EVALUATION OF THE AGRONOMIC, UTILIZATION, NUTRITIVE AND FEEDING VALUE OF DESHO GRASS (Pennisetum pedicellatum)
PhD Dissertation
Bimrew Asmare Limenih
June 2016
Jimma University EVALUATION OF THE AGRONOMIC, UTILIZATION, NUTRITIVE AND FEEDING VALUE OF DESHO GRASS (Pennisetum pedicellatum)
A PhD Dissertation Submitted to the School of Graduate Studies College of Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine Department of Animal Sciences Jimma University
In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) in Animal Nutrition
By
Bimrew Asmare Limenih
June 2016
Jimma University APPROVAL SHEET
SCHOOL OF GRADUATE STUDIES JIMMA UNIVERSITY As Dissertation Research advisors, we hereby certify that we have read and evaluated this PhD Dissertation prepared, under our guidance, by Bimrew Asmare entitled “Evaluation Of The Agronomic, Utilization, Nutritive And Feeding Value Of Desho Grass (Pennisetum pedicellatum)” We recommend that it can be submitted as fulfilling the Dissertation requirement. 1. Solomon Demeke (Professor) ______Major Advisor Signature Date 2. Taye Tolemariam (Professor) ______Co-Advisor Signature Date 3. Firew Tegegne (PhD, Assoc. Prof.) ______Co-Advisor Signature Date 3. Jane Wamatu (PhD, Associate Scientist) ______Co-Advisor Signature Date As member of the Board of Examiners of the PhD Dissertation Open Defense Examination, we certify that we have read, evaluated the Dissertation prepared by Bimrew Asmare, and examined the candidate. We recommend that the Dissertation be accepted as fulfilling the Dissertation requirement for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Animal Nutrition.
1. ______Chairperson Signature Date 2. ______Internal Examiner Signature Date 3. ______External Examiner Signature Date
Final approval and acceptance of the Dissertation is contingent upon the submission of the final copy to the Council of Graduate Studies (CGS) through the School of Graduate Committee (SGC) of the candidate’s major department.
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DEDICATION
I dedicate this Dissertation to my uncles Melese Limenih and Merigeta Lisanwork Bayeh for their enthusiastic partnerships in the success of my life.
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STATEMENT OF THE AUTHOR
I declare that this Dissertation is my work and that all sources of materials used for this Dissertation have been duly acknowledged. This Dissertation has been submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the PhD degree at Jimma University and is deposited at the University library to be made available to readers under the rules of the Library. I truly declare that this Dissertation is not submitted to any other institution anywhere for the award of any academic degree, diploma or certificate.
Brief quotations from this Dissertation are acceptable without special permission on conditions that accurate acknowledgement of the source is made. Requests for permission for extended quotation from or reproduction of this Dissertation in whole or in part may be approved by the head of the Department of Animal Sciences or the Dean of the School of Graduate Studies when in his or her judgment the proposed use of the material is in the interest of scholarship. In all other circumstances, however, permission must be obtained from the author.
Name: Bimrew Asmare Signature: ______Place: Jimma University, Jimma. Date of submission: ______
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BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH
The author, Bimrew Asmare was born on June 2, 1978 in Fagita Lekoma District, Awi Administrative Zone, Amhara National Regional State. He attended his elementary education in Besena and Dejazmach Mengesha Jemberie Primary Schools. He continued his high school studies at Dangila Senior Secondary School and completed at Chagni Senior Secondary School. After passing Ethiopian High School Certificate Examination successfully, he joined the then Awassa College of Agriculture (the current Hawassa University) in 1996/97 academic year and graduated with B.Sc. degree (in Distinction) in Animal Production and Rangeland Management in July 2000.
Soon after his graduation, the author was employed by the Amhara National Regional State, Bureau of Agriculture and assigned at Andassa Livestock Production Center. Bimrew joined Mersa Agricultural Technical and Vocational Education and Training (ATVET) College and assigned as an instructor at the Department of Animal Sciences in 2003. In 2004, he transferred to Woreta ATVET College and worked as an instructor and Head of the Department of Animal Sciences. In 2006, he joined the School of Graduate Studies of Haramaya University and graduated with M.Sc. degree in Animal Production in December 2008. Soon after his graduation, Bimrew re-joined Woreta ATVET College and served as Senior Instructor at the Department of Animal Sciences. In November 2009, he joined Bahir Dar University, College of Agriculture and Environmental Sciences, Department of Animal Production and Technology and served as a Lecturer and Coordinator of Continuing and Distance Education at the College of Agriculture and Environmental Sciences. Finally he joined Jimma University College of Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine, Department of Animal Sciences in October 2012 to pursue his PhD in Animal Nutrition. At present the author is married and has a son.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The author would like to express his sincere thanks to his advisors Professor Solomon Demeke, Professor Taye Tolemariam, Dr. Firew Tegegne and Dr. Jane Wamatu for their guidance and encouragement from the inception of the proposal up to the final dissertation and paper preparation. The author would like to acknowledge the Ethiopian Ministry of Education, for provision of financial support and Bahir Dar University for allowing study leave and the use of research facilities. Jimma University is appreciated for timely budget release and provision of certain critical missing links during the study period. The author would like to acknowledge the International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas (ICARDA), for its financial assistance and provision of laboratory facilities. The author’s gratitude would extend to Dr. Barbara Rischowsky and Dr. Aynalem Haile for their support. Mr. Yonas Asmare of ILRI animal nutrition laboratory deserves great appreciation for his analytical assistance. The author’s special appreciation goes to his class mates Ashenafi Assefa and Kassaun Gurmessa for their good friendship.
The author’s thanks goes to Wondemenh Mekonenn, Yihenew Agaje, Shigdaf Mekuriaw and Shewangizaw Wolde of Andassa and Areka research centers for their contribution in site selection, field layout and data collection during the planing and conduct of the agronomic trial. The author’s gratitude also extended to Mr. Yeshambel Asmamaw and Muluat Hundre of Burie Zuria and Doyogena District Agricultural Offices, respectively, for their assistance in the selection of the Kebeles and participating households and in the planing and organization of the field survey study. The contribution of Esubalew Admasu and Melkamu Kefale of Bahir Dar University, College of Agriculture and Environmental Sciences, deserve great acknowledgment. Special thanks go to Dr. Yeshambel Mekuriaw, Dr. Asaminew Tassew, and Dr. Hailu Mazengia for their encouragement throughout the study period. The author extends his thanks to CASCAPE project (aligned to Bahir Dar University, College of Agriculture and Environmental Sciences) for introducing desho grass to northwestern Ethiopia which was used as source of planting material for the conduct of the agronomic experiment.
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Above all, the author would like to give his special and deepest appreciation to his wife Yeshiwork Bishaw and to his son Estifanos Bimrew, who suffered a lot from his absence; and yet offered him love, understanding and encouragement, during his academic undertaking and field data collection. Finally the author would like to thank the Almighty God for giving him health, strength, and support in the successful completion of his study.
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ABBREVIATIONS
ADF Acid Detergent Fiber ADG Average Daily Gain ADL Acid Detergent Lignin AGDP Agricultural Gross Domestic Product ALRC Andassa Livestock Research Center ANOVA Analysis of Variance AOAC Association of Official Analytical Chemists BW Body Weight BZDoA Burie Zuria District Office of Agriculture CAES College of Agriculture and Environmental Sciences CASCAPE Capacity Building for Scaling Up of Evidence Based Best Practices in Agricultural Production in Ethiopia CP Crude Protein CPY Crude Protein Yield CSA Central Statistical Agency DAP Di-Ammonium Phosphate DCP Digestible Crude Protein DDoA Doyogena District Office of Agriculture DG Desho Grass DGH Desho Grass Hay DM Dry Matter DMI Dry Matter Intake DMD Dry Matter Digestiblity DMY Dry Matter Yield DOM Digestible Organic Matter DOMI Digestible Organic Matter Intake EPPO European and Mediterranean Plant Protection Organization FAO Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations
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ABBREVIATIONS (Continued)
FCE Feed Conversion Efficiency FDoA Farta District Office of Agriculture GDP Gross Domestic Product GLM General Linear Model ICARDA International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas ILCA International Livestock Center for Africa ILRI International Livestock Research Institute IPMS Improving Productivity and Market Success IVDMD In vitro Dry Matter Digestibility IVOMD In vitro Organic Matter Digestibility m.a.s.l. Meter Above Sea Level ME Metabolizable Energy MJ Mega Joule LLPP Leaf Length Per Plant LSR Leaf to Stem Ratio NDF Neutral Detergent Fiber NLPP Number of Leaves Per Plant NPH Natural Pasture Hay NRC National Research Council NSC Noug Seed Cake OM Organic Matter OMDC Organic Matter Digestibility Coefficient OMI Organic Matter Intake RCBD Randomized Complete Block Design SAS Statistical Analysis System SD Standard Deviation SNNPRS Southern Nations, Nationalities, and Peoples Regional State TLU Tropical Livestock Unit
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ABBREVIATIONS (Continued)
WB Wheat Bran WHO World Health Organization WOCAT World Overview of Conservation Approaches and Technologies
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TABLE OF CONTENTS TITLE PAGE
APPROVAL SHEET ii
DEDICATION iii
STATEMENT OF THE AUTHOR iv
BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH v
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS vi
ABBREVIATIONS viii
TABLE OF CONTENTS xi
LIST OF TABLES xiv
LIST OF FIGURES xv
LIST OF TABLES IN THE APPENDIX xvi
ABSTRACT xvii
1. INTRODUCTION 1 1.2. Research Gap 3 1.2. Research Questions and Objectives 3
2. LITERATURE REVIEW 5
2.1. Feed Resources in Ethiopia 5 2.1.1. Natural Pasture 5 2.1.2. Crop Residues 6 2.1.3. Agro-industrial By-products 8 2.1.4. Indigenous Fodders 12 2.1.5. Improved Forages 13 2.1.6. Non-Conventional Feed Resources 14 2.2. Effect of Season on Availability and Quality of Feeds 14 2.3. Effect of Environmental Factors on Plant Growth and Chemical Composition 15 2.4. Desho Grass (Pennisetum pedicellatum) 16
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TABLE OF CONTENTS (Continued) TITLE PAGE
2.4.1. Geographical Distribution of Desho Grass (Pennisetum pedicellatum) 16 2.4.2. Nutritive Value of Desho Grass 17 2.4.3. Desho Grass in Ethiopia 17 2.4.4. Growing Conditions of Desho Grass 18 2.5. Effect of Harvesting Dates on Yield and Quality of Forages 18 2.6. Washera Sheep Breed and its Characteristics 19 2.7. Nutrient Requirement and Growth Performance of Sheep 20 2.7.1. Dry matter intake 21 2.7.2. Energy requirements 23 2.7.3. Protein requirements 24
3. MATERIALS AND METHODS 26
3.1. Description of Study Areas 26 3.2. Survey on Desho Grass Production and Utilization 29 3.3. Study on Agronomic and Laboratory Characteristics 30 3.4. Animal Evaluation Experiment 31 3.4.1. Experimental Feed Preparation 31 3.4.2. Management of the Experimental Animals 31 3.4.3. Growth Trial 32 3.4.4. Digestibility Trial 33 3.5. Laboratory Analysis 33 3.6. Sampling Technique and Statistical Analysis 34
4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 36
4.1. Desho Grass Production and Utilization 36 4.1.1. Household Characteristics of Desho Grass Producers 36 4.1.2. Feed Resources and Feeding System 37 4.1.3. Production and Management of Desho Grass 41 4.1.4. Utilization of Desho Grass 43
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TABLE OF CONTENTS (Continued) TITLE PAGE
4.1.5. Factors Affecting Preference of Desho Grass for Livestock 48 4.2. Agronomic and Laboratory Characteristics of Desho Grass 50 4.2.1. Effects of altitude, harvesting days and their interactions on plant morphological characteristics and number of re-growth days of desho grass 50 4.2.2. Effect of altitude, harvesting date and their interacton on chemical composition and yield of desho grass 53 4.2.3. Correlation Analysis of Morphological and Nutritional Parameters of Desho Grass 57 4.3. Animal Evaluation of Desho Grass (Pennisetum Pedicellatum) 60 4.3.1. Chemical Composition of Experimental Feeds 60 4.3.2. Feed Intake 62 4.3.4. Dry matter and nutrient digestibility 64 4.3.3. Body weight change and feed conversion efficiency 66 4.3.5. Correlation between nutrients intake, digestibility and daily body weight gain of Washera sheep 68
5. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION 70 5.1. Conclusion 70 5.2. Recommendations 71
6. REFERENCES 72
7. APPENDICES 91
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LIST OF TABLES
TABLE PAGE Table 1. Proportion of animal feed resources in ethiopia 6 Table 2. Daily energy requirements of sheep 23 Table 3 . Experimental rations used in the feeding trial 31 Table 4. Socioeconomic and biophysical characteristics of the respondents 37 Table 5. Feed resource and feeding system practice of respondents in study districts (N=240) 39 Table 6. Factors affecting the utilization of desho grass as feed by smallholder farmers in the study districts 44 Table 7. Factors affecting the number of uses of desho grass for the household 47 Table 8. Factors affecting preference of desho grass by livestock in the study districts 49 Table 9. Effects of altitude and harvesting days on plant morphological characteristics and number of re-growth days of desho grass 51 Table 10. Effect of altitude, harvesting date and their interacton on chemical composition and yield of desho grass 54 Table 11. Correlation coefficients among morphological parameters, chemical composition, yield and in vitro organic matter digestibility of desho grass 58 Table 12. Correlation coefficients among morphological parameters, chemical composition, yield and in vitro organic matter digestibility of desho grass (continued) 59 Table 13. Daily dry matter and nutrient intake of washera sheep fed natural pasture and desho grass hay basal diet, supplemented with mixture of noug seed cake and wheat bran in 50:50 ratio. 63 Table 14. Apparent digestibility coefficients of nutrients by washera sheep fed natural pasture and desho grass hays basal diet supplemented with mixture of noug seed cake and wheat bran. 65 Table 15. Body weight parameters and feed conversion efficiency of washera sheep fed on natural pasture hay and desho grass hay mixture and supplemented with noug seed cake and wheat bran in 50:50 ratio. 66 Table 16. Correlation between nutrient intake, digestibility and body weight gain in washera sheep fed natural pasture and desho grass hay supplemented with noug seed cake and wheat bran mixture. 69
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LIST OF FIGURES FIGURE PAGE Figure 1. Map Showing Study Districts: Burie Zuria (A), Bahir Dar Zuria (Andassa Livestock Research Center And Bahir Dar University) (B), Farta (C) And Doyogena (D). 28 Figure 2. Feed Shortage Mitigation Strategies Of Respondents In The Two Districts 38 Figure 3. Desho Grass Production Strategies Of Respondents 42 Figure 4. Farmer Cutting Desho Grass (A) And Cow Eating Fresh Grass (B) 46 Figure 5. Trends In Body Weight Changes Of Washera Sheep Fed Natural Pasture And Desho Grass Hay And Supplemented With Mixture Of Noug Seed Cake And Wheat Bran. 67
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LIST OF TABLES IN THE APPENDIX
TABLE PAGE
Table 1. Summary of anova for plant morphological characteristics and number of re-growth days of desho grass as affected by altitude 93 Table 2. Summary of anova for plant morphological characteristics and number of re-growth days of desho grass as affected by days in the midland and highlands 93 Table 3. Summary of anova for plant morphological characteristics and number of re-growth days of desho grass as affected by the interaction of harvesting days and altitudes 94 Table 4. The effect of altitude on chemical composition and yield of desho grass 94 Table 5. The effect of harvesting dates on chemical composition and yield of desho grass in mid altitude area. 95 Table 6. The effect of harvesting dates on chemical composition and yield of desho grass in high altitude area. 95 Table 7. The effect of harvesting dates on chemical composition and yield of desho grass in high altitude area. 96 Table 8. Summary of anova for the dry matter and nutrient intake of washera sheep fed natural pasture and desho grass hay supplemented with noug seed cake and wheat bran mixture in 50:50 ratio. 96 Table 9. Summary of anova for nutrient digestibility of washera sheep fed natural pasture and desho grass hay supplemented with noug seed cake and wheat bran mixture in 50:50 ratio. 97 Table 10. Summary of anova for body weight parameters and feed efficiency ratio of washera sheep fed natural pasture and desho grass hay supplemented with noug seed cake and wheat bran mixture in 50:50 ratio. 97
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EVALUATION OF THE AGRONOMIC, UTILIZATION, NUTRITIVE AND FEEDING VALUE OF DESHO GRASS (Pennisetum pedicellatum)
