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How Nations Use Sport Mega-Events to Leverage Soft Power: a New Rise in East Asia

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Joonoh Brian Jeong 1 How Nations Use Sport Mega-Events to Leverage Soft Power: A New Rise in East Asia J. JEONG PhD 2021 Joonoh Brian Jeong 2 How Nations Use Sport Mega-Events to Leverage Soft Power: A New Rise in East Asia JOONOH JEONG A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements of Manchester Metropolitan University for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Faculty of Business and Law Manchester Metropolitan University 2021 Joonoh Brian Jeong 3 Abstract This thesis examines the phenomenon of how nations host sport mega-events for the purposes of leveraging soft power. In contrast to studying nations of developed or emerging nations, this thesis focuses on the East Asian region to compare nations that have hosted the Summer Olympics and the FIFA World Cup. Therefore, the countries and sport mega-event that have been chosen to be compared are South Korea’s hosting of the 2002 FIFA World Cup, China’s 2008 Beijing Olympics, and Japan’s soon to be hosted 2020 Tokyo Olympics (in 2021). This inductive, qualitative research applies a constructivist/interpretivist paradigm, multi-method case-study research design – using interviews, focus groups, government documents, and print media. It sheds light on understanding why East Asian nations are competing to host sport mega-events, how those nations contemporarily define soft power, and if there is an East Asian style of hosting SMEs. The analysis focuses first on understanding each nation’s international soft power package. Next, the thesis touches upon how each nation defines soft power and looks into the nation’s domestic and regional soft power tactics, again providing a soft power package respectively. Lastly, using thematic analysis with the results, the thesis investigates whether ultimately there is a possible East Asian type of sport mega-event soft power package. Overall, this research claims that nations do host sport mega-events to leverage domestic, regional, and or international soft power. It supports the arguments that have been brought up in the field of study. Also, the interpretation of the findings show that there are overlapping soft power themes and tactics amongst each case-study, ultimately creating a kind of regional type of hosting sport mega-events. Therefore, this thesis’ conclusion is that there is indeed a possible regional type soft power package, although, the themes themselves could also be used to give a similar rationale why an individual nation would host a sport mega-event. Joonoh Brian Jeong 4 Acknowledgements I would like to thank my supervisors, Professor Jonathan Grix, and Dr. Paul Brannagan, for their patience, never ending support and encouragement throughout this long journey to the completion of this thesis. Jonathan was like a second father to me, giving me valuable suggestions in life and important advice in the professional field of academia. With many words of wisdom, care, and humor, Jonathan has made my PhD journey a very enjoyable life experience. I also want to thank the many interviewees from Korea, China, and Japan that made this research possible. Starting with interviewees in Korea, I want to give thanks to Im Chae-min, Suh Kang-soo, Lee, Jeon Han-jin, Lee Elisa, Kim Jong-up, Lim Woo-taek, Yook Dong-han, Professor Lee Yong-su for being generous with their time, and a special thanks to Lee Hong- gu for seeing me in Tokyo, Japan even when dealing with a tight schedule. I would like to thank Professor Li Nan, Professor Liu Jian Hong, Xue Lan, and Professor Sun He Yun for welcoming me to Beijing to proceed with the interviews, and a special thanks to a very close friend, Yoon Jong-hyun who was able to connect me to the interviewees in China. In Japan I would like to thank Hiroshi Takeuchi, Professor Yoshiko Kojo, Shotaro Kidaka, Professor Nobuhiro Hiwatari, Wataru Masuda, and special thanks to Yosuke Fujiwara, Professor Yu Uchiyama, Professor Hiroaki Funahashi, and Professor Nobuko Tanaka for the extensive time they gave me for the interviewee as well as connecting me to other interviewee. To my mother Lee Yoonhee, my father Jeong Cheol Hyun for supporting and raising me for who I am now, my sister, Jeong Jae Young (Ariel), my brother-in-law Ethan Roman, and my newborn nephew Yoonsang. Joonoh Brian Jeong 5 Table of Contents Part I Chapter 1: Background of Sport Mega-Event Studies ………………………………8 - What is a Mega-Event? - What is a ‘Sports Mega-Event’? - Sports in International Relations - International Dimensions - Public Relations - Public Diplomacy - International Prestige - Soft Power - Sport Mega-Events and Soft Power Chapter 2: Sports in East Asia………………………………………………………...27 - China’s socio-economic data - China’s socio-cultural aspect - Sports in China - Beijing 2008 Olympics - South Korea’s socio-economic data - South Korea’s social-cultural aspect - Sports in Korea - South Korea and the 2002 FIFA World Cup - Japan’s socio-economic data - Japan’s socio-cultural aspect - Tokyo Olympic 1964 - Tokyo 2020(1) Joonoh Brian Jeong 6 Chapter 3: Methodology………………………………………………………..........45 - Constructivism and Interpretation - Epistemology - Case Study - Semi-structured Interviews and Focus Groups - Secondary Analysis - Descriptive Statistics - Print Media - Government Documents - Data Analysis Part II Chapter 4: Republic of Korea……………………………………………………….........68 - South Korea’s Rationale for Hosting the 2002 FIFA World Cup - Show-casing Korea and its Collectivist Society - Football Prestige - Korea’s Definition of Soft Power - Credibility - Strong Cultural Assets and Attractiveness - Nation Branding - State-led Soft Power - Korean Soft Power Resources - Hallyu: The “Korean Wave” - K-pop - K-Food - King Sejong Institute Foundation - Korea’s Soft Power package - International - Domestic Joonoh Brian Jeong 7 - Regional - Blossoming of the Mugunghwa Chapter 5: People’s Republic of China………………………………………………….94 - Rationale for hosting 2008 Beijing Olympics - Peaceful Rising China - Show-casing China - Soft Power in China: Different from Nye - Borrowed from Nye - Similar to Nye - Nation Branding - China’s Soft Power Resources - Confucius Institute - International Students in China - Media Monoply – Xinhua News Agency - The Wushu Movement - Personal Protection Equipment - China’s Ruan Shi Li Tactics - International - Domestic - Regional - China’s soft power difficulties Chapter 6: Japan…………………………………………………………………………118 - Japan’s Rational Behind Hosting Two Tokyo Olympics (1964, 2020(1)) - 1964 Tokyo Olympics - 2020(1) Tokyo Olympics - Revival of Japan Joonoh Brian Jeong 8 - National Branding - Political Legitimacy - Soft Power in Japan - Culture - Branding - Tokyo 2020 Soft Power Strategy - Sport for Tomorrow - Olympic and Paralympic Education - Japan House - Japan Exchange and Teaching (JET) - Japanese Modern Pop Culture - Japan’s Soft Power Package - International - Domestic - Regional - Hopes of Internationalizing Japan and Omotenashi Chapter 7: Conclusion…………………………………………………………………….152 - Key Research Findings - Contribution to Field of Study - Contribution to Theory - Limitations - Further Research Appendix 1 (Interview Questions) Appendix 2 (Interviewees) References Joonoh Brian Jeong 9 Part I Chapter 1 Background of Sport Mega-Event Studies Sport mega-event (SME) research and the legacies thought to accrue from them is still at an early stage, as is knowledge of the rationale behind why nations continue to host these events. The practice of hosting events, such as the Summer Olympics and the FIFA World Cup, started as early as 1896 in Athens and 1930 in Uruguay, respectively. There are numerous reasons to host SMEs, whether it be for the hoped-for economic benefits, nation branding, and so on (Nauright, 2013), and although there is a long history of hosting practices, research into SMEs only started in early 2000, when Roche defined mega-events as “large cultural events with distinct character and massive global appeal,” usually created by collaborations of national governments and international non-governmental organizations (Roche, 2000: 1). Roche’s research compares the Olympics and Expos (also known as ‘World Fairs’), acknowledging that there is a connection between globalization and mega-events that justifies the study of sports using international relations concepts (Ibid). This review will mainly focus on theoretical and informative academic journal articles that are up to date in this field. The review will also identify areas of study undertaken in the past in order to the rationale of this research project. Thus, the review will be presented in two parts. First, it will provide the definitions of mega-events and SMEs, as they are essential to understand how the research was formulated and carried out. Part one of the review will also introduce the studies that have already been conducted with respect to SMEs (i.e. legacies, leveraging, etc.). Furthermore, this section will touch upon how the view of sports has changed throughout time to understand how international relations concepts are useful in explaining many of the issues related to the study of SMEs. Secondly, the review will introduce certain international relations concepts that could also help explain why nations host SMEs. Thus, part two of the review will discuss and explore the connection of SMEs and “soft power” by looking into the various arguments presented by past scholars. The review concludes with an account of limitations and how this particular project Joonoh Brian Jeong 10 takes forward current research in this area. The research questions driving this project – and therefore shaping this literature review – are as follows: 1) Why are East Asian nations competing to host SMEs? 2) What is the contemporary definition of soft power? 3) Is there an East Asian style of hosting SMEs? PART ONE What is a Mega-Event? First, it is important to comprehend what a mega-event is and why scholars would bother to research them. The study of mega-events dates back to when Ritchie originally called mega- events “hallmark events” and defined them as major one-time or recurring events of limited duration, developed primarily to enhance the awareness, appeal and profitability of a tourism destination in the short and/or long term” (Ritchie, 1984: 4).
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