-stitched inlays into the problem areas to fill in the gaps left by the wefts which had disappeared.

Several flaws occurred only once during this investi- gation. The first of these concerned the use of color.

Having been somewhat out of practice, not having woven for five months, I used yarns which were much too bright for the major highlights in the "Concho Tomato Label". I quickly realized my mistake and wove the small upper highlights with an appropriate color. The end result was that of a somewhat splotched tomato.

My second flaw occurred when I simply was not paying attention to my work and forgot to follow the cartoon when 48 doing the hatching on the left side of the "Gold Tip Tomato

Label". Because of this neglect, the dark red shading stopped arbitrarily.

Because I used the pick and pick technique to shade the hand in the "Handsum Orange Label", stripes appeared which I feel distracts from the overall appearance. I noticed an- other difficulty when the "Handsum" label was hung. Because

I wove the tapestry sideways on the loom, the slits became horizontal and drew apart, leaving gaps which added to the general distortion of the tapestry. Though the slits con- sisted of mostly one, two, or three pick weft meets, the sheer weight of the heavy work pulled the tapestry down so much that the slits relaxed and opened up. I sewed the larger slits with nylon thread, but more slits appeared the longer the work hung.

Although the planning process proved the most difficult to me, I learned the most about tapestry weaving by the ac- tual execution of the work. Most of my knowledge about the art was acquired by trial and error and by experimentations with yarns and techniques. By the time I had twined the top selvage and had taken the tapestry from the loom, I felt a great sense of accomplishment and was ready to complete the final steps in the creation of a representational tapestry. 49

Tapestry Finishing, Displaying, and Evaluation

After I removed the tapestries from the loom, I then finished and displayed the works. First, the tapestry was allowed to "rest" horizontally for three to seven days in order to allow the fibers to shrink and to situate them- selves to their final size. After this short period of time,

I began to deal with the loose warp ends. All of the tap- estries utilized the Maori edge for dealing with the ends.

(See Plate XI.) The Maori edge resulted in an extremely sturdy, tightly rolled edge which did not distract from the tapestry itself. The warp ends, which had been turned to the back, were stitched down with sewing thread about three- eights of an inch from the edge. The warps were then clipped off close to the hand-stitching. This method of finishing the warps worked so successfully that I did not attempt any other method.

To correct the undulating surface and uneven selvages of the "Handsum Orange Label", I attempted to block it. Af- ter tacking down the edges, I applied steam heat with disastrous results. The tapestry stretched even more out of shape than it had previously. The yarn colors stained cer- tain areas, and the water-soluble felt tip pens that I had used in this weaving ran onto the yarn. I determined at that point that I would rather learn to weave more even tap- estries than to risk damaging another weaving. 50

2 2 3 2 3

a 8 g g S c a

61

G D D A p A D E

Plate XI--The Maori Edge 51

I did not devise a satisfactory method of hanging my work until I had completed approximately half of the works.

The display of the tapestries had always perplexed me, for hanging by pins or nails had stretched and distorted the top edges. Finally, I chose to utilize 3M Brand hook and loop fastener (commonly called Velcro) to hang the weavings. The one-inch wide strip was sewn across the top of the backside of the tapestry. The corresponding piece of fastener, which had a strong adhesive on it, was attached to a piece of un- finished pine lattice wood. The wood, which was one inch wide, was the exact length of the upper edge of the tapestry.

Two picture hooks were screwed in with brass screws at a point approximately four inches from each end of the wood strip. Three to four inch strips of lattice which had been split lengthwise were glued to the lower edge of the mount- ing board on each end and in the middle. (See Plate XII.)

These strips prevented the mounting board from tilting for- ward when the tapestry was hung. The tapestry was then attached to the mounting board by means of the hook and loop fastener. I discovered four advantages to this method of presentation. First, the weaving remained undisturbed by nails, tacks, or pins, thereby avoiding pulling and dis- tortion. Second, the method required the use of only two nails. The tapestries could be displayed quickly and with minimal damage to wall surfaces. Third, the linen warp threads, which tended to fray, were completely protected and 52

fI':2: 41

Plate XII--The Mounting Board 53 covered by the Velcro. Lastly, because of the method of mounting, the transporting of the weavings was simple. They were removed from the wall, rolled up, and moved. There was never any need to remove the tapestry from the mounting board except for dry-cleaning.

The evaluation of each finished tapestry was the final step in the production of the eleven tapestries. I took into consideration each factor contributing to the designing, preparation, and execution of the weavings. I determined whether the finished product had met my initial goals and whether the tapestry was a success or failure in terms of the techniques used and in an artistic sense.