ABSTRACT This study comprised of field survey, agronomic trial, laboratory and animal evaluation of desho grass. A total of 240 households (hh) were involved in the field survey conducted to assess the status of desho grass production and utilization in Burie Zuria and Doyogena districts, with the use of pre-tested and semi- structured questionnaire. The grass was planted at mid and highland altitudes using vegetative root splits in randomized complete block design to determine the effects of altitude and harvesting dates (90, 120 and 150 days after planting) on morphology, dry matter (DM) yield and chemical composition of desho grass. Feeding & digestibility trials were conducted using 25 Washera yearling rams with mean body weight of 19.4+1.89 kg in randomized complete block design to evaluate the feed potential of desho grass as a basal diet. The dietary treatments studied were; 100% Natural Pasture Hay (NPH) (T1), 75% NPH+25% Desho Grass Hay (DGH) (T2), 50% NPH + 50% DGH (T3), 25% NPH+75% DGH (T4), and 100% DGH (T5). All the treatment groups were supplemented with 300 g/h DM of concentrate & data on feed intake, daily body weight gain, feed conversion efficiency & fecal samples were collected during the 90 and 7 days of feeding and digestibility trial respectively. The field survey data were analyzed with the help of descriptive statistics and probit model using SAS 9.2. The agronomic characteristics and laboratory analytical data were subjected to two-way ANOVA and correlation analysis of SAS 9.2. Animal evaluation data were analyzed using one-way ANOVA of SAS. Tukey’s Honest Significant Test was used to separate means that showed significant difference. The results of the field survey revealed that the mean landholding, livestock holding and family size of the respondents was 0.95 hectare, 3.56 tropical livestock units and 6.5 persons/hh, respectively. The proportion of farmers who use desho grass as a feed were 60% and 35% use it for more than one purpose including feed. About 42, 3 and 53% of the respondents reported that they feed desho grass to lactating cattle, small ruminants and to all livestock species respectively. There was significant positive correlation (P<0.01) between experience of desho grass production practice and utilization for different purposes in the study areas. About 43% of desho grass producers have received training on desho grass production and utilization. The utilization of the grass for many purposes is not well practiced by many farmers, due to in adequate extension services and lack of training. The results of the agronomic trials indicated that leaf length per plant (LLPP) of the grass planted in mid altitude (28.98 cm) was greater than that (21.81 cm) planted in the high altitude. Highest harvesting date significantly increased (P<0.05) plant height (PH), number of tillers per plant (NTPP), number of leaves per plant (NLPP), leaf length per plant (LLPP) and re-growth dates (RGD). The DM yield of desho grass significantly increased, while crude protein (CP) content signifinantely decreased (P<0.05) as the harvesting date increased from 90 to 150 days. Agronomic results
xvii revealed that desho grass performs well both in mid and high altitude areas and represent potential livestock feed resource at early stage (90 to 120 days after planting) of feeding.The daily DM intake and mean daily body gain of the experimental sheep showed significant improvement (P<0.05) with increased level of inclusion of desho grass into the basal ration. The digestibility coefficient of DM, OM, CP, NDF and ADF were significantly different (P<0.05) among the treatments (in the order of T1 Keywords: Altitude, Basal diet, Body weight, Desho grass, In vitro organic matter digestibility, Natural pasture Hay, Harvesting dates, Metabolizable energy, Probit Model, Washera sheep. xviii 1. INTRODUCTION Ethiopia owns the largest livestock population among African countries (CSA, 2015). Livestock contribute 15-17% of GDP and 35- 49% of agricultural GDP, and 37-87% of the household incomes (Ayele et al., 2003). A study by IGAD (2010) indicated that the livestock sector contributes about 47% to the Agricultural Gross Domestic Product (AGDP), including monetary values and the non-marketed services (traction and manure) in Ethiopia. At the household level, livestock plays a significant role as sources of food and family income for smallholder farmers and pastoralists. About 80% of the Ethiopian farmers use animal traction to plough cropping fields (Melaku, 2011). Livestock also plays an important role in urban and peri-urban areas for the poor evoking a living out of it and for those involved in commercial activities (Ayele et al., 2003). Hence, livestock remains as a pillar for food security, human nutrition and economic growth of the county (Shapiro et al., 2015). In developing countries (including Ethiopia) demand for human foods of animal origin is increasing from time to time due to human population growth, rise in income and urbanization (Thornton, 2010) which could be seen as an opportunity to benefit from the livestock sector. However, the contribution of the Ethiopian livestock resource to human nutrition and export earning of the country is disproportionately low due to poor productivity of the animals as compared to the regional and continental average (FAO, 2001; Behnke and Metaferia, 2011). This is mainly due to low quality and insufficient feed supply (Berhanu et al., 2007; FAO, 2010; Getahun et al., 2010). The major available feed resources in Ethiopia are natural pasture, crop residues, aftermath grazing, and agro-industrial by-products (Alemayehu, 2006; Adugna, 2007; Firew and Getnet, 2010; Yaynshet, 2010). The current report of CSA (2015) revealed that 56, 30 and 1.2% of the total livestock feed supply of the country is derived from grazing on natural pasture, crop residues and agro industrial byproducts respectively. However, the contribution of the natural pasture, is retreating from time to time due to poor management and continued expansion of crop farming (Solomon et al., 2003), indicating that livestock feed shortage in the country is further aggravated by the continuous conversion of grazing land to crop land. The available grazing lands are also vulnerable to degradation and consequently become barren and gullies due to poor management. This illustrates the increasing role of poor quality crop residues in livestock 1 feeding (Zewdie and Yosef, 2014), which in turn is explanatory for exploring alternative feed resources. One of the options in combating the existing livestock nutritional constraints is the use of indigenous cultivated multipurpose forages as livestock feed (Abebe et al., 2008; Anele et al., 2009) in addition to crop residues. According to Anele et al. (2009), indigenous forages are familiar with the smallholder farmers, grow with low inputs, and are adaptable to different agro- ecological conditions. The use of indigenous forages as a feed resource is appealing under the present Ethiopian conditions to increase production and productivity of livestock (Shapiro et al., 2015). Thus, one of the interference areas to boost livestock production in the country includes the use of indigenous forages as the major source of feed (Shapiro et al., 2015). Desho grass is one of the indigenous forage species which need a comprehensive research in Ethiopia. Desho grass (Pennisetum pedicellatum) is native to tropical countries including Ethiopia (Ecocrop, 2010; Leta et al., 2013; EPPO, 2014). In Ethiopia desho grass is known as a perennial plant originated in Southern region of the country. Currently the grass is utilized as a means of soil conservation practices and animal feed in the highlands of Ethiopia (Welle et al., 2006; Ecocrop, 2010). The grass is drought resistant plant, used as feed for ruminants (FAO. 2010; EPPO, 2014). It has the potential of meeting the challenges of feed scarcity since it provides more forage per unit area and ensures regular forage supply due to its multi-cut nature (Ecocrop, 2010). Desho grass is suitable for intensive management and performs well at an altitude ranging from 1500 to 2800 m.a.s.l (Leta et al., 2013). The ability of desho grass as drought tolerant makes it easily adaptable to tropical environments. The merits of the grass to provide multi-cut forages suggests that it is a potential feed source in the dry season when feed availability in the tropics is critical (Brias and Tesfaye, 2009). The combined benefits of desho grass suggest the use of the grass as potential feed source and means of soil conservation in the mixed crop livestock production systems of Ethiopia. It is known that the quality of given forage as animal feeds is a function of its nutrient concentration, palatability and digestibility by animals (Julier et al., 2001). Such attributes of forage are affected by the interaction of a number of factors including plant species/variety, plant 2 morphological fraction, environmental factors, and stage of maturity and feeding practices (Papachristou and Papanastasis, 1994). The extent to which these factors affect the productivity and nutritive value of desho grass is not well known in Ethiopia. Therefore, investigating the status of production, agronomic practices, morphological characteristics, chemical composition, nutritive value and utilization of desho grass under different agro-ecological conditions are important tools in understanding the potential value of the grass. 1.2. Research Gap There are certain information generated on desho grass in the form of newsletter and working papers in Ethiopia (Smith, 2010; Leta et al., 2013). The use of desho grass in soil and water conservation has been reported (Welle et al., 2006; Smith, 2010). According to Papachristou and Papanastasis (1994), the nutritive value of fodder and forage crops is affected by different factors such as plant species, plant morphological fractions, the stage of maturity of the plant, and environmental factors including rainfall, temperature and soil type. What has been studied about desho grass in Ethiopia were restricted in locations and focused on the potential value of the grass for soil and water conservation without considering its feed value. There has been no comprehensive and adequately informative attempt made in the area of identification of the feed value and other economic importance of desho grass in Ethiopia. In line with this, Lukuyu et al. (2011) reported the importance of understanding chemical composition and utilization information of locally available feed resources to include it in to livestock feeding system. Thus, it is important to study in to the economic importance and the effects of altitude and stage of maturity at harvest on morphological parameters, yield, chemical composition and livestock feed value of desho grass in Ethiopia. 1.2. Research Questions and Objectives Shortage of feed both in quantity and quality is reported to remain one of the limitations of livestock production in Ethiopia, indicating the need to investigate in to locally available forage plants with potential feed value. Desho grass is one of the locally available forages with high potential for environmental rehabilitation and animal feed. Therefore, it is important to study its characteristics, uses and roles in the farming systems of Ethiopia. 3 The research questions addressed in this study were; (1) What is the status of desho grass production and management in Burie Zuria and Doyogena districts of Ethiopia? (2) How is desho grass utilized by small holder farmers? (3) What factors affect the production and utilization of desho grass under small holder farmers’ condition? (4) Do altitude and stage of maturity at the time of harvest affect morphological fractions, chemical composition and yield of desho grass? (5) What is the response of animals fed desho grass as a basal diet compared to natural pasture hay? General objective The general objective of this dissertation was to generate information on farmers’ utilization and management practices of desho grass, determine effect of altitude and stage of harvest on morphological parameters, herbage yield, chemical composition and feeding value of the grass under controlled conditions. Specific objectives The specific objectives of this dissertation were: 1. To assess the production and utilization practices of desho grass in Burie Zuria and Doyogena districts. 2. To evaluate the effects of altitude and dates of harvesting after planting on the morphological characteristics, yield and chemical composition of desho grass, in Burie Zuria and Doyogena districts. 3. To determine the production performance (feed intake, digestibility and body weight change) of Washera sheep fed different levels of desho grass hay with supplementary concentrate mixture feed. 4 2. LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1. Feed Resources in Ethiopia There are different types of livestock feed resources in Ethiopia, most of which are subjected to seasonal availability. According to Seyoum et al. (2001), feed resources vary with the type of agricultural activities (mode and intensity of crop production), population pressure, agro-ecology, season of the year and environmental conditions such as rainfall distribution. Alemayehu (2005) grouped the Ethiopian livestock feed resources into grazing land (natural pasture), crop residues, aftermath grazing, improved pasture, fodder trees and browse, forage crops and agro-industrial by-products. Moreover, there are also feed resources such as byproducts of vegetables, kitchen wastes, etc generally known as non-conventional feeds. 2.1.1. Natural Pasture Natural pasture is an important sources of ruminant livestock feed in developing countries (FAO, 2001; Solomon et al., 2008). Similarly the major contributor of livestock feeds in Ethiopia is natural pasture or grazing lands (CSA, 2015) and it is reported that about 56.23 % of the total feed resources is derived from grazing on natural pasture (Table 1). Natural pastures include annual and perennial species of grasses and herbaceous legumes (FAO, 2001). The availability of natural pasture in the highlands of Ethiopia depends on the intensity of crop production, population pressure, the amount of rainfall, and distribution pattern of rainfall and seasons of the year (Mohammed and Abate, 1995). The contribution of these factors to the total feed resource base varies from area to area based on cropping intensity (Seyoum et al., 2001). The reliability of natural pasture as a source of feed in Ethiopia is restricted to the wet season (Zinash et al., 1995). And yet grazing lands play a significant role in livestock feeding and support a diverse range of grasses, legumes, shrubs and trees. Feed values of natural pasture fluctuate considerably in quality based on components such as protein and fiber, which are generally inversely proportional to each other. Natural pastures are categorized as poor quality roughage with low intake (Berhanu et al., 2009), tough texture, poor digestibility and nutrient deficiency, 5 particularly that of crude protein and metabolizable energy in relation to the requirements of the animals (Mupangwa et al., 2002). Table 1. Proportion of Animal Feed Resources in Ethiopia S.No. Feed Type Percentage 1 Grazing 56.23 2 Crop residue 30.6 3 Hay 7.44 4 Agro-industrial byproducts 1.21 4 Others feed/concentrate feeds 4.76 5 Improved fodder or pasture 0.3 Source: CSA (2015) In Ethiopia, the available grazing land diminished faster during the last few years and is likely to continue in the future. The increased population pressure, expansion of crop farming, and emerging urbanization leads to further shrinkage of the existing natural pasture land. It has been reported that, the share of natural grazing pasture at the national level has been reduced from 90% (Alemayehu, 1985), to about 56.23% (CSA, 2015). The productivity of the available grazing lands is estimated to range between 0.5 and 6 tons of DM/ha, the value of which is characterized as low productivity as compared to the yield from improved pasture (Adane and Berhan, 2005; Alemayehu, 2006). 2.1.2. Crop Residues In the mixed cereal dominated crop and livestock farming system of the Ethiopian highlands, crop residues provide about 50% of the total ruminant livestock feed resource. The contributions of crop residues could be as high as 80% during the dry seasons of the year (Adugna, 2007). The high dependency on crop residues as livestock feed is expected to be higher and higher, as more and more of the grazing lands are cultivated to satisfy the grain needs of the rapidly growing 6 human population. The contribution of crop residues to the national feed resource base is significant (Solomon et al., 2008), since the available evidences tend to indicate that (Daniel, 1988; Lemma, 2002), under the current Ethiopian condition, crop residues provide 40-50% of the annual livestock feed requirement. According to Gashaw (1992), in most parts of the central highlands of Ethiopia, crop residues account for about 27% of the total annual feed supply during the dry periods. On the average, crop residues provide 10-15% of the total feed intake in the mixed crop-livestock producing areas (Alemayehu, 2004) in the central highlands of Ethiopia. It has been reported that, in most intensively cultivated areas, crop residues and aftermath grazing account for more than 60-70% of ruminant animal’s basal diet (Seyoum et al., 2001).The general tendency is that the role of crop residue as livestock feed is increasing from time to time at the expense of shrinkage of grazing lands (CSA, 2015). Teff, barley, wheat and pulse straws are stacked after threshing and fed to animals during the dry season when the quality and quantity of the available natural pasture declines drastically in different parts of the Ethiopian highlands (Adugna and Said, 1994; Solomon et al., 2008). The supply of these crop residues is directly proportional to the land area used for cropping the grains (Daniel, 1988). Cereals account for more than 75% of the total crop residue yield in the central highlands of Ethiopia (Yoseph, 1999). Crop residues are increasingly becoming the major basal feed for livestock in the crop-livestock mixed farming systems of Ethiopia. The optimum utilization of crop residues is constrained by their low feed quality as measured in terms of protein content and digestibility (Daniel, 1988). Moreover, most of the crop residues used as livestock feed are subjected to seasonal fluctuation in availability and used without any treatment and/or strategic supplementation (Adugna and Said, 1992; Solomon et al., 2008). Crop residues are of very poor in feeding value attributed to low metabolizable energy, available protein and serious deficiency in mineral and vitamins (Staniforth, 1979). Crop residues vary greatly in chemical composition and digestibility depending on varietal differences (Reed et al., 1986) and agronomic practices (Staniforth, 1979). The feeding value of crop residues is also limited by their poor voluntary intakes and low digestibility (Alemu, 1991). The crude protein content of crop residues ranges between 2.4 and 7% and their IVDMD ranges between 34 and 52% (Gashaw, 1992). Cereal straws have a mean CP, NDF, and IVDMD values of 4.5, 79.4 and 7 51.1%, respectively compared to pulse straws, which have a mean CP, NDF and IVDMD values of 7, 62.9 and 63.5%, respectively. Straws of oil crops have CP and NDF values of 5.4 and 66.4%, respectively (Alemu et al., 1991). Crop residues are generally characterized by high fiber content and low digestibility and intake (Zewdie et al., 2011). Most cereal straws and stovers are known for their lower nutritive value compared to haulms of grain legumes and vines from root crops such as sweet potato. The haulms of leguminous crops were reported to represent good quality roughages with CP contents ranging between 5 and 12% (Adugna, 2007). In the highland mixed crop livestock farming systems of the Ethiopian highlands, the cereal crop residues provide about 50% of the total feed source for ruminant livestock. The contributions of crop residues reach up to 80% during the dry seasons of the year (Adugna, 2007). Further increased dependence on crop residues for livestock feed is expected, as more and more of the native grasslands are cultivated to satisfy the grain food needs of the rapidly increasing human population in the country. The total annual production of crop residues in Ethiopia is estimated to be 30 million tons of DM (Adugna et al., 2012), of which 70% is utilized as livestock feed. Based on the existing trend of conversion of grazing land into cropping land, crop residues based livestock production system is expected to increase proportionally (Peter et al., 2010). However, crop residues tradeoffs (using crop residues for different uses) such as household energy source, house construction and other related industrial use may lead to serious competition with livestock production. Crop residues are also advocated in the context of soil conservation and it is recommended that about 30% of the total crop residues produced on a given plot of land should be left on the land for soil amelioration and protection from erosive losses. The combinations of these crop residues tradeoffs will in general reduce the contributions of crop residues to livestock feed resources (Angaw et al., 2011). Hence, there is a need to look for other alternative feed resources as complementary feeds to crop residues. 2.1.3. Agro-industrial By-products Feed resources of agro-industrial origin include by-products of cereal milling and by-products cooking oil extractions, both which are good source of easily fermentable energy and protein. 8 Agro-industrial by-products that are once categorized as wastes are now considered as valuable livestock feeds (Ensminger et al., 1990). Almost all plant material produced or processed for food or feed yields one or more by-products that can be utilized as animal feed. Under the current Ethiopian conditions the major agro-industrials by-products include residues remaining behind oil seed and grain processing (Firew and Getnet, 2010). Residues from the processing of the various agricultural by-products should become a more important element in ameliorating inadequate feed supplies (Devendra and Mcleroy, 1982). Oilseed cakes (oilseed meals) are by- products generated from processing of oil crops such as groundnut, sunflower and soybean. Ibrahim (1998) reported that oilseed cakes are rich in protein quality and quantity and fatty acids. Oil seed cakes commonly used as protein concentrates in animal feeding are soybean meal, coconut meal, cottonseed meal, linseed (flax) meal, noug seed cake, sesame meal and sunflower meal. The use of oil seed cakes in animal feeding are affected by availability and digestibility of amino acids, the concentrations of minerals and vitamins and the level of moisture, fiber and urease. The feeding value of oil seed meal also varies according to the method of extraction (Ensminger et al., 1990). In Ethiopia, oil extraction is done almost entirely by mechanical pressing method with the use of old machines in the oil milling industries (CSA, 2015). It has been indicated that sunflower seed cake was utilized effectively by Menz sheep in the Ethiopian highlands in terms of rumen microbial nitrogen synthesis, nitrogen retention and growth (Osuji and Nashal, 1993). The addition of small amounts of energy such as crushed maize grain on the top of the oilseed cake, further increased microbial nitrogen synthesis, nitrogen retention and live weight gain. Solomon (1992) reported significant increase in growth rates of sheep fed on ration supplemented with groundnut seed cake. Based on feed conversion efficiency, oil seed cakes could be ranked on descending order as cotton seed cake, noug cake and ground nut cake (Solomon,1992).The other major agro-industrial by-products commonly used as animal feed are by-products obtained from flour milling, brewery and sugar industries. Agro-industrial by-products could either be protein concentrate, energy concentrate or both. Local brewer’s byproducts (brewer’s grains) are good source of protein for livestock feeding in Ethiopia (Solomon, 2007). They are low in fiber content, high in digestibility and energy value for ruminant animal feeding compared with poor quality tropical feed resource (Seyoum and Zinash, 1989). Alemu et al. (1991) reported more 9 than 35% crude protein and 50-70% in-vitro organic matter digestibility for oil seed cakes and 18-20% crude protein and more than 80% in-vitro organic matter digestibility for flour milling by-products. Supplementing low quality ruminant feeds with agro-industrial by-products improves animal performance attributed to the higher nutrient density of the supplement to correct the nutrient deficiencies in the basal diet. 2.1.3.1. Noug Seed Cake Oilseed cakes (oilseed meals) are by-products from processing a variety of oil crops such as groundnut, sunflower and soybean. The cakes remaining behind the extraction of cooking oils are rich in protein and fatty acids (Ibrahim, 1998). Among the oil seeds of the tropics, Noug seed (Guizoita abyssinica) is widely cultivated in Ethiopia and represent widely available and cheap source of good quality protein for animal feeding. Noug seed (Guizoita abyssinica) is an annual herbaceous plant with soft hairy stems reaching a height of 15 m. The plant is cultivated in India and tropical Africa, particularly in Ethiopia, for the edible oil obtainable from the small black seeds. Noug seed cake is exported as feed for caged birds. The nutritive value of Noug seed cake is affected by the oil processing method and the degree of extraction of edible oil (Alemu, 1981). Noug seed cake is high in feeding value and could be included as good quality protein concentrate for all classes of livestock. Up to 30% noug seed cake has been successfully used in dairy cattle and poultry rations in Ethiopia. Noug seed cake is reported to contain 88.6% OM, 30.8% CP, 32.4% NDF, 29.7% ADF, 11.7% ADL and 11.4% ash on DM basis (Abebe, 2008). The result of a study was conducted by Ulfina et al. (2003) to observe the response of aged Horro ewes to pre-market supplementary feeding showed an improvement in final weight and daily gain with increased level of noug seed cake based suplementary concentrate. Tadesse and Zelalem (2003) showed that cows supplemented with 208 g noug seed cake had higher DMI than those supplemented with 168 g noug seed cake indicating a positive response to increased supplementation. Similarly, 120 days sheep fattening trial resulted in higher final body weight and average daily weight gain as the level of concentrate feeding (50% noug seed cake and 50% maize mixture) increased from 0 g per head per day to 500 g per head per day (Solomon et al., 1992). On the other hand, supplementation at 400 or 500 g per head /day showed no significant 10 difference in both parameters. In studies conducted using maize stover as a basal diet for sheep, supplementing noug seed cake increased the total DM intake, but with a significant decrease in maize stover intake, and the digestibility of DM, OM, N as well as most of the cell wall components in the total diet increased as percentage of noug seed cake increased in the diet (Butterworth and Mosi, 1986). 2.1.3.2. Wheat bran Wheat bran is readily available and cheap agro-industrial by-product that could be used in animal feeding (Alemu et al., 1989). Wheat bran is one of the most popular and important supplementary concentrate livestock feeds. It is highly palatable and has a mild laxative effect. The bran is the outermost layer of the seed, which is high in fiber, but also contains some flour and is relatively higher in CP content than the seed (Cheeke, 1991). Wheat bran good source of carbohydrates, protein, minerals and vitamins and considered as one of the feeds that can be used for fattening. The CP content of wheat bran varies from 60-220 g/kg DM, but normally ranges between 80 and 140 g/kg DM (McDonald et al., 2010). Gillespie (2002) indicated that wheat bran has 89% DM, 11.3%, CF and 15% ADF. According to Ensminger et al. (1990) wheat bran contains 11% CF, 70% total digestible nutrient (TDN), 3.1 kg Mcal DE and 17.5% CP. Wheat bran has a high capacity to absorb water and swell, has a bulk effect in colon and gives laxative property. Because of their bulky nature and high fiber content, bran and other mill by- products are not usually fed to swine and poultry (Cheeke, 1991). Getenet et al. (1999) reported that supplementation of 400 g/day peanut cake and wheat bran mixtures at a ratio of 75:25 had better response in live weight gain of lactating does and higher DMI and live weight gain in kids. Simeret (2005) reported daily body weight gain of 39.9- 44.72 g/day for Somali goats fed on hay basal diet supplemented with graded levels of peanut cake and wheat bran mixture. Generally, the fiber content of wheat bran makes it a preferred supplement for ruminants rather than for mono-gastric animals (Cheeke, 1991). 11 2.1.4. Indigenous Fodders Shrubs and fodder trees play a significant role in livestock production in all agro-ecological zones of tropical Africa. Fodder tree foliages are commonly browsed directly on trees, or after lopping by livestock herders. They are also offered as cut-and-carry feed install-fed situations (Atta-Krah, 1990). The importance and availability of fodder trees in tropical Africa are influenced by a number of factors such as: the natural distribution of trees within the agro- ecological zones, the distribution, types and importance of livestock, the integration and role of livestock within the farming system, and the availability of alternative sources of fodder in livestock feeding in the agro-ecological zone (Atta-Krah, 1990). Productivity of the fodder trees in terms of foliage production per unit area has been found to be linked with habitat and soil texture. Some fodder trees in humid and sub humid climate were reported to produce 2.3 to 4.69 tons of forage DM/ hectare/year (Baumer, 1992). Fodder trees contain medium to high level of CP ranging from 120-250 g per kg, indicating that they are valuable source of protein in livestock feeding in the tropics (Solomon, 2001). Le Hoearou (1980) reported that fodder trees contain 26-95% DM and 10-30% CP. Perennial fodder trees retain high CP content for longer period than annual shrubs. However, the CP digestibility of certain fodder species was found to be low and several cases of livestock death have been associated with their high tannin content in foliage (Kumar, 1992). The role of fodder trees in ruminant nutrition has not been truly defined and is likely to be different depending on whether they are used as strategic supplement or basal feed source. Indigenous fodder trees and shrubs are important feeds of ruminant animals due to their appreciable nutrient content that are deficient in ordinary feed resources such as crop residues and natural pasture (Orwa et al., 2009; Aberra, 2011; Firisa et al., 2013; Awoke, 2015). Most browse plants are high in crude protein content, ranging between 10 and 25% on dry matter basis. Indigenous fodder trees could be considered as reliable feed resource to develop sustainable livestock feeding system due to their ability of remaining green for a longer period (Okoli et al., 2003 cited in Aynalem and Taye, 2008). The ability of most browse species to remain green for a longer period is attributed to deep root systems, which enable them to extract water and nutrients from deep soil profile which in turn contributes to the increased crude protein 12 content of the foliage (Le Houérou, 1980). There is a very critical need to evaluate the feed values of the indigenous browse plants and develop sustainable feeding standards in the tropics. A wide range of indigenous trees and shrubs are grown in Ethiopia. To mitigate the problem of ruminant animal feed availability and quality in the tropics, use of browse plants as an option has been sought (Enideg, 2008; Aberra, 2011). 2.1.5. Improved Forages Introduction, popularization and utilization of improved multipurpose forage crops and trees such as Sesbania spp., Leucaena leucocephala, Calliandra spp. and Chamaecytisus palmensis through integration with food crops cultivation in the mixed crop-livestock system in Ethiopia started in the 1970s aimed at supplementing the widely available roughage feed resources (Alemayehu, 2006). Unsatisfactory and limited success rates have been reported from the attempts made in the establishment of improved forages (Abebe et al., 2008) with less than one- percent contribution (CSA, 2015) which calls for further effort in extension and research activities in the area. Cultivated fodder crops such as oats, vetch, alfalfa, and fodder beet are not well developed under the present Ethiopian conditions (Getnet and Ledin, 2001; Alemayehu, 2005). Shortage of land in the mixed crop-livestock production system, technical problems such as planting and managing the seedlings, insect damage and low interest of farmers were some of the reported reasons for poor adoption of improved forage production (Abebe et al., 2008). In the highland of Ethiopia, immediate response to population pressure is targeted towards an expansion of cultivated area to maintain per capita crop output (Ruthenberg, 1980). Thus, livestock and crop activities may become competitive for land resources (McIntire et al., 1992). Although the demand for feed may increase under these conditions, competition with food crops is unfavorable to forage adoption, particularly because farmers tend to be unwilling to sacrifice food production to produce fodder for animals (McIntire et al., 1992). Some potential contribution of indigenous multipurpose plants such as Vernonia amygdalina, Buddleja polystachya, Maesa lanceolata, Ensete ventricosum, and Bambusa spp. as a livestock feed resource in the smallholder traditional farming systems has been reported in different parts of the country (Aynalem and Taye, 2008; Beyene et al., 2010). Abebe et al. (2008) noted that 13 farmers showed more interest for multipurpose indigenous fodder trees than exotic ones. This indicates that the potential of improved forage adoption is limited under subsistence oriented livestock production as the economic incentives are low. In contrast, the potential for adoption of improved forages could be higher under market oriented livestock production system, such as dairying with crossbreds or improved breeds, and fattening of large and small ruminants (Gebremedihin et al., 2003). 2.1.6. Non-Conventional Feed Resources Non-conventional feed resources refer to feeds that have not been traditionally used for feeding livestock and are not commercially used in the production of livestock feeds. Feedstuffs such as fish offal, duckweed and kitchen leftovers (i.e., potato peel, carrot peel, onion peel, and cabbage leftover), poultry litter, algae, local brewery and distillery by-products, sisal waste, cactus, coffee parchment and coffee pulp are commonly used in Ethiopia, and could be invaluable feed resources for small and medium size holders of livestock (Negesse et al., 2009). A common feature about feeds is that the traditional feeds of tropical origin tend to be mainly from annual crops and feeds of animal and industrial origin. Due to their low cost and availability of non- conventional feed resources such as by-products from local brewery and distillery are widely used by smallholder farmers (Nurfeta, 2010; Mekasha et al., 2003). According to Negesse et al. (2009), non-conventional feeds could partly fill the gap in the feed supply, decrease competition for food between humans and animals, reduce feed cost, and contribute to self-sufficiency in nutrients from locally available feed sources. It is therefore imperative to examine for cheaper non-conventional feed resources that can improve intake and digestibility of low quality forages. 2.2. Effect of Season on Availability and Quality of Feeds Seasonal fluctuation in the availability and quality of feed has been a common phenomenon influencing livestock production in Ethiopia. Years of good rain enable production of surplus forage while contrasting years of poor rain result in forage production much below what is required to sustain normal development and production in livestock (Alemayehu, 1998). The seasonal pattern of feed supply interacts with seasonal pattern of feed requirement, such as those 14 caused by pregnancy, or lactation and to lesser extent, by difference in metabolic requirements due to changing climatic condition. This is true because of the fact that controlled breeding with seasonal variation of feed supply and demand is not synchronized. In spite of the rising dependence on fibrous crop residues as animal feeds, there are still certain constraints to the efficient utilization of this feed resource. Substantial efforts have been made so far to resolve the feed shortage problem in the Ethiopian highlands, aimed at improving feed availability and thereby improve livestock productivity. However, the impact was so little to cope with the problem that animals are still subjected to the long periods of nutritional stress (LDMPS, 2006). Grazing on either private or communal grasslands was a common practice following the onset of rain starting from late April to early November (Solomon et al., 2008). In general, giving due consideration for the quality and quantity of seasonal availability of feed resources is of paramount importance for the development of appropriate livestock feeding strategies and interventions. 2.3. Effect of Environmental Factors on Plant Growth and Chemical Composition Some of the factors that affects the yield and chemical composition of plants include stage of maturity, soil type, weed infestation, and diseases and pests (Ranjhan, 1980). Thus, employing simple and inexpensive management practices like appropriate planting space, regular weeding, appropriate cutting height and harvesting days will have a significant contribution towards increasing the level of productivity and chemical composition (MRDP, 1990). The soil and its chemical, physical and biological composition exert notable influence on the distribution of plant species. Fodder grown on soil deficient in macro or micro elements will also be deficient in the same nutrients (Ranjhan, 1980). Rainfall promotes rapid vegetative growth during the warm months in tropical and sub tropical areas. With the increase in supply of water to the plants, the absorption of mineral matter, particularly that of calcium increases (Ranjhan, 1980). The plant growth and development is affected markedly by temperature and soil moisture conditions (Daniel, 1996). An increase in ambient temperature favors the conversion of photosynthetic products in to structural components, which has been related to increased proportion of the stems. Leaf quality of forage plants decline as result of lignifications (Ranjhan, 1980). 15 Temperature leads to a five percentage unit difference in dry matter digestibility of tropical grass across various altitudes where it is grown (Minson, 1980). The optimum temperature for the assimilation of CO2 in many plants is around 20-30 °C (Innelli, 1984). Weeds found in any types of pasture compete for space, moisture and nutrients, and result in reduction of forage quality and yield. 2.4. Desho Grass (Pennisetum pedicellatum) Desho grass is a many-branched leafy grass growing up to 1 m high or more (FAO, 2010; Leta et al., 2013). The culms are erect and branching, and the leaves are 15-25 cm long and 4-10 mm wide, flat and glabrous. The spikelets are 4 mm long, usually solitary (Ecocrop, 2010; FAO, 2010). Desho grass is used as fodder and considered to be a very palatable species to cattle (FAO, 2010). The grass provides high green herbage yield ranging between 30 and 109 t/ha (Ecocrop, 2010) and compares favorably with Sorghum bicolor. Desho grass responds well to fertilizer application and could be combined with fodder legumes either in mixtures or in rotational cropping. In short rotation with maize or groundnuts, the grass yields better than traditional forage grasses, especially when fertilized, while the roots and stubbles also increase soil fertility (Leta et al., 2013). From animal feed resource point of view, desho grass is used in temporary pastures or in cut-and carry systems since it provides ample quantities of good quality green forage and stands several cuts a year. The grass is also useful for hay and silage preparation (Ecocrop, 2010). 