Because of the precision required in the work, my first consideration in evaluating the tapestries concerned the overall neatness. The primary concern was the presence of even selvages and the flatness of the work. Several tap- estries exhibit these qualities, including the "Campbell To- mato Soup Label", the "Heinz Tomato Soup Label", and the

"Self-Portrait". On the contrary, I considered the "Handsum

Orange Label" a technical failure, due to its irregular sur- face and distorted selvages. As I strove for perfection in each tapestry, even fairly minor flaws annoyed me.

My second consideration in the evaluation was the treat- ment of the weft joins and the resulting appropriateness to the areas in which they were used. I especially emphasized the neatness of near-vertical lines in each work, due to the 54 difficulty of creating them in the weaving process. I felt that the "Campbell Tomato Soup Label" and the "American Air- lines Logo" exhibit the most precise and clear weft joins of this type. The fuzzy, rough diagonals in the "Transit Lemon

Label" lowered the overall forcefulness of the tapestry. Due to care taken with weft joins, the "Campbell Soup", "Heinz

Tomato Soup Label", the "Self-Portrait", and the "American

Airlines Logo" were structurally the most sturdy works.

Besides the technical evaluation, the works were eval- uated in terms of aesthetics. My primary areas of evaluation included the forcefulness of the finished product. I an- alyzed whether the tapestry was as visually attractive as the original design. I discovered that I was attracted to every tapestry on the same or on a more intense level than I had been with the original label. The increased forcefulness of the finished work was partially due to its increased size and brightness of yarn colors.

The tapestries were also evaluated in terms of the be- lievability of the three-dimensional objects depicted. One of the major intents while weaving the "Concho Tomato Label" was to recreate successfully the two water droplets on the tomato. I felt that I accomplished this goal. The ren- ditions of the silverware in the "Campbell Soup" and "Heinz

Soup" labels were also successful. My goal to weave a believ- able likeness was also met in the "Self-Portrait". On the other hand, I felt that the depiction of the highlights on 55 the "Concho Tomato Label" were a failure. Also, the edges of the plates in the "Campbell Tomato Soup Label" did not create the sense of three-dimensionality. Considering the amount of work that went into each piece that could have re- sulted badly, I was pleased with the outcome of the works as a whole.

When analyzing the tapestries, I was confronted with three works which had deviated from the original design.

These weavings, as a result, took on the additional charac- teristics of liveliness and imagination which I felt were lacking in the other tapestries. The two "Santa Fe Weavings" did not follow precisely the photographs from which they were taken, nor did the "Self-Portrait". I felt less tied to the original designs and wove more freely when executing these weavings. I wove all three quickly and with little in- hibition and, as a result, the tapestries make a more personal statement.

Generally, the tapestries met the original criteria that I set for each. The works met my expectations and de- viated very little from my preconceived visions of their final state. I felt satisfied with the resulting body of work and felt that I accomplished that which was originally intended. CHAPTER III

CONCLUSIONS

At the onset of this investigation, I set out to dis- cover whether I could successfully execute representational depictions in woven tapestry form, and I believe that the eleven finished tapestries themselves illustrate that the goal was reached. I had hoped to create a series of tap- estries which gave me happiness while weaving and a sense of accomplishment after completion. Each tapestry was to be a challenge, though I knew that I could meet any goals that were set. The woven tapestries were to be straightforward and dynamic in their intensity of color, design, size, and simplicity. I also entered the investigation in order to learn about the tapestry-making process.

After I had decided to weave representational tapes- tries, I began to investigate precisely how the work could best be done. First, I learned which designs could best be utilized, though the choices made were governed by my sub- jective feelings. Then the choices of the materials were made. The seeking out of the most appropriate weaving tech- niques suitable for each tapestry was the next important step. Methods for hanging and displaying the tapestries were discovered and perfected, and the works were evaluated

56 57 in terms of their meeting the artistic and technical goals that were set for them.

Because I felt that there was a shortage of published material concerning the weaving of representational tapes- tries, I intended to compile and organize a body of in- formation relating to the works. This information will serve me in future work, and it will aid other weavers who wish to work in a similar manner.

I feel that I have reached a high level of competency in the production of representational tapestries of a con- temporary origin and that my knowledge and experience will serve as a foundation for new work. I intend to work toward a more personal style which will be based entirely upon my own designs and photographs. I desire to allow my medium to dictate my choices of subject matter. I want to utilize soft, impressionistic color schemes with textural interest, which may lead to somewhat abstracted subject matter. My main concern in future tapestries will be the creation of a more personal statement. GLOSSARY

Bubbling. A method of waving the weft while weaving. This

allowance for extra weft slack prevents the drawing in

of the selvages.

Cartoon. The preliminary drawing used as a guide by the

weaver.