2.4.1. Geographical Distribution of Desho Grass (Pennisetum pedicellatum) Desho grass is native to tropical Africa and grows widespread within 20°N and 20°S. The grass is mainly found on disturbed land, road edges and on recent fallow lands, where annual rainfall range between 600 mm and 1500 mm with a rainy season of 4-6 months and average daily - temperatures of about 30- 35°C. Desho grass thrives on a wide range of soils (including degraded sandy or ferruginous soils) provided they are well drained. However, the grass is susceptible to water logging and frost but has some drought tolerance (Ecocrop, 2010; FAO, 2010). Desho grass is used as a soil stabilizer in India (Ecocrop, 2010). 16 2.4.2. Nutritive Value of Desho Grass Desho grass has a crude protein content of 9.6% on DM basis at early stage and 1.6% at straw stage, respectively. The digestibility and voluntary intake decrease with increase in stage of maturity which indicates that the grass should be fed at early stage of maturity. Mature desho grass must be well supplemented with protein sources in order to sustain growth and/or milk production. Urea treatment may be a valuable option to improve its nutritive value (nitrogen content and digestibility) with the addition of adequate energy supplementation. The grass is widely used as green fodder for cattle in different parts of the world (Sinsin, 1993; Cisse et al., 2002; Holou, 2002). The nutritive value of late stage desho grass hay is low to support maintenance nutrient requirement of adult rams of 17-25 kg, even if supplementation with nitrogen and energy improves performances. Desho (Pennisetum pedicellatum) grass is widely used as green fodder for cattle (Sinsin, 1993; Cisse et al., 2002; Holou, 2002); however, the grass was found to be inferior to sorghum fodder primarily because of lower voluntary intake (Awadhesh et al., 2000). The supplementation of late-harvested forage with cottonseed meal increased intake and digestibility, attributed to greater stimulation of rumen flora as a result of increased availability of energy and nitrogen-providing nutrients (Nianogo et al., 1997). 2.4.3. Desho Grass in Ethiopia Desho grass is one of the indigenous potential forage species which needed comprehensive research in Ethiopia. Desho grass (Pennisetum pedicellatum) is native to tropical countries including Ethiopia (Ecocrop, 2010; Leta et al., 2013; EPPO, 2014). In Ethiopia desho grass is known as a perennial plant originated in Southern Nations, Nationalities Peoples Regional State in a place called Chencha in 1991 (Welle et al., 2006). Currently it is utilized as a means of soil conservation practices and animal feed in the highlands of Ethiopia (Ecocrop, 2010; Yakob et al., 2015). The grass is popular, drought resistant plant, used as feed for ruminants (FAO. 2010; EPPO, 2014). It has the potential of meeting the challenges of feed scarcity since it provides more forage per unit area and ensures regular forage supply due to its multi-cut nature (Ecocrop, 2010). Desho grass is suitable for intensive management and performs well at an altitude ranging 17 from 1500 to 2800 m.a.s.l (Leta et al., 2013). Desho grass performs best at an altitude greater than 1700 m above sea level (Welle et al., 2006). 2.4.4. Growing Conditions of Desho Grass The provision of all the technical specifications for cultivation of desho grass is essential to improve grazing land management practices. Cuts of the grass are ideally planted in rows, spaced at 10 cm by 10 cm, using a hand hoe (Smith, 2010) in Ethiopia by WOCAT project in SNPPRS. This spacing gives each plant sufficient soil nutrients and access to sunlight to achieve optimal growth, while ensuring that the soil is completely covered by the grass once established. It is recommended to plant other leguminous species alongside desho grass to promote biodiversity. Multipurpose shrubs/trees (Leucaena sp and Sesbania sp.) can be planted approximately 5 m apart with no particular layout. Other legumes (alfalfa and clover) can be mixed with desho grass by broadcast throughout the plot (Danano, 2007). Once planted, desho grass maintenance activities such as applying fertilizer, weeding and gap filling, are required to ensure proper establishment and persistency of desho grass (Solomon et al., 2010). Fertilizer should be applied throughout the plot one month after planting. It is recommended to use organic compost in the form of animal manure, leaf litter, wood ash, food scraps, and/or any other materials rich in biodegradable matters (Danano, 2007). Weeding and gap filling are continuous activities in desho grass production (Leta et al., 2013). After 2 to 3 years, maintenance inputs decrease substantially or cease altogether as the grass cover closes up and the plot becomes a sustainable fodder source. Past interventions have shown that desho based grazing land management practices are best implemented when communal grazing land is re-distributed into small plots (less than 0.5 ha) that are convenient for individual use, development and management (Danano, 2007). 2.5. Effect of Harvesting Dates on Yield and Quality of Forages As there is no work on the relation of harvesting days on quality and yield on morphological fraction and nutritive value of desho grass, citation has focused on other grasses. Terry et al. 18 (2010) reported the chemical composition of three different harvesting dates (60, 90,120 days after planting). The DM, OM, NDF, ADF, ADL and hemicelluloses content of plants increased with increase in harvesting dates from 60 to 120 days after planting, whilst the crude protein showed a decreasing trend. The results of the research conducted to study the effect of different harvesting dates on the chemical composition and herbage yield of Napier grass (Pennisetum purpureum), Taye et al. (2007) reported similar trend to that of Terry et al. (2010), when Napier grass was harvested at 60, 90 and 120 days after planting. The CP decreased with an increase in harvest days. Similar result has been reported by different researchers (Taye et al., 2007; Peiretti, 2009). It was observed that the CP levels decreased by 27% when harvesting date increased from 60 to 120 days. Even though the 60 day harvest yielded the highest cellulose and CP, it recorded the lowest herbage yield, plant height and tiller numbers. The increase in herbage yield with an increase in harvesting days after planting could be attributed to the increase in tiller number, leaf formation, leaf elongation as well as stem development (Ansah et al., 2010). 2.6. Washera Sheep Breed and its Characteristics The Washera sheep breed has a population of about 1.22 million (CSA, 2006) and are one of the most productive Ethiopian sheep breeds (Chipman, 2003) in terms of growth and overall performance. The breed inhabits the northwestern highlands of Ethiopia (Sisay, 2002) mainly the wet, warmer and mid-highlands (1600-2000 m.a.s.l.) of the Amhara and Benishangul-Gumz Regional States (Dangur and Mandura districts) (Solomon et.al. 2007). The Washera sheep is characterized by large body size, wide fat tails curved upward tip, horizontally carried or semi- pendulous long ears and both sexes are hornless with slightly concave facial profile (Sisay, 2002). They have long and thin legs, long neck, and prominently protruding brisket and bigger body size as compared to the other indigenous sheep types found in the Amhara National Regional State. Washera sheep are comparable in size with the Horro, Bonga, and Adilo sheep types found in other parts of Ethiopia (Sisay, 2002). They have a coat cover of short and smooth hair. Three patterns of coat color are observed, namely plain; patchy; and spotted with reddish brown; white patches or spots on the forehead and lower parts of the legs. Plain reddish brown and plain white are dominant color types (Sisay, 2002). Feedlot and on-farm performance of Washera sheep were quite high, with average daily weight gains of up to 126 g, with 500 g per 19 day concentrate supplementation. Washera sheep average hot carcass weights recorded from different experiments ranged between 6 and 16 kg (Tesfaye et al., 2011; Abebe et al., 2011; Wude et al., 2012; Gebru et al., 2015). 2.7. Nutrient Requirement and Growth Performance of Sheep Ruminant animals in developing countries are reared on poor quality roughages, particularly cereal straws (Van Soest, 1994). Among ruminant animals, sheep and goats utilize pasture and rangelands effectively and are capable of turning agro-industrial by-products into milk, meat and fiber (Pond et al., 1995). Nutrients of importance to sheep are the same as that of other ruminant animal species and comprises of energy, protein, minerals, vitamins and water. Most of sheep nutrition programs are based on some type of forage as the primary feedstuff. This can be pasture or range forages, or harvested forages such as hay or silage (Mike, 2007). Pastures and ranges are the natural habitats of sheep, since they thrive under an extremely wide variety of climatic conditions with the utilization of the most adverse types of vegetations. A high proportion of the diet of sheep is normally made up of forage (Cheeke, 1991). Even though there may be wide variation in plants, sheep are able to find the necessary nutrients from grasses, legumes, weeds, shrubs and herbs (Rangjhan, 1997). The nutrient requirement of sheep varies with differences in age, body weight and stage of production. In South Africa, daily dry mater intake (DMI) of Blackhead Persian and Dorper breeds has been reported to range between 0.93 and 1.27 kg per 100 kg live weight. Sheep adapted to arid areas have comparatively lower nutrient requirements which could largely account for their survival under harsh environmental condition of arid lands (Payne and Wilson, 1999). Sheep consume relatively higher proportion of forages than any other classes of livestock. They are naturally adapted to grazing on pasture and ranges and thrive best on forage that is short and fine (Ensminger, 2002). During the grazing season, sheep are able to meet their nutrient requirements from pastures. The major sources of feed for sheep are crop residue including cereal straws and stovers during the dry period. A significant difference in growth rates of sheep supplemented with different types of oil seed cakes has been reported from different parts of Ethiopia. Growth rate of 26, 78 and 54 g/h/d was reported from sheep supplemented with 20 groundnut cake, sunflower cake and sesame cake, respectively (Solomon, 1992). It is also reported that sheep supplemented with cotton seed cake gained more weight than sheep fed rice straw without supplementation (Ngwa and Tawah, 2002). For high rates of growth, the demand for essential amino acids is higher than can be provided by optimized rumen fermentation and therefore supplements of by-pass protein sources should be given to maximize intake and production. 2.7.1. Dry matter intake The voluntary feed intake of sheep depends on the type of diet offered and the physiological age of the sheep. The main dietary factor, determining feed intake appears to be the energy density (Wilson and Pond, 1999). Diets high in fat are consumed in lower amounts so, in such cases, other nutrients such as protein must be increased to ensure adequate nutrition. The results of a number of feeding trials conducted in India and other Asian countries have shown a DM intake ranging between 44 g DM/kg W0.75 for barely straw and 75 g DM/kg W0.75 for alfalfa (Ranjhan,1997). Under intensive rearing conditions, nutrient requirement of (finishing rations) 20-30 kg body weight sheep, comprises of 0.65-0.85 kg DM, 52-65 g DCP and 1.4-2.00 ME MCal (Ranjhan,1993). The daily DMI of growing lambs with mean live weight of 15-35 kg was estimated at 73.1 g/ W0.75 (Ranjhan, 1997). The recommended total DM intake of roughage as percent of body weight for 30 kg sheep is 2.6 % at 780 g DM intake/day (NRC, 1981). The higher the quality of the feed offered, the higher would be the feed intake. Palatability is of great importance in feeding animals for better performance. Unless the feed is palatable, animals will not eat enough feed to permit them to produce meat economically (McDonald et al., 2010). Most of the Ethiopian dry forages and roughages have low CP content, indicating that the rumen microbial nutrient requirement can hardly be met unless supplemented with protein rich feeds (Seyoum and Zinash, 1989). For satisfactory digestion of poor quality roughage, adequate supplementation is needed. The addition of a small amount of high quality concentrate will generally increase rumen fermentation and thereby increase the intake greatly. Intake depends upon the structural volume and cell wall content, whereas digestibility depends up on both cell 21 wall and its ability to resist digestion as determined by lignifications and other factors (Van Soest, 1982). The effect of increased digestibility on improving feed intake depends on the quality of roughage feed used. If the roughage feed has low digestibility, total intake will be increased more than if its digestibility is high. This means concentrate added to roughage of low digestibility tends to be consumed in addition to the roughage, but when added to roughage of high digestibility, it tends to replace the roughage (McDonald et al., 2010). Generally, when the herbage has less CP content, nitrogen supplementation increases both intake and digestibility, particularly when the CP content of the herbage feed is less than 6% (Lambourne et al., 1986). Digestibility is low when a ration has too little CP in proportion to the amounts of soluble carbohydrates. The feed intake of animals is commonly considered to be proportional to their metabolic body weight (W0.75). Bonsi et al. (1996) reported that the DM intake of the Ethiopian sheep fed basal diet of teff straw was about 58.6-82.2 g DM/kg W0.75. Data collected from different feeding trials in different parts of Ethiopia have shown that the DM intake of some Ethiopian sheep types ranged between 368 and 784 g/day (Bimrew et al., 2010; Abebe et al., 2011; Awoke, 2015). Similarly, Solomon (2001) reported DM intake of sheep placed on teff straw ranged between 387.3 and 452.5 g/day. Mean DM intake ranging between 568.6 and 637.2 g/day was reported from Menz sheep supplemented with dried forages of selected multipurpose trees. Ewnetu (1999) also indicated that the daily DM intake of Menz and Horro lambs ranged between 75.5 and 78.3 g per unit of metabolic body weight, respectively. Supplementary concentrates markedly affect concentrate intake per live metabolic body weight; and total DM intake per metabolic body weight (Tadesse et al., 2003). Tesfay and Solomon (2009) reported that increasing levels of concentrate supplement (150, 250, and 350 g) resulted in higher daily total DM intake. Similarly, Awot and Solomon (2009) showed that the DM intake of Afar sheep fed a basal diet of urea treated teff straw was higher for wheat bran supplemented groups as compared to the non-supplemented ones. A result obtained at ILCA (1986) showed that supplementing of 100 g noug seed cake/day/head of a diet of teff straw treated with 2.5% urea and fed ad libitum resulted in reduced straw consumption and increased total feed intake 22 and body weight gain, indicating that there is significance increase in CP and energy intake with increased concentrate level. 2.7.2. Energy requirements Energy is the most limiting nutrients in sheep and goat feeding (Wilson and Pond, 1999). Both sheep and goats obtain energy from pasture, hay, silage, cereal grains, and cereal grain by- products. Mike (2007) remarked that energy needs of sheep are influenced by their body size (weight), the stage of production, the degree of activity, fleece length and environmental factors (temperature, wind chill, etc.). Bigger sheep need a larger intake of energy than small or average sized sheep. Sheep in dry lot or in small pastures need less energy than sheep grazing over large range or pasture areas. In winter, sheep with short fleece need more energy than those with a full fleece. Moreover, the energy status of sheep is dependent on their feed intake, energy content and digestibility of the feeds (Mike, 2007). The daily energy requirements for a 20 kg live weight lambs gaining 0, 50,100, and 150 g/day are summarized in Table 2. Table 2. Daily energy requirements of sheep Animal Category Live weight gain (g/day) DMI (kg/day) 0 50 100 150 Female (MJ/day) 3.4 4.5 5.8 6.5 0.46 Castrated (MJ/day) 3.4 4.5 5.7 6.2 0.46 Male (MJ/day) 3.9 4.8 5.8 6.4 0.46 MJ=Mega joule; DMI=Dry matter intake Source: McDonald et al. (2010) Sheep with small body size, may not effectively utilize the energy contained in bulky feeds, showing that, energy concentration and digestibility is the most important in sheep nutrition. Thus, lambs are often fed high grain diets during finishing aimed at early marketing. Meeting the high-energy demands of rapid growth, rapid fetal development or lactation may also require supplementation with grain (Pond et al., 1995). 23 2.7.3. Protein requirements Sheep need protein, as do other classes of animals for maintenance, growth, reproduction, finishing and production of wool. Green pastures and legume hay (alfalfa, clover, soybeans, and others) are widely available and excellent sources of protein for sheep feeding in most areas. Protein is a critical nutrient, particularly for young and rapidly growing and for mature lactating animals. Consequently, optimal use of protein is important in practical animal feeding systems, since, protein supplements are much more expensive than energy supplements. The provision of by-pass proteins to ruminant animals fed low quality roughages increases feed intake. Part of the response in growing animals might be attributed to the fact that by-pass protein provides amino acid in which microbial protein is deficient. Thus, by-pass protein increase growth rate, which in turn increase feed intake in addition to improving absorbed nutrient balance (Cheeke, 1999). In ruminant animals including sheep, the amount of protein consumed is more important than the quality of the protein (Mike, 2007). In sheep, the rumen microbes use any form of nitrogen to synthesize good quality useable protein. The most common time of protein supplementation would be during periods of high production and rapid growth, when pasture plants are border- line in protein content. Oil seed cakes contain 40-50% CP and are excellent sources of supplemental protein. McDonald et al. (2010) stated that protein requirements of ruminant animals are stated in terms of effective rumen degradable protein and metabolizable protein. Ranjhan (1993) indicated that a 25 kg sheep requires 806-891 g DM and 94-137 g CP for average daily body weight gain of 64- 101g/h/d. Similarly a 20 kg growing sheep require 85 g of CP and 46.8 g of DCP. McDonald et al. (2002) showed that the daily metabolizable protein requirements of growing lambs with a live weight gain of 0, 50, 100 and 150 g /day is 21, 47, 61, and 76 g per day respectively with a daily DM uptake of 0.837 kg/day. According to Pond et al. (1995), the consumption of low quality roughages such as straw and poor quality grass hay can be increased markedly with the addition of protein supplements. The CP requirements for growing and fattening sheep with 20 kg body weight are 85 and 127 g/head/day, respectively (Ranjhan, 1997), whereas according to Cheeke (1999), early-weaned lambs with 10 and 20 kg live weight have CP requirements of 127 g/head/day and 167 24 g/head/day with 26.2 and 16.9 % of DM diet, respectively (Ensiminger, 2002). The growth performance of sheep under grazing conditions could be improved with supplementary feeding of high protein diet. Sheep fed high protein diet (208 g per kg DM/day) had improved DM intake (509 vs. 425.9 g/head/day) and live weight gain (36.6 vs. 10.7 g/head/day) as compared to those on low protein diet (168 g per kg DM/day) (Kabir et al., 2004). Common weeds, browse and aftermath rank as the second most important feed resources for tropical sheep and provide the major feed resource for smallholder flocks during much of the dry season (Devendra and Mcleroy, 1982). Feed resources of agro-industrial origin include those providing easily fermentable energy, protein supplements and by-products of cereal milling which are source of both energy and protein. Agro-industrial by-products that are once thought of as wastes are now considered valuable livestock feeds (Ensminger et al., 1990). Almost every type of plant that is produced or processed for human food yields one or more by-products that can be utilized as animal feed. These feeds mainly include oil seed cakes and cereal grain by- products (Ensminger et al., 1990). Crop residues are potentially rich sources of energy as about 80% of their DM consists of polysaccharides, but underutilized because of their low digestibility, which limits feed intake (FAO, 2002). These constraints are related to their specific cell wall structure, chemical composition and deficiencies of nutrients such as N, S, P and Co, which are essential to rumen microorganisms. Residues from the processing of the various agricultural by-products represent an important element ameliorating inadequate feed supplies as stated by Devendra and Mcleroy (1982). Concentrate feed sources especially cereal grains are expensive for animal feeding (Getnet et al., 1999). Thus, other alternatives and relatively cheaper sources, such as agro industrial byproducts should be looked into. According to Getnet et al. (1999), nowadays, the number of oil extracting and flour milling industries are expanding in different parts of Ethiopia. These by-products provide a potential source of supplements for livestock. 25 3. MATERIALS AND METHODS 3.1. Description of Study Areas The survey work on the production and utilization of desho grass was conducted in Burie Zuria district of West Gojam zone, Amhara National Regional State and Doyogena district of Kembata Tembaro zone of Southern Nations, Nationalities and Peoples Regional State. The agronomic characteristics of the grass were studied at Andassa Livestock Research Center, located in West Gojam and in Farta district of South Gondar Zone of the Amhara Regional State. The laboratory chemical analysis was conducted at International Livestock Research Institute, Animal Nutrition Laboratory (Addis Ababa). The animal evaluation of desho grass was done at sheep research farm of Zenzelma Campus, Bahir Dar University. 3.1.1. Burie Zuria District Burie Zuria district is located in West Gojam Zone, Amhara National Regional State, located between 10˚15′N and 10˚42′29″N latitude and between 36˚52′1″E and 37˚7′9″E longitude. According to Burie Zuria district office of Agriculture (BZDoA, 2014), the total area of the district is 58, 795 ha out of which 52.18%, 6%, 26.88%,10.48% and 10.7% is crop land , grazing area, forest and bush land, wasteland and construction sites and water body, respectively. The topography of the district is characterized by 76% plain, 10% mountainous, 7% up and down, and 7% valleys. Burie Zuria district has three soil types red (63%), blue (20%) and black (17%). The major portion of the district is Woinadega/mid altitude (77.23%) followed by Kola (21.77%) and Dega/high altitude (1%) with daily temperature range of 17-25 degree oC. The annual mean rainfall of the district is 1000 to 1500 mm. The major crops grown in the district are maize, finger millet, teff, wheat, barley, potato, pepper, onion, field pea and faba bean. The total area under desho grass in the district was reported to be 47.5ha (BZDoA, 2014). Burie Zuria district is characterized by both mid and high altitude areas and has an altitude range of 700 to 2300 m.a.s.l. The district is appropriate for different crops and livestock production. The types of livestock reared in Burie Zuria district includes cattle, sheep, goat, equine, chicken and bee colonies (IPMS, 2014). Livestock is considered as an important component in the 26 farming system of the district. Hence, farmers in the study area hold livestock species such as cattle, equines (horses, asses and mules), small ruminants, poultry and bee colonies, which serve the household as source of draft power, meat, milk, honey and beeswax, family income, manure and means of transportation. 3.1.2. Andassa Livestock Research Center Andassa Livestock Research Center (ALRC) is located an altitude of 1730 m.a.s.l, lies between 11° 29' N latitude and 37° 29' E longitude. The area receives about 1434 mm of rainfall annually. The mean annual temperature vary from a maximum of 29.5oC in March to a minimum of 8.8oC in January. The soil of the center is dominantly dark clay soil (ALRC, 2014). 3.1.3. Bahir Dar University Zenzelma campus The animal evaluation feeding trial was conducted at Bahir Dar University, Zenzelma Campus situated in Bihar Dar city administration. It is located at 570 km from Addis Ababa and 7 km from Bahir Dar and lies 11037’N and 37028’E, at and an altitude of 1912 m.a.s.l. The annual average temperature is 290C and annual rain fall ranges from 1428-1521mm (CAES, 2015). 3.1.4. Farta District The highland of Farta district called "Melo”, is located near Debre Tabor Town, South Gondar Adminsrative Zone, Amhara Regional State. The area is located at an altitude of 2650 meters above sea level. Farta district lies between 11°32′ and 12°03′N latitude and 37°31′ and 38°43′E longitude. The major soils of the district comprises of 20% black, 30% red, and 50% brown. The mean annual rainfall is 1570 mm and the mean minimum and maximum annual temperature is 9.6 and 21.5o, respectively (FDoA, 2014). 27 C B A D Figure 1. Map showing Study districts: Burie Zuria (A), Bahir Dar Zuria (Andassa Livestock Research Center and Bahir Dar University) (B), Farta (C) and Doyogena (D). 3.1.5. Doyogena District Doyogena district is found in Kembata-Tembaro Zone, Southern Nations Nationalities and Peoples’ Regional State and located between 7 018'25"N-7 021'49"N latitude and 37045'33"E- 37048'51" E longitude.located at 258 km South-West of Addis Ababa. The district comprised of a total land area of 17,263.59 hectares. About 86% of the total land area is used for crop cultivation, 11.8% forest and bushes, 2% grazing land, and 0.2% degraded land. It has an altitude ranging between 1900 and 2748 meter above sea level (m.a.s.l). The district has two major agro- ecologies, Dega/highland (70%) and Woinadega /mid land (30%). Some 10% of the area is plain land while the remaining 90% is mountainous /hilly. It has a minimum and maximum temperature of 10oc and 16oc, respectively and receives average annual rainfall of 1400 mm (DDoA, 2014). The major crops cultivated in the highlands of the Doyogena district are ensete (Ensete ventricosum), cabbage, potato, barley, wheat, faba bean and field pea. In the low altitude of the 28 district, farmers cultivate sugar cane and maize. The soil type is mostly black clay loam, rich in organic matter (InterAide, 2014).The total land area under desho grass was estimated to be 2,789.5 ha. The district has a livestock population of 46,703 cattle, 13,822 sheep, 1,444 goats, 6,343 equines and 27,253 poultry (DDoA, 2014). 3.2.Survey on Desho Grass Production and Utilization The study districts were purposely selected for the field surveys based on their total land allocated to desho grass production and utilization. Four Kebeles were purposely selected from each of the two districts based on their respective land area planted to desho grass. A total of 240 desho grass producers (30 from each Kebele) were used to conduct the assessment on the production and utilization of desho grass using the formula: 푁 n= (Yamane, 1967) 1+푁(푒 2) Where n is sample size computed, N is the total households in the study area and e is the level of precision. The assessment was conducted using semi-structured questionnaire administered by experienced and trained enumerators. The questionnaire was prepared and pretested before the actual data collection started. The data collected with the use of the questionnaire were complemented with information obtained from key informants that included (among the others) elderly people and community leaders of the Kebeles as well as animal science and natural resource experts. Secondary data were obtained from the district agricultural offices. Livestock holding per household was converted to tropical livestock unit using the conversion factors (ILCA, 1990). The data collected include the socio-economic factors, desho grass production and utilization and purpose and role of desho grass. The dependent variables tested were the extent of use of desho grass as a feed, multipurpose aspect of desho grass and livestock preference in feeding the grass. 29 3.3.Study on Agronomic and Laboratory Characteristics The agronomic characteristics of the grass were studied at Andassa Livestock Research Center, and in Farta district of South Gondar Zone. A total area of 88 m2 was selected from each of the mid land and high land locations. These were ploughed in May and harrowed in June 2014. The experiment was laid out in randomized complete block design having three replications and a net plot of size 3 m x 3.25 m in both mid and highland locations. Desho grass obtained from Southern Nations and Nationalities Regional State by CASCAPE - project was planted using vegetative root splits in rows. Soil samples were taken from each plot before planting and analyzed for major elements such as N, P, C, OM, pH, and texture. The spacing between rows and plants were 50 and 10 cm, respectively. Land preparation, planting, weeding and harvesting was made according to the recommendations (Leta et al., 2013). DAP and urea were applied at planting and after establishment at the rate of 100 and 25 kg per ha. The morphological parameters such as plant height and leaf length were measured with measuring tape and the number of tillers and leaves were computed as mean of counts taken from ten plants that was randomly selected from the middle rows of each plot at 90, 120 and 150 days after planting in both locations. The leaf to stem ratio was determined by cutting plants from randomly selected two consecutive rows, separating in to leaves and stems, drying and weighing each component. Harvesting was done by hand using a sickle, leaving a stubble height of 8 cm above the ground. Following the first harvesting date, follow-up study was done to determine the re-growth potential and subsequent harvesting. A fresh herbage yield of the grass was measured immediately after each harvest and weighed on the field soon after mowing using a field balance. Sub-samples were taken from each plot at each site to determine fresh yield. The crude protein yield (CPY, t/ha) was determined by multiplying DMY by CP content. Finally adequate quantities of the sub-samples were dried in oven at 65OC for 72 hours and stored in airtight bags to be used for chemical analysis. 30 3.4. Animal Evaluation Experiment 3.4.1. Experimental Feed Preparation The treatment set up of the animal evaluation experiment is shown in Table 3. The basal diets (desho grass and natural pasture hay) were prepared in advance, before the commencement of the feeding trial. Desho grass grown at Bahir Dar University College of Agriculture and Environmental Sciences animal farm was harvested at four months of age (Leta et al., 2013), prepared into hay, transported to the experimental site and stored in dry places well protected against rain and rodents. Natural pasture hay was purchased from the surrounding farmers, transported to the experimental site and properly stored. Both desho grass and natural pasture hay were chopped (at the size of 1-10cm) to improve intake by the experimental animals. Wheat bran and noug seed cake were purchased from Bahir Dar flour and oil factories and stored in cool and dry place until included in the experimental ration. Table 3. Experimental rations used in the feeding trial Treatments Basal diet Supplement (g DM/Day CM) 1 100% NPH ad libitum 300g 2 75%NPH+25% DGH ad libitum 300g 3 50%NPH+50%DGH ad libitum 300g 4 25% NPH+75%DGH ad libitum 300g 5 100%DGH ad libitum 300g Key: NPH=natural pasture hay; DGH=Desho grass hay; DM=dry matter; CM=concentrate mixture (NSC 50%:50% WB). 3.4.2. Management of the Experimental Animals Twenty five yearling rams of Washera breed of sheep were purchased from local markets based on dentition and information provided by the owners. Soon after arrival at the experimental 31 station, the animals were vaccinated against ovine pasteurellosis, sheep pox, blackleg and anthrax with 1ml ovine pasteurellosis vaccine, 1ml sheep pox vaccine and 1/2 ml anthrax vaccine per sheep, respectively. The sheep were also de-wormed against internal parasites (flat worms and round worms) and sprayed against external parasites (tick and mange). The experimental sheep were quarantined for 21 days in a separate house and placed on the experimental site for 15 days of preliminary period to get accustom to the new environment. The animals were closely observed for incidence of any ill health and disorders during the preliminary period. At the end of the preliminary period, the sheep were individually weighted and divided into 5 groups each with initial group weight of 19.4+1.89 kg (mean+ SD)/sheep. The five treatment rations were randomly assigned to the experimental animals in randomized complete block design with five replications for a feeding period of 90 days. The experimental animals were housed in disinfected and well ventilated individual pens. Each pen was provided with adequate floor space and equipped with feeding and watering troughs. The experimental sheep were identified with neck collars. Noug seed cake and wheat bran were mixed in 50:50 ratio and offered at 300 g of DM/head at 0800 and 1600 hours in two equal portions daily. Basal diet and supplemental feeds were offered separately. All sheep had free access to clean water and salt throughout the experimental period. 3.4.3. Growth Trial Daily feed offered and refusals were collected from each treatment throughout the experimental period. Daily mean feed intake was measured as differences between offered and refused feeds. The sheep were offered ad libitum hay, at 25% refusal adjustment at every week, throughout the experimental period. The body weight of each animal was taken every ten days after overnight fasting. The daily body weight gain was calculated as the difference between final body weight and initial body weight divided by number of feeding days. The feed conversion efficiency of the experimental animals was determined by dividing the average daily body weight gain by the amount of feed consumed per day. 32 3.4.4. Digestibility Trial The digestibility trial was conducted at the end of the feeding trial. In the digestion trial, each sheep were fitted with fecal collection bags for four days of acclimatization period to fecal collection bags prior to collection period of seven consecutive days. Each experimental sheep were offered known amount of the diet under investigation followed by collection and weighing of feces excreted. The feces collected were thoroughly mixed. About 20% of the mixed feces samples were taken and frozen at -10 ºC, and pooled over the collection period for each animal (put standard reference for it). At the end of the collection period, each sample were mixed and dried at 60 ºC for 72. Samples of the feed consumed and feces collected were taken to ILRI Animal Nutrition Laboratory and subjected to laboratory chemical analysis. Finally digestibility of each nutrient was calculated using the following equations: Apparent nutrient digestibility coefficient = Nutrient intake – Fecal nutrient output Nutrient Intake 3.5. Laboratory Analysis The chemical analysis of all samples of feeds collected during agronomic and feeding trials, refusals and feces were conducted at International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI) Animal Nutrition Laboratory. The grass samples were dried at 65oc for 72 hours and ground to pass through a 1mm sieve. Ash/Organic matter (OM), Dry mater (DM), Crude protein and total ash were determined according to AOAC (1990). The neutral detergent fibers (NDF), acid detergent fiber (ADF), acid detergent lignin (ADL) were determined according to Van Soest and Robertson (1985). True in vitro organic matter digestibility (TIVOMD) was determined according to Tilley and Terry (1963). The metabolizable energy (ME) was estimated from digestible energy (DE) and IVOMD using regression and summation equations developed by NRC (2001): 33 First DE (Digestible energy) was obtained using the formula: DE= (0.01*(OM/100)*(IVOMD+12.9)*4.4)-0.3 then ME (MCal/kg) =0.82*DE was calculated and converted to Kilogram ME (MJ/Kg) =4.184*ME (MCal/kg). Where: DE=digestible energy; IVOMD= invitro organic matter digestibility; ME= metabolizable energy; MJ= mega joule; MCal= Mega calorie and kg=killo gram. 3.6. Sampling Technique and Statistical Analysis Purposive sampling technique was employed to select districts and Kebeles but simple random sampling method was used to determine the households for the interview. A factorial experiment with two factors was applied to determine the effect of altitude and harvesting dates on morphological parameters, nutrient composition and yield of desho grass. A randomized complete block design (RCBD) was used to evaluate local sheep performance when desho grass hay replaced natural pasture hay at different levels as a basal diet and supplemented with noug seed cake and wheat bran mixture. The data collected from the desho grass production and utilization assessment were systematically coded and analyzed using Statistical Analysis System (SAS, 9.2). The dependent variables (desho grass utilization as feed, number of roles of desho grass and preferences of desho grass) were binary in nature and independent. To accommodate this non-independence, a bivariate probit model was used to simultaneously estimate the effect on the probability of multiple use of desho grass to set of explanatory variables. All data obtained from chemical analysis and animal experiment were subjected to analysis of variance (ANOVA) using the General Linear Model (GLM) procedure of Statistical Analysis System (SAS) software, version 9.2 (SAS, 2007). The model for laboratory analysis in agronomic and laboratory study consisting of altitude and harvesting days and their interactions, while the model for feeding and digestibility trial included the treatment and error effects. 34 Models used in the three studies: 1. The statistical model used in survey of desho grass production and utilization can be expressed as: Yi = xi. + I where Y1 is the decision vector, xi is a vector of explanatory variables derived from household surveys, with as the corresponding regression coefficient and is the error term. 2. The statistical model for agronomic and laboratory study consisting of altitude and harvesting days and the following mathematical model was applied to analyze the effect of all possible factors in the two sets of analysis: Yijk = µ+ Ai + Hj + Ai*Hj+ εijk Where Yijk is the response (plant morphological parameters, chemical composition, yield and in vitro organic matter digestibility of desho grass) at each altitude and harvesting days µ =overall mean, Ai= altitude (i =mid and high), Hj= effect of harvesting days (j =90, 120 and 150), th th Ai*Hj= the interaction of i altitude and j harvesting date εijk = the residual error. 3. The statistical model for the feeding and digestibility trial included diet and error effects analysis of data was: Yij = μ + ti + bj + eijk, Where, Yij is the response variable, μ= is the overall mean, ti= is the treatment effect, bj =is the block effect and eijk is random error. The data were analyzed using the General Linear Model (GLM) of SAS 9.2 (2002). Turkey’s honest significant test was employed for separation of treatment means. 35 4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 4.1. Desho Grass Production and Utilization 4.1.1. Household Characteristics of Desho Grass Producers The socioeconomic characteristics of the respondents are presented in Table 4. In Burie zuira district the majority of respondents were at mid age 41-50 years (35.0%) followed by younger age group 31-40 (26.67%) and 51-60 (19.17%) called elderly group. The same kind of age structure was observed for Doyongena respondents with the large majority (60.83%) laid on mid age followed by youth (14.17%) and younger age (12.5%).The higher population of the literate class in both districts may have advantage of "good acceptance" of improved agricultural technologies. This literacy level is better than the findings of other authors (Zewdie and Yosef, 2014; Yeshambel and Bimrew, 2014; Bedasa et al., 2015) from different parts of the country. Education plays vital role to adopt and promoted new technologies. Moreover, it was explicitly indicated that farmers with high educational levels adopt new technologies more rapidly than farmers with lower level of educated (Ofukou et al., 2009). The mean land holding of the respondents in both districts were lower than the national average land holding of about 1.6 ha/hh, reported by FAO (2008) which might in turn affect improved forage production in both districts. The relatively lower land holding obtained from both study districts could be due to the higher mean population density in both districts. The types of livestock species kept by respondents in both districts comprise of multipurpose cattle, sheep, goats, equines and chicken. In Burie Zuria district the mean TLU for cattle, sheep, goat, equine and poultry population were 4.92, 0.32, 0.27, 1.06 and 0.07 TLU, respectively. The total means TLU of Burie Zuria (6.64) was lower than 9.87 TLU (Solomon, 2006) reported for Dejen district, Amhara National Regional State. The mean TLU of 2.68, 0.28, 0.15, 0.72 and 0.04 were observed for cattle, sheep, goat, equine and poultry, respectively, for Doyogena respondents. The total mean TLU holding of Doyogena district (3.87) was smaller than that (5.45 TLU/hh) reported by Yeshitila (2008) from Alaba 36 district, Southern Nations Nationalities and People’s Regional State. In both districts, multipurpose cattle (cattle used for draft power, milk and meat) are dominant livestock with relatively higher energy and protein diets requirnment. Table 4. Socioeconomic and biophysical characteristics of the respondents Socioeconomic characteristics Burie zuria district Doyogena district Age of households N % N % 18-30 years 11 9.17 15 12.50 31-40 years 32 26.67 17 14.17 41-50 years 42 35.00 73 60.83 51-60 years 23 19.17 10 8.33 >60 years 12 10.00 5 4.17 Education level of respondents Illiterate 25 20.83 32 26.67 Read and write 48 40.00 33 27.50 Elementary school 31 25.83 11 9.17 Junior level 9 7.50 29 24.17 High school 7 5.83 15 12.50 Household characteristics Mean SD Mean SD Family size 5.97 1.4 6.61 1.2 Active labor 3.71 1.3 4.10 1.7 Total livestock unit 5.46 1.6 3.57 1.4 Land holding 1.3 0.4 0.6 0.6 Key: SD=standard deviation. 4.1.2. Feed Resources and Feeding System Shortage of feed is the major problem raised by all the respondents in both districts. In Burie Zuria district, 98.3% of the respondents face seasonal feed shortage of which the majority (54.2%) reported to have faced the problem during dry season. The remaining 45.8% respondents reported to have faced feed shortage both during and wet seasons. In Doyogena district, 99.2% of the respondents face feed shortage of which about 86.3% reported to have 37 faced the problem in dry season and the remaining reported to have faced the problem both during dry and wet seasons. Feed shortage mitigation strategies of the respondents in study districts are shown in Fig.2. 60 50 40 30 Burie Zuria 20 Doyognea 10 0 Purchase feed Crop residue only Purchase feed+ only crop residue Figure 2. Feed shortage mitigation strategies of respondents in the two districts The feed shortage mitigation options of both districts were similar. In Burie Zuria district, feed shortage mitigation strategies comprise of feed purchasing and the use of crop resides (54.2%), feed purchasing only (35%), and the use of crop residue only (10.8%). In Doyogena district, feed shortage mitigation strategies comprises of feed purchasing only (43.4%), the use of crop residue only (34.4%) and both feed purchasing and use of crop residue (21%). As indicated in other parts of the country (Rehrahie, 2001; Adugna, 2007; Fetsum et al., 2009; Firew and Getnet, 2010) increment in crop production and increment of livestock population are considerably adding the feed shortage in the study areas. The feeds and feeding system practiced by the respondents is shown in Table 5. The major feed resources available in both districts comprised of natural pasture, crop residues, natural pasture hay, and some indigenous fodder trees and improved forages including desho grass. The major feed resource of Burie Zuria district included natural pasture (47.5%) followed by crop residue (42.5%), while the major feed resource of Doyogena district included natural pasture (41.5%) 38 followed by crop residue (46.4%), indicating that crop residues are gradually becoming the dominant feed resources in both districts. Table 5. Feed resource and feeding system practice of respondents in study districts (N=240) Parameters Districts Feed resource for livestock Burie zuria Doyogena N % N % Grazing only (yes) 57 47.5 42.5 51 Crop residue only(yes) 51 42.5 56 46.4 Grazing and crop residues 12 10 13 11.1 Feeding system Full day grazing(yes) 96 80 109 91.9 Grazing and night time supplementation (yes) 24 20 11 0.9 Supplementation practice Supplement your livestock (yes) 109 90.8 117 97.1 Supplement your livestock (No) 11 9.2 3 2.9 Livestock feeding could be categorized as partial grazing plus home or homestead feeding in both study districts. In Burie Zuria district 80% of respondents use half a day grazing plus home feeding using cut fodder and cereal crop residues, while 20% of respondents follow whole day grazing plus night time supplementation. In Doyogena district, 99.1% of respondents reported to follow half day grazing plus half day home feeding with green fodder and crop restudies depending on availability. Relatively few (0.9%) respondents reported to have used the whole day grazing in Doyogena district. Home or homestead feeding observed in the study districts is an interesting feature of livestock feeding with enormous advantages in promoting fodder development aimed at using cut and carry system. In Burie Zuria district, about 90.8% of respondents provide supplementary feed on the top of grazing, while in Doyogena districts 97.1% of the respondents provide supplementary feed on the top of grazing. The supplementary feeds used were reported to be green fodder (49.7%), local brewers by product (33.1%) and grain hulls and other byproducts (18.2%) in Burie Zuria district while green fodder (67.3%), Enset leaves (28.4%) grain hulls and byproducts (4.3%) were reported to have been used as supplementary feed resources in Doyogena district. The types of 39 animals given supplementary feeds in Burie Zuria district included lactating cows (44%), draft oxen (32.80%), both lactating and draft oxen (19.1%), and all grazing animals (4.1%). Similarly, lactating and draft oxen (53.3%), lactating cows (28.7%), draft oxen (10.7%), and all grazing animals (4.9%) are reported to be given priority in supplementation in Doyogena district. Depending on the production system being employed, there are reports that indicate the contribution of crop residues as feed resource outweigh far more than grazing and browsing (Seyoum et al., 2001; Solomon, 2004; Awoke, 2015). The same study reported that crop- residues and stubble grazing accounted for about 74.15% of the total annual feed supply year round during the time at which feed intake from grazing is inadequate or almost unavailable. In most intensively cultivated areas, crop residues and aftermath grazing accounts for about 60 - 70% of the basal diet (Seyoum et al., 2001). All the respondents of both districts reported to have practiced improved fodder (including desho grass) production and utilization. In Doyogena district, the majority of the respondents (77.9%) produce desho grass only, with few others (6.6%) producing fodders like vetch and vetch and elephant grass (4.1%). In Burie Zuria district only few (6.6%) produce desho grass only with larger proportion practicing many types of fodders including desho grass, Sesbania sesban and Rhodes grass (49.9%) followed by desho grass, oat, vetch and S. sesban (31.2%) and desho grass, elephant grass and S. sesban (13.4%). Due to its positive biological impact on degraded lands, the government of Ethiopia has given due attention to the use of forage development in stock exclusion on watershed areas, even if much progress has not been achieved till recently (CSA, 2013). The available reports in Ethiopia (Alemayehu, 2005; Abebe et al., 2008) indicated that unsatisfactory and limited success rates of improved forage development had been encountered because of shortage of land in the mixed crop-livestock agriculture and technical problems such as poor skils in planting and managing of the seedlings, insect damage and low interest of farmers. Hence, the introduction of desho grass into the farming system has the advantage to mitigate the feed shortage problems. According to CSA (2015), the improved forage contribution to the livestock feed source is insignificant (0.3%) and calls for further effort in extension and research activities in both districts. Due to unprecedented population increase, land scarcity and crop-dominated farming, there has been 40 limited introduction of improved pasture and forages to smallholder farming communities and the adoption of this technology by smallholder farmers has been generally slow (Solomon et al., 2010). 4.1.3. Production and Management of Desho Grass The system of desho grass production in the study areas was mainly based on rain fall in a similar way to the other forage species. In Burie Zuria district, 80% of the respondents depend on water availability for desho grass production and about 4.2% reported to have used irrigation. The other 15.8% reported to have used both rain and irrigation as the case may be. Establishment of desho grass in the study districts was based on using root splits as reported by all the respondents of both district. The results of this study are in agreement with the earlier ones (Leta et al., 2013). In Doyogena district, all the respondents reported to have depended on rain for desho grass cultivation. Fertilizer application in the form of manure or artificial fertilizer is important for desho grass production (Leta et al., 2013). In the study districts, fertilizer application was not uniform both in the type of fertilizer used and in mode of application. In Burie Zuria district, 58.3% of the respondents apply either natural or artificial fertilizer on desho grass and the remaining respondents (41.7%) do not use either of the two fertilizer types. Among the respondents that use fertilizer, 75.83% and 24.17% are found to apply manure and commercial fertilizer, respectively. In Doyogena district 64.5% of the respondents use either of the two fertilizer type of which about 94.6% use manure and the remaining (5.4%) use commercial fertilizer. In both districts weeding of desho grass was not practiced, may be due to lack of awareness and shortage of labor. 41 Figure 3. Desho grass production strategies of respondents The frequency of cutting the desho grass after the first harvest in Burie Zuria district was reported to be every two weeks (44.7%) during the rainy season. About 20.3% of respondents reported to practice more than two weeks frequency of cutting and about 35% of the respondents’ indicated to have used variable frequency of cutting based on the availability of moisture. In Doyogena, 23.8% of the respondents harvest at a frequency of every two weeks, whereas about 74.6% reported that frequency of cutting depends on moisture availability. This is in line with the recommended practice of harvesting desho grass at about 4 months of age after planting and the frequency of cutting after the first harvest depends on moisture availability (Leta et al., 2013). In Burie Zuria district 70.8% of respondents had training on desho grass planting and utilization while in Doyogena district only 13.3% of the producers got training on desho grass production and utilization. The discrepancy may be due to the fact that desho grass was relatively new fodder and much emphasis has been given on training of producers in Burie Zuria while in Doyogena the grass has been there for relatively long time and less emphasis has been given on the training aspect. 42 4.1.4. Utilization of Desho Grass 4.1.4.1. Desho grass as feed The results obtained showed that the utilization of desho grass as animal feed (Table 6) was given more emphasis because of the majority of the respondents (60%) use the grass as animal feed. There was a hypothesis that utilization of desho grass as feed is affected by district characteristics. The result indicated that there was significant negative correlation (P<0.01) between utilization of desho grass as animal feed and non-feed roles og the grass as reported by respondents of Bure Zuria district while significant positive correlation (P<0.01) between utilization of desho grass as animal feed and non-feed role of the grass was observed in the case of respondents of Doyogena district. The results obtained tend to indicate that desho grass is better utilized as feed in Doyogena district as compared to Burie Zuria district. The relatively low status of utilization of the grass as feed in Burie Zuria district indicates that the district is suitable for cereal grain production, which in turn results in better availability of crop residues to be used as feed. Farmers in Doyogena district tend to use more of cut and carry system. In Doyogena district, the major crops grown are potatoes and ensete (Ensete ventricosum) which generate comparatively smaller quantities of crop residues for livestock feeding. Age of household head was assumed to have correlation with utilization of desho grass as feed. The results showed that age of the household head was not significantly correlated (P>0.05) with the degree of utilization of desho grass as animal feed, indicating that all age groups use desho grass for the intended purpose. Previous reports by other workers (Adesina and Zinnah, 1993; Fufa and Hassan, 2006) found that increase in age of a farmer was associated with low probability of using agricultural technologies as shown by the existence of a non-linear relationship between age and the use of agricultural technologies (Rogers, 1983). 43 Table 6. Factors affecting the utilization of desho grass as feed by smallholder farmers in the study districts Explanatory variables Est. Coeff. SE SL District -1.34 0.40 *** Household head age 18-30 years -0.55 0.53 ns 31-40 years -0.16 0.48 ns 41-50 years -0.55 0.44 ns 51-60 years -0.61 0.47 ns Education level: Illiterate 0.58 0.36 * Read and write 0.86 0.39 * Elementary school -0.11 0.34 ns High school -0.29 0.42 ns Experience in desho grass (years) -0.20 0.08 ** Active labors (N) -0.04 0.06 ns Farmland size (h) 0.28 0.26 ns Backyard desho production 0.29 0.32 ns Access to training (yes) -0.93 0.26 *** Total livestock units (N) 0.04 0.06 ns Feeding system (grazing) 0.98 0.36 *** R2 0.37 No observations 240 *=p<0.05;**=p<0.01;***=p<0.001, SE= standard error; SL=significance level; R2= Coefficient of determination. The hypothesis was as experience of desho grass production increases, utilization of the grass as feed also increases. However, there was significant negative correlation (P<0.01) between the experience in production of desho grass and utilization of desho grass as animal feed showing that experienced members of the farming community in desho grass production, prefers to use the grass for other purposes like soil stabilization. This result is in agreement with the previous reports on desho grass (Welle et al., 2006; Smith, 2010) which indicated that desho grass has valuable role in soil conservation. The assumption was that presence of active labor in the family would significantly affect utilization of desho grass as feed. But the result indicated that there was no statistically significant correlation (P>0.05) between the number of active laborers in the 44 homestead and the utilization of desho grass as animal feed, indicating that the production and use of desho grass as feed is not necessarily labor intensive and require larger plot sizes. Size of farmland was assumed to affect utilization of desho production as feed because those farmers who have relatively bigger farmland size use it for desho production and in turn use it as feed. However, the results of the current study showed that there was no significant correlation (P>0.05) between farmland size and the distance of the desho grass plots from the households. Farmers usually plant desho grass on backyard and small plots of land on soil bunds. They do not have the tendency to increase desho grass production even with the availability of adequate land. Training access on desho grass production and utilization was hypothesized to be significantly correlated with utilization of the grass as feed. The result showed that there was significant negative correlation (P<0.01) between training of the farmers and the use of desho grass as animal feed, tending to indicate that training increases awareness on the alternative uses such as feed, soil conservation and income roles of desho grass. Total livestock holding of household was assumed to have significant effect on utilization of the grass as feed but there was no significant correlation (P>0.05) between livestock numbers in the household and the utilization of desho grass as animal feed, might be due to the low levels of livestock holding per household in the two districts studied (averages of 3.56 TLU). The type of livestock feeding system practiced was positively and significantly correlated (P<0.01) with the use of desho grass as animal feed as hypothesized. This might be due to the fact that there was a high tendency to use desho grass as a supplement when grazing is the main source of feed. During the period of serious feed scarcity, farmers prefer to feed desho grass to lactating animals and desho grass was fed to all types of animals if it is available in plenty. The educational level and use of desho grass for animal feed were not significantly correlated (P>0.05). This might be due to the fact that respondents have the same indigenous knowledge and experience of respondents in using desho grass. This is contrary to the expectation and previous findings (Mugisha et al., 2004; Salasya et al., 2007) which reported that education enhances the use of agricultural technologies because educated farmers have a better opportunity 45 to acquire and process information as well as understand the technical aspects of new technologies. A B Figure 4. Farmer cutting desho grass (A) and cow eating fresh grass (B) In Burie Zuria district, about 57.5% of the respondents use desho grasses as source of income through the sale of seedlings. In Doyogena district, only 12.3% of respondents get income from the sale of desho grass seedling and fresh grass. The variation of income in the use of desho grass as income source might be due to the availability of alternative feeds in Burie zuria and sell of seedling as income source than the farmers in Doyogena district. The use of desho grass as income sources is in line with Shiferaw et al. (2011) who stated that desho grass has a role as income source for farmers. Apart from income generation, desho grass was used for soil conservation in both districts; the result is in agreement with that of the other reports (Leta et al., 2013; Welle et al., 2006) explained that desho grass was income source for stallholder farmers in other areas of the country. 