Eccentric weft. A weft thread which crosses the warp threads

at an angle other than ninety degrees. Continued use

of eccentric wefts causes buckling of the tapestry sur-

face.

Evanescent. A type of dye used for tapestry yarns in

European tapestry workshops during the Eighteenth and

Nineteenth Centuries. The colors were designed to be-

gin fading immediately in order to create the subtle

nuances of color which were essential to the copying of

the shades in the realistic paintings of the era.

Hatching. A method of regularly altering the meeting places

of two colors in tapestry weaving. The use of this

technique results in an area of mixed colors.

High warp loom. A popular type of tapestry loom in which the

warp is stretched vertically between two rollers. The

high warp loom usually does not have foot treadles or

harnesses. The weaver is able to work comfortably on

a vertical plane and can see large areas at a time.

58 59

Ikat. The technique of resist-dyeing the warp or weft be-

fore weaving.

Inlay. Discontinuous yarns which do not travel from sel-

vage to selvage. The use of inlays compensates for

unevenness in weft height, and can be used to enhance

areas with additional colors, patterns, or textures.

Loom castle. The structure across the top of the loom which

supports the harnesses.

Low warp loom. A type of tapestry loom in which the warp is

stretched horizontally between two rollers. Most have

foot treadles and harnesses. The weaver usually works

on the weaving from the backside and must view his work

with a hand mirror.

Maori edge. A method of finishing the warp threads in a tap-

estry which was developed by the Maori tribe of New

Zealand.

Pick. A single shot of weft yarn which travels in one di-

rection.

Pick and pick. A method of weaving where two or more weft

colors are woven in alternately according to a set pat-

tern. Most pick and pick designs result as stripes,

dots, or lines.

Rya. A knotting technique which results in a pile weave, a

three-dimensional textural surface which is composed of

lengths of yarn which stand out from the flat surface

of the tapestry. 60

Selvage. The edges of the woven tapestry at the point where

the weft threads make the turn around the far right and

far left warp threads.

Single vertical pick. A shot of weft thread which crosses

only one warp thread before reversing its direction.

Slits. Vertical openings in the tapestry which are created

at the point of juncture between two pattern segments.

Splicing. The addition of a new weft thread to one which

has become too short.

Tapestry. A plain weave fabric in which the weft threads

completely cover the warp threads. The pattern areas

of the tapestry are built up by free-weaving techniques

and usually result in a pictoral design.

Twining. A two element fiber technique where the two weft

yarns twist around each other as they interlace with

the warp. This technique is utilized at the beginning

and the ending of a tapestry to prevent the threads

from unraveling.

Value drop-out. Usually a photographic technique in which

all the shades of gray are eliminated and transformed

to either black or white.

Warp. The system of parallel vertical threads that run

lengthwise in the tapestry into which the weft threads

are woven.

Wedging. A method of hatching, where pointed triangular

shapes of a color area result. 61

Weft. The horizontal or crosswise threads which are woven

in perpendicular to the warp.

Yarn re-plying. A method of combining lengths of yarn to

create a median shade of color. Each strand of two

yarn colors is unplied and then one ply of each of the

two unlike colors is twisted together. BIBLIOGRAPHY

Books

Ackerman, Phyllis, Tapestry: The Mirror of Civilization, New York, Ams Press, 1970.

Black, Mary E., New Key to Weaving: A Textbook of Hand Weaving for the Beginner Weaver,~New York, Macmillan Publishing Co., Inc., 1957.

Collingwood, Peter, The Techniques of Rug Weaving, New York, Watson-Guptill Publications, 1968.

Held, Shirley E., Weaving: A Handbook for Fiber Craftsmen, Dallas, Holt, Rinehart,~and Winston, Inc., 1972.

Jarry, Madeleine, World Tapestry: From Its Origins to the Present, New York, G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1968.

Jobe, Joseph, editor, Great Tapestries: The Web of History From the Twelfth to the Twentieth Century, Switzerland, Edita S. A. Lausanne, 1965.

Salkin, John; and Gordon, Laurie, Orange Crate Art, New York, Warner Books, Inc., 1976.

Verlet, Pierre; Florisoone, Michel; Hoffmeister, Adolf; and Tabard, Francois, The Book of Tapestry: History and Technique, New York, The Vendome Press, 1977.

Articles

"Helena Hernmarck--An Interview," Fiberarts, V (March-April, 1978) , 32-39.

"Helena Hernmarck: Tapestry Designer," Interior Design, XXXXVIII (April, 1977), 145-146

Kester, Bernard, "The Super Real Tapestries of Helena Hernmarck," Craft Horizons, XXXV (February, 1975), 44-45, 70-71.

Preston, P. K., "Michelle Lester," Fiberarts, V (March-April, 1978) , 48-49.

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