4.1.4. 2. Factors Affecting the Number of Roles of Desho Grass The factors affecting the number of roles (single, dual, and multiple roles) of desho grass is presented in Table 7. There was no significant correlation (P>0.05) between the numbers of roles of desho grass and age groups of the respondents which was in contrary to the hypothesis that age would have significant effect on number of roles. This may be due to the fact that desho 46 grass was produced in the study districts on very small plot of land which may be used for one or more roles in both districts. The result indicates that the knowledge and experience of desho grass production and general utilization in both districts was almost similar and all age groups have similar knowledge about the roles of desho grass. Table 7. Factors affecting the number of uses of desho grass for the households Explanatory variables Single role Dual role Multirole Est. SE Est. SE Est. SE Coeff. Coeff. Coeff. District -0.94 0.34 0.64 0.42 0.68 0.76 Age of household head 18-30 years -0.44 0.49 0.59 0.58 0.04 0.78 31-40 years -0.18 0.44 0.25 0.52 0.45 0.65 41-50 years -0.36 0.40 0.73 0.49 0.03 0.57 51-60 years 0.24 0.44 0.68 0.52 -0.59 0.73 Education level: Illiterate 0.34 0.35 -0.66 0.39* 0.34 0.58 Read and write only 0.24 0.37 0.35 0.40 -0.21 0.63 elementary school completed -0.07 0.33 0.21 0.35 -0.40 0.59 High school graduated -0.23 0.41 0.38 0.43 -5.10 0 Experience in desho grass (years) -0.13 0.08* 0.09 0.09 0.19 0.15 Active labors (N) -0.01 0.06 -0.03 0.06* 0.08 0.11 Farmland size (h) -0.01 0.24 0.11 0.27 0.14 0.46 Backyard 0.17 0.30 -0.24 0.34 0.11 0.52 Total livestock units (N) 0.04 0.06 -0.11 0.06 0.02 0.11 R2 0.12 0.29 0.70 No observations 240 240 240 *=p<0.05;**=p<0.01;***=p<0.001; SE= standard error; R2= Coefficient of determination; N=number. Desho grass production and utilization is relatively a new experience in both districts and most of the respondents have similar understanding about the roles of desho grass. Level of education was assumed to have significant effect on utilization of desho grass as feed. However, the result showed that, education level of the household head has no significant correlation (P>0.05) with the number of roles of desho grass showing that high educational level is not important in the use 47 of desho grass for different purposes. Desho grass production experience of farmers had significant correlation (P<0.01) with the number of roles of desho grass as initially hypothesized. That means the more years of production of desho grass gives them the ability to utilize it for different functions. There was no significant correlation (P>0.05) between the number of active labor force and the number of roles of desho grass in contrary to the initial hypothesis. This might be due to desho grass was not highly expanded and replaced other crops which otherwise could require large labor. The hypothesis was that size of farm landholding would significantly affect the number of roles of desho grass. But the result showed that there was no significant correlation (P>0.05) between farm size (land holding) and the contribution of desho grass within the household, since the grass is produced as a backyard crop on small plot of land on soil bund production strategies which are less competing with the other crops for the available farm land. There was no significant correlation (P>0.05) between the size of total livestock holding and the number of roles of desho grass as total livestock owned for both districts which in contrary to the hypothesis. This can be explained as desho grass was used in small quantities as supplementary feed rather than using in large amounts as basal diet (grazing and crop residues) which tend to require large volume of feed per day depending on the number of TLU per household. 4.1.5. Factors Affecting Preference of Desho Grass for Livestock The preference of desho grass for livestock species is presented in Table 8. There was significant correlation (P<0.01) difference between Burie Zuria and Doyogena districts in desho grass for lactating cattle, small ruminant and all livestock as hypothesized. This may be due to the fact that Burie Zuria district has got large number of livestock (4.37 TLU) holding per household than Doyogena district (2.75). The possible explanation for this may be Burie Zuria district which has large livestock per household uses other alternative feeds sources which satisfy the larger population. 48 Table 8. Factors affecting preference of desho grass by livestock in the study districts Variables Lactating Cattle Small ruminants All livestock Est. Coeff. SE Est. Coeff. SE Est. Coeff. SE District 0.64 0.39* 15.17 1.66*** -0.82 0.40** Household head age 18-30 years -0.39 0.48 31.28 1.98 0.16 0.49 31-40 years -0.28 0.44 32.37 3.51 0.32 0.44 41-50 years -0.28 0.40 28.17 1.40 0.26 0.40 51-60 years -0.76 0.44 25.79 2.53 0.59 0.44 Education level of household head: Illiterate 0.43 0.37 7.38 1.81 -0.65 0.37 Read and write 0.57 0.38 6.91 1.66 -0.75 0.38 Elementary school 0.45 0.36 3.95 2.90 -0.55 0.36 High school -0.20 0.44 11.47 4.15 0.03 0.43 Active labor family -0.03 0.06 -0.30 0.84 0.16 0.09 (N) Feed Shortage 5.85 0.33*** -0.93 0.26 -1.48 0.52*** Landholding (ha) -0.12 0.25 -1.52 3.95 0.14 0.25 Total livestock (TLU) -0.14 0.06** -2.37 2.00 0.25 0.07* Backyard desho -0.05 0.30 -1.80 2.42 0.00 0.30 production R2 0.24 0.993 0.31 No observations 240 240 240 *=p<0.05;**=p<0.01;***=p<0.001, SE= standard error.TLU= Tropical Livestock Unit; N=number; R2= Coefficient of determination The hypothesis that household age would significantly affect utilization of desho grass for different species was disproved and the result showed age has no significant (P>0.05) correlation on utilization of desho grass for different species of livestock. This might be due to the fact that desho grass is used for different types of animals depending on the availability of desho grass. Household education level has no significant (correlation (P>0.05) between utilization of desho grass for different species of livestock in contrary to the initial hypothesis. This indicates that desho grass utilization does not need high literacy level or special knowledge. There was hypothesis that active labor in the family would significantly affect desho grass utilization as feed. However, the result showed there was no significant correlation (P>0.05) between active labor on the use of desho for lactating, small ruminant, and all types of livestock may be because 49 desho grass was mostly produced at the backyard of the farmer which in turn does not need much labor force for cut and carry. There was negative significant (P<0.01) correlation between feeds shortage and use of desho grass for lactating cattle, small ruminant and all livestock as initially hypothesized which might be due to the use other feeds such as crop residues to satisfy basal diet requirement because desho grass is a supplementary diet in all respondents. Farmland size has no significant (P>0.05) correlation with the types of livestock species fed desho grass in contrary to the initial hypothesis. This might be due to the fact that desho grass was not planted on large area of land as a trade off for other forages or crops. Initially it was hypothesized that the larger livestock holding in the family the more utilization of desho grass as feed. But the result showed there was negative and significant correlation (P<0.01) correlation between the total livestock holding and desho grass utilization for lactating cattle and all livestock may be due to the fact that desho grass was not used as basal diet and farmers tend to use other feeds sources as basal diet and use desho grass as supplementary diet. On the other hand, there was no significant (P>0.05) correlation between backyard production and species of livestock fed desho grass may be due to the fact that desho grass was produced in small amount and used in small amount as supplement for all types of species available. In addition to lactating cattle, desho grass was used for fattening cattle (14%) and equine (3.8%) in both districts. This is in line with other studies reported that the grass is considered to be a very palatable species to cattle (in India) and the palatability has been reported as average in the Sahel (FAO, 2010). 4.2. Agronomic and Laboratory Characteristics of Desho Grass 4.2.1. Effects of altitude, harvesting days and their interactions on plant morphological characteristics and number of re-growth days of desho grass The results of the effect of altitude, harvesting dates and their interactions on plant morphological characteristics and re-growth potential of desho grass are presented in Table 9. The results obtained indicate that with the exception of leaf length per plant (LLPP), other morphological characteristics of desho grass studied were not significantly affected (P>0.05) by 50 altitude. Desho grass grown in high altitude area have taken relatively longer period (P<0.05), to reach full re-growth after harvest which might be due to the environmental variations between mid and highland areas. Table 9. Effects of altitude, harvesting dates and their interactions on plant morphological characteristics and number of re-growth days of desho grass Factors Parameters Attitudes Harvesting dates PH NTPP NLPP LLPP LSR RGD (cm) (counts) (counts) (cm) (days) Mid 90 72.97b 33.67b 262 21.38b 1.25a 15.33b 120 101.30a 50.03a 326.67 32.12a 1.18a 18.00ab 150 107.5a 59.02a 342.33 33.44a 0.82b 20.00a Mean 93.92 47.66 310.33 28.98 1.08 17.78 SE 8.02 3.00 25.54 2.96 0.09 0.96 Sig. *** *** ns *** *** *** High 90 69.33b 47.82 286.67b 18.05 1.23 18.67 120 86.83ab 49.48 317.67ab 20.72 1.15 19.67 150 105.26a 47.82 330.33a 26.66 0.81 21.67 Mean 87.14 49.47 311.56 21.81 1.06 20.00 SE 4.71 3.61 8.17 3.17 0.06 1.00 Sig. *** Ns *** ns ns ns Overall mean 90.53 48.57 310.95 25.395 1.07 18.89 Overall SE 11.34 5.60 31.98 5.59 0.14 1.59 CV (%) 12.53 11.54 10.28 21.93 12.99 8.42 P-value Altitude ns ns ns *** ns *** Harvesting date *** *** *** *** *** *** Interaction ns *** ns ns ns ns Treatments means with different letters in a columnare significantly different (P < 0.05) for altitudes. SE=Standard error; CV= coefficient of varation; PH=plant height; NTPP= number of tillers per plant; LLPP=leaf length per plant; LSR= leaf to stem ratio; RGD= Regrowth date; ns= non segnifcant. 51 The relatively shorter duration (17.78 days) required to attain full re-growth status of the grass planted in the mid altitude as compared to the duration of 20.00 days required to attain similar status of re-growth in the high altitude might be due to variations in altitude, temperature and soil characteristics of the two locations. In mid altitude, Plant height (PH), number of leaves per plant (NLPP) and number of tillers per plant (NTPP) were significantly (P<0.05) increased as harvesting stage increases from 90 to 150 days. In high altitude, the only parameter increased significantly (P<0.05) with harvesting stage was plant highet (PH) by increament in harvesting days. In the mid altitude area, like the highlands, plant height was low at early stages of growth, but enhanced growth was observed after 120 days of harvesting. The increment in PH at latter stage of harvest might be due to full development of steam and leaf. Number of leaves per plant was significantly increased (P<0.05) as the age of plant increased may be due to the full stage of growth which contribute to the number of leaves and total biomass of the plant. In the highland agro ecology, the results obtained indicate that with the plant height (PH), number of tillers per plant (NTPP), and leaf length per plant( LLPP) were significantly (P>0.05) lower at early harvesting date (90) but 120 and 150 dates did not show significant difference. Plant height is an important parameter contributing to yield in forage crops. Plant height was low at early stages of growth, but enhanced growth was observed after 120 days of harvesting. The duration required to fully re-vegetate in the high altitude was significantly different (P<0.05) among harvesting dates indicating that late stage of harvest takes more time to re-vegetate. The increment in PH at latter stage with advancement in harvesting dates in both altitudes might be due to full development of steam and leaf. This result is in agreement with Taye et al. (2007) who reported the same characteristics for Napier grass. The number of tillers per plant was significantly (P<0.05) at the mid altitude in relation to the advance in harvesting date of plants as the result of the development of new shoots bearing on each plant result in greater number of tillers as the plant matures. The results obtained from highland areas indicate that with the plant height (PH), number of leaves per plant (NLPP), were significantly (P<0.05) higher at late harvesting date (150) but 90 and 120 dates did not show significant difference. The increment in number of tillers per plant was in line with other reports for different grasses (Kamel et al., 1983; Seyoum et al., 1998; 52 Taye et al., 2007). The number of leaves per plant (NLPP) was not significantly (P<0.05) different due to harvesting dates in the mid altitude. Leaf to stem ratio (LSR) was not significant between 90 and 120 dates of harvest but a significantly different (P<0.05) result was observed for the latest harvesting date (150 day) LSR decreased significantly (P>0.05). The works of different authors also confirm this result for different species of tropical grasses (Boonman, 1993; Tessema, 2000; Taye et al., 2007). The duration required to re-vegetate after harvest (re- growth dates) were significantly (P<0.05) varied due to harvesting dates. The number of days required to attain good status of re-growth was significantly affected (P<0.05) by altitude. Relatively longer growth time after later stage of harvest was observed which might be due to slow development of new shoots as the result of maturity of the plant. The only parameters that showed significant (P<0.05) difference was the interaction between number of tillers per plant, altitude and harvesting dates. 4.2.2. Effect of altitude, harvesting date and their interacton on chemical composition and yield of desho grass The effect of altitude, harvesting dates and their interaction on chemical composition, dry matter and crude protein yield and in vitro organic matter digestibility of desho grass is shown Table 10. There were significant differences (P<0.05) in percent dry matter, percent organic matter, crude protein, crude protein yield and phosphorous contents between mid and high altitudes, which might be associated with environmental differences such as temperature, moisture and soil characteristics. The mean CP content of the current result is lower than that reported by Kabore et al (2012). This discrepancy can be explained by the fact that chemical composition and overall quality of a given forage is affected by soil nutrient (Tessema et al., 2011), climate (Arzani et al., 2008) and associated factors. Moreover, the inherent type of species and soil characteristics are important factors in altering the nature of forage quality. 53 Table 10. Effect of altitudes, harvesting dates and their interacton on chemical composition and yield of desho grass Factors Parameters Attitudes Harvesting DM (%) DMY OM (%) CP CPY NDF (%) ADF ADL IVOM ME (MJ/Kg Ca P dates (t/ha) (%) (t/ha) (%) (%) D (%) DM) (g/kg) (g/kg) Mid 90 30.85 13.71b 92.71a 9.55 1.41 75.19 41.82b 4.38 47.13 6.82 3.60ab 2.00b 120 31.07 15.20ab 92.14a 8.25 1.44 75.75 43.43ab 5.54 44.62 6.5 4.11a 2.35ab 150 32.33 21.60a 88.95b 8.0 1.41 77.14 45.84a 5.81 47.13 6.82 2.60b 2.63a Mean 31.42 16.84 91.27 8.6 1.53 76.03 43.7 5.24 43.06 6.13 3.44 2.33 SE 1.12 2.56 0.63 0.55 0.21 1.33 0.91 0.54 2.93 0.49 0.23 0.13 Sig. ns *** *** ns ns ns *** ns ns ns *** *** High 90 27.35 11.71b 85.52b 8.17a 0.97 70.38b 38.72b 4.84 44.1 6.69 3.56 3.37a 120 27.75 12.25b 88.99ab 7.55ab 1.01 72.17b 40.86ab 5.52 42.12 6.13 3.42 3.10b 150 31.61 19.91a 90.36a 5.61b 1.13 78.22a 44.28a 6.11 48.21 5.87 3.54 2.5c Mean 28.9 14.62 88.29 7.11 1.04 73.59 41.29 5.49 44.81 6.23 3.96 2.86 SE 1.12 2.48 0.63 0.55 0.20 1.33 0.9 0.54 2.92 0.49 0.23 0.13 Sig. ns *** *** *** ns *** *** ns ns ns ns *** Overall mean 30.16 15.73 89.78 7.86 1.29 74.81 42.51 5.37 43.94 6.18 3.7 2.60 SE 1.94 3.35 1.30 0.95 0.32 2.04 1.83 1.32 4.95 0.83 0.54 0.25 CV (%) 6.43 21.31 1.45 12.05 25.06 2.72 4.31 24.68 11.27 13.40 14.49 9.54 P-value Altitude *** ns *** *** *** *** *** ns ns ns ns *** Harvesting ns *** ns *** ns *** *** ns ns ns *** ns date Interaction ns ns ns *** ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns Treatments means with different letters in a column are significantly different (P < 0.05) for altitudes. SE=Standard error. Alt=altitude; DM= dry matter; DMY=dry matter yield; CP=crude protein; CPY=crude protein yield; CV= coffcient of variation; ns=non significant NDF=neutral detergent fiber; ADF=Acid detergent fiber; ADL=Acid detergent lignin; IVOMD=In vitro organic matter digestibility; ME=metabolaizbale energy; Ash=ash content; Ca=calcium; P=phosphorous. 54 Studies show that, feeds containing more than 12.0 MJ/kg of DM of metabolizable energy and feeds containing less than 9.0 MJ/kg of DM of metabolizable energy are categorized as high and low enegy feed, respectively (Lonsdale, 1989). Hence, according to this classification, desho grass grown in both mid and high altitude is classified as low energy feed that are below the minimum maintenance energy requirement of sheep (McDonald et al., 2010). The result of the high altitude location indicated that there were significant differences (P<0.05) in dry matter yield (DMY), organic matter (OM), crude protein (CP), neutral detergent fiber (NDF), acid detergent fiber (ADF), and Phosphorous content between the grasses harvested at different dates. The DMY and OM content of desho grass significantly increased (P<0.05) as the days of harvest increased. The CP content, however, decreased as the harvesting days increased. The acid detergent fiber (ADF) component of the grass showed a tendency of increment with change in altitude and harvesting dates. The reduction in CP content and increament in ADF contents indicates that more cellulo-lignose formation and decrement in soluble fraction including CP with advancement in age of the plants. Similar to the mid-altitude location, Phosphorus content of the plant also showed significant reduction (P<0.05) with increase in harvesting days. The result of this study is in agreement with that of the others (Berihun, 2005; Berhanu et al., 2007) who reported that DM content of grasses increased with an increase in growth and development status of the plants, and with advancement in harvesting dates. The highest total dry matter yield was reported at the harvesting date of 150 days after planting, the results of which was in agreement with that of Leta et al. (2013) indicating that time of harvesting had high influence on dry matter yield. The parameters significant (P<0.05) by the interaction of altitude and harvesting dates were organic matter (OM) and Phosphorus (p) content. The yield increment might be due to the additional tillers developed which brought an increase in leaf formation, leaf elongation and stem development (Crowder and Chheda, 1982). The highest yield of forage harvested at late stage of maturity could also be attributed to the availability of favorable rainfall, temperature and soil nutrient over the extended growing period. The significant increase in dry matter yield with increase in the age of plants was in agreement with the results reported by other (Koster et al., 1992; Yasin et al., 2003) from trials conducted on both cultivated grasses and natural pasture in different parts of Ethiopia (Fekede et al., 2014). 55 The mean CP content of desho grass (8.6%) obtained from the mid altitude and (7.5%) from the highland study areas were higher than that reported (6.5%) from the same species in other countries (Waziri et al., 2013; Heuze and Hassoun, 2015). The mean CP content of desho grass obtained from the current experiment was within the range of 5.9-13.8% reported for Pennisetum species (Napier grass) (Kanyama et al., 1995; Kahindi et al., 2007). The CP content reported from both altitudes is comparable with that of most of tropical grasses (Humphreys, 1991) and that of most of the Ethiopian roughages which have a CP content of less than 9% (Seyoum and Zinash, 1989), the amount of which is lower than the minimum CP requirement (9%) for rumen microbial protein synthesis (ARC, 1980). According to the results of this study, CP content (8.6%) of desho grass planted in the mid altitude was higher than that planted in high altitude (7.5%) which might be associated with the difference in temperature, precipitation and soil characteristics as indicated by Daniel (1996), who reported that plant growth and nutritional quality are markedly affected by temperature and soil moisture conditions. Lignifications of forages appeared to occur almost constantly with increase in harvesting dates. However, the result of this study was in agreement with that of other workers (Whitman, 1980; Yihalem et al., 2005; Taye et al., 2007) who reported that lignin content increase with increase in the days of harvesting. This might be due to the fact that as plants grow older there is a greater need for the development of structural carbohydreates such as cellulose, hemicelluloses and lignin. Commonly, the upper leaves produced by older plants appear to be more of lignified than younger leaves (Whiteman, 1980). Among macro minerals, Phosphorous and Calcium are the most important nutrients required for normal animal performance. The Phosphorous content of the desho grass planted in the mid altitude (2.86g/kg) was significantly higher than that planted in the high altitude (2.32g/kg). The difference in Phosphorous content of the desho grass planted in mid and high altitude might be due to variation in soil characteristics and climatic condition which determine the uptake of soil nutrients by the plants. The result of this study indicated that the P content of desho grass decreased with increase in harvesting days, which might be due to the translocation of P to the root parts of the herbage as described by Crowerder and Chheda (1982). The information obtained from this study is in agreement with other researchers (Kariuki et al. 1999; Tessema et 56 al., 2002) who reported that the P content in grass declined with advancing stages of cutting. The Ca and P values obtained from the current study were comparable to that reported from desho grass species by Heuze and Hassoun (2015). The values of Ca recorded from desh grass at all the three dates of harvesting were higher than the minimum critical level of Ca requirnment of beef cattle (0.18%-1.04%) as reported by (NRC, 1984). Generally, the chemical composition of desho grass varied with the phenology in a similar way to that of other tropical grass species (Upadhyay et al., 1978; Jakhmola and Pathak; 1983). 4.2.3. Correlation Analysis of Morphological and Nutritional Parameters of Desho Grass The simple linear bivariate correlation analyses among morphological, quality and yield parameters of desho grass are presented in Table 11. The NTPP was positively correlated with other morphological parameters such as NLPP and LSR as well as RGD. The LSR was positively correlated with IVOMD and ME which might be due to the fact that leaves have more organic matter that contributes to the organic matter digestibility and available energy for metabolism. Dry matter content and yield of desho grass were positively correlated with NDF, ADF, PH and LLPP and with each other. The positive association of DM and DMY with some of the morphological parameters (plant height and leaf length per plant) may result from better competition for radiant energy at the extended days of harvesting. Such type of correlation was observed in other study (Hunter, 1980). This indicated that as the DM increased, the cell wall constituents also contributed for increment of plant parts which eventually lead to increament in total DMY. However, the DM and DMY were negatively correlated with LSR which might be due to the fact that, as plant matures it increases the stem portion which has more DM than the leaf part. 57 Table 11. Correlation coefficients among morphological parameters, chemical composition, yield and in vitro organic matter digestibility of desho grass D DM CP CP NDF ADF ADL NTP PH NLP LLPP RGD LSR TA P Ca IVO ME M Y Y P P MD DM 1 0.67 -0.05 0.47 0.67* 0.68* 0.25 -0.14 0.51* 0.32 0.68** -0.04 -0.55* -0.32 -0.59** -0.41 -0.20 -0.13 * * * DM 1 -0.24 0.63 0.64* 0.78* 0.31 -0.02 0.58* 0.46 0.48* 0.19 -0.47* -0.17 -0.37 -0.35 -0.11 -0.02 Y * CP 1 0.54 -0.03 -0.12 -0.08 -0.12 -0.07 -0.14 0.28 -0.61* 0.39 -0.32 -0.16 0.04 0.02 0.02 * CP 1 0.38 0.57* 0.14 -0.13 0.44 0.22 0.56* -0.31 -0.03* -0.42 -0.44 -0.24 0.05 0.14 Y ND 1 0.72* 0.17 0.08 0.40 0.33 0.44 0.23 -0.52* -0.19 -0.52* -0.38 -0.14 -0.10 F * AD 1 0.28 0.03 0.60* 0.47* 0.56* 0.16 0.49* -0.38 -0.53* -0.38 -0.01 0.08 F * AD 1 0.09 0.55* 0.47* 0.45 0.23 -0.42 0.24 -0.04 -0.31 -0.24 -0.21 L * NT 1 0.46 0.65* 0.28 0.70* -0.26 0.21 -0.31 -0.04 -0.32 -0.28 PP * 58 Table 12. Correlation coefficients among morphological parameters, chemical composition, yield and in vitro organic matter digestibility of desho grass (continued) DM D CP CP ND AD AD NT PH NLPP LLPP RGD LSR TA P Ca IVO ME M Y F F L PP MD Y PH 1 0.72** 0.84** 0.28 0.50* -0.07 -0.62** -0.43 -0.29 -0.17 NLPP 1 0.64* 0.64* -0.61* -0.16 -0.46 -0.41 -0.17 -0.11- LLPP 1 0.05 -0.41 -0.21 -0.63* -0.35 -0.42 -0.32 RGD 1 -0.47* 0.28 0.04 0.03 -0.23 -0.23 LSR 1 0.08 0.41 0.52* 0.08 0.01 TA 1 0.56* 0.51* -0.33 -0.37 P 1 0.66* 0.06 -0.05 Ca 1 -0.12 -0.21 IVOM 1 0.98** D ME 1 Level of significance: ** = P < 0.01; *= P < 0.05; DMY = dry matter yield; DM = dry matter; DDMY = digestible dry matter yield; CP = crude protein; CPY = crude protein yield; NDF = neutral detergent fiber; ADF = acid detergent fiber; ADL=acid detergent lignin; TA = total ash; Ca = calcium; P=phosphorous; IVOMD= in vitro organic digestibility; NLPP=number of leaves per plant; LLPP=leaf length per plant; RGD=re-growth date; NTPP = number of tillers per plant; Ph = plant height. 59 The crude protein content and yield of desho grass were positively correlated with ADF and with each other. The ADF content of desho grass was positively correlated with NDF. The fiber components (NDF, ADF, cellulose) and lignin were positively correlated with each others.This indicated that there was a high relationship among the different cell wall constitutes that resulted from increased age of the plants. These components of cell wall increased as the age of plant increased and showed a higher association (P<0.001) with each other. ADF fraction is positively correlated with PH, NLPP, LLPP and LSR. The ADF fraction was negatively correlated with LSR. LSR was positively correlated with IVOMD which was in agreement with earlier reports s (Yihalem et al., 2005: Taye et al., 2007). The results also showed that PH was negatively correlated with Ca content of desho grass. The direct relationship between leaf to stem ratio and CP content and the inverse association of leaf to stem ratio and fiber content were both previously observed by Tessema et al. (2002) in Napier grass. This difference might be due to the species variation and management of the grasses. 4.3. Animal Evaluation of Desho Grass (Pennisetum Pedicellatum) 4.3.1. Chemical Composition of Experimental Feeds The result of the chemical composition of the experimental feeds and refusals are presented in Table 12. It has been stated that CP content ranging between 7 and 7.5% is required to satisfy the maintenance requirement of ruminant animals (Van Soest, 1982). Hence, the observed CP content of natural grass and desho grass hay used in this feeding trial was found to be below the maintenance requirements of sheep. The nutrient content of pure natural pasture hay was lower than that of pure desho grass hay. The CP content of natural pasture hay was lower than the previously reported (Bimrew et al., 2010; Yeshambel et al., 2012; Awoke, 2015) from natural pasture hay of Northwestern Ethiopia. Such variations could partly be attributed to location, soil type, variety, post harvest handling and stage of maturity at harvest. The physical characteristics of the hay used for this experiment indicated that it was harvested at late stage of maturity which could explain low CP and high fiber contents. The CP content of the treatment diets increased and that of NDF, ADF and ADL decreased with increasing proportion of desho grass inclusion in the diet. 60 Table 12. Chemical composition of experimental feeds and refusals used in animal evaluation experiment Feed Offers (g/Kg DM) Treatment DM Ash OM CP NDF ADF ADL T1 912.50 115.11 884.89 35.20 712.3 464.3 56.9 T2 921.26 116.60 883.40 45.46 695.4 426.4 54.0 T3 925.41 123.14 876.86 52.90 676.5 414.8 45.1 T4 928.28 119.21 880.79 57.30 685.9 414.9 48.6 T5 935.15 121.29 878.71 54.49 673.1 381.1 36.0 ConMix 908.67 86.60 913.40 225.00 380.3 238.8 92.9 Basal Feed refusals (g/Kg DM) T1 931.50 97.45 902.55 22.03 745.4 464.4 61.9 T2 930.13 90.43 909.57 22.84 740.8 456.3 63.8 T3 929.05 111.11 888.89 33.65 679.1 435.7 51.5 T4 933.15 111.37 888.63 39.31 698.4 423.5 47.8 T5 926.93 106.26 893.74 38.24 700.2 421.8 51.4 Keys: DM=dry matter; OM=organic matter; CP=crude protein; NDF=neutral detergent fiber; ADF=Acid detergent fiber; ADL=Acid detergent lignin; T=treatment; T1= 100% NPH adlib+(300g DM CM);T2=25% NPH+75% DGH adlib+(300g DM CM);T3= 50% NPH+ 50% DGH+(300g DM CM ); T4= 25% NPH+ 75% DGH adlib+(300g DM CM ); T5=100% DGH adlib+(300g DM CM ). The mean CP content of desho grass hay used in the current study was comparable with the reports of Aliyu et al. (2012) but lower than that reported by other workers (Waziri et al., 2013; Heuze and Hassoun, 2015) from other countries. However, mean CP content of desho grass hay used in the current experiment was within the range of5.9- 13.8 %, recorded from Napier grass (Kanyama et al., 1995; Kahindi et al., 2007). The ash content of desho grass is higher than that reported from other countries (Aliyu et al., 2012). It has been stated that CP value ranging between 7 and 7.5% is required to satisfy maintenance requirement of ruminant animals (Van Soest, 1982). Hence, the observed CP content of the basal diet used in the current study was below the maintenance requirements of sheep. According to Pond et al. (1995), NDF portion of feed could be used by ruminant animals which depend on 61 microbial fermentation of most fibrous plant components. Feeds low in ADF constitutes more digestible nutreitn as ADF is negatively correlated with feed digestibility of nutrients (McDonald et al., 2010). Lonsdale (1989) classified feed materials according to their energy and protein contents. Feedstuffs having more than 200g/kg of DM of CP are categorized as protein high feeds and feedstuffs containing less than 120g/kg of DM of CP are categorized as protein low feeds. Similarly feedstuffs containing more than 12.0 MJ/kg of DM of metabolizable energy are classified as high energy feed and feedstuffs containing less than 9.0 MJ/kg of DM of metabolizable energy are classified as low energy feeds. Hence, according to this classification, the concentrate mixture used in the present study could be classified as high protein quality supplement capable of supporting animal growth performance. 4.3.2. Feed Intake The daily dry matter and nutrient intake of sheep fed natural pasture and desho grass hay, with concentrate supplementation are presented in Table 13. The experimental sheep placed on the treatment diets containing 100% (T5), 75% (T4), 50% (T3) and 25% (T2) desho grass hay consumed 22.13, 18.9, 9.06, and 7.06%, respectively, higher than the amonts consumed by the groups placed on 100% natural pasture hay (T1). This result indicates that desho grass hay is superior in nutritive value to natural pasture hay. The results obtained also indicated that an increase in level of inclusion of desho grass hay in the basal diet resulted in significant (P<0.05) and proportional increase in the total basal DM intake of sheep. There was significant (P<0.05) and proportional increase in total daily DM intake of the experimenta sheep. The highest daily DM intake was obtained from the group fed on T5 (0% desh grass hay plus 100% desho grass). The total DM intake as percent of body weight of the experimental sheep was 3% while intake per metabolic body weight of experimental sheep varied from 61 to 64 % although the results were not statistically significant (P>0.05). The daily nutrient intakes of experimental sheep followed the same trend as that of total DM intake. The total DM intake of sheep in the current study was comparable to results of Awoke (2015) for the same breed of sheep fed hay as a basal diet and supplemented with F.sycomorous leaf, fruit and their mixtures. However, the total DM intake was lower than the reports of Yilkal et al. 62 (2014) for the same breed of sheep fed natural pasture hay supplemented with processed lupin grain (Lupinus albus).The high intake of desho grass hay is in agreement with the reports of FAO (2010) which described that the grass was highly palatable for cattle and sheep feeding. The total DM intake noted in this study was comparable to the range of values of 666-788 g/day reported for Farta sheep fed hay supplemented with wheat bran, noug seed cake and their mixtures (Fentie and Solomon, 2008). The mean total DM intake of sheep in the current study was 58.08 kg-1 W0.75 which was comparable to the results of other workers (Bonsi et al., 1996; Mulat et al., 2011) who reported total DM intake of sheep within the range of 58.6-82.2 g DM kg-1 W0.75. The total DM intake expressed as percent of body weight obtained from the current study is in agreement with that of Getu et al. (2012) the value of which is in the range of the recommended dry matter intake of ruminants (2-6%) by ARC (1980). Table 13. Daily dry matter and nutrient intake of Washera sheep fed natural pasture and desho grass hay basal diet, supplemented with mixture of noug seed cake and wheat bran in 50:50 ratio. Parameters Treatments T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 SEM SL Basal DM intake (g/day) 350.23c 374.99bc 381.95b 416.44a 427.75a 6.31 *** CM DM intake (g/day) 300.00 300.0 300.0 300.0 300.0 0.00 Ns Total DM intake (g/day) 650.23c 674.99bc 681.95b 716.44a 727.75a 6.31 *** DM intake (% BW) 3 3 3 3 3 0 Ns DM intake per kg W0.75 61 61 62 63 64 1.5 Ns OM intake (g/day) 583.94c 605.28bc 608.95b 640.82a 649.88a 5.57 *** CP intake (g/day) 72.56d 76.73c 79.38b 82.14a 82.67a 0.24 *** NDF intake (g/day) 324.96b 334.57b 334.57b 355.81a 357.21a 3.91 *** ADF intake (g/day) 204.37b 206.69b 208.68b 209.33b 217.62a 2.49 *** ME (MJ/Kg DM) 6.04c 6.76b 7.10b 7.88a 8.22a 0.16 *** a, b, c=means within rows having different superscript are significantly different at***= (P<0.05); ADF=acid detergent fiber; BW= body weight; CM=concentrate mixture; CP=crude protein; NDF=neutral detergent fiber; OM=organic matter; SEM=standard error mean; SL=significant level. The OM, CP, NDF, ADF and ADL intakes followed the same trend as that of the daily DM intake and showed significant (P<0.05) difference between the treatments. The general tendency 63 is that there is increase in the consumption of each nutrient with increased level of inclusion of desho grass in the basal ration. Abebe (2008) reported similar feed intake to that of the current study with supplementation of Sesbania sesban at 30% of the ration (0.98% of body weight) which improved total feed intake and digestibility, growth rate and the overall reproductive performance of sheep. The estimated ME (MJ/Kg DM) intake was significant (P<0.05) among as the level of desho grass increased from 0 to 75% but 75 % and 100 % desho grass fed animals showed non-significant (P>0.05). The lowest energy density at which the sheep do not lose weight is between 8 and 10 MJ ME/kg DM and the minimum protein level required for maintenance is about 8% CP in the DM, and the most productive animals such as rapidly growing lambs and lactating ewes need about 11% CP (McDonald et al., 2010). These energy and protein levels are considerably higher than the average values in natural pastures and crop residues. Hence, the ME of desho grass hay in this experiment satisfies the maintenance requirements of lambs as stated in McDonald et al (2010). The increase in ME intake might be associated with organic matter in desho grass similarly to the other nutrients. Studies in other countries indicated that supplementation of desho hay with cottonseed meal increased intake and digestibility, attributed to greater stimulation of rumen flora as a result of increased availability of energy and nitrogen-providing nutrients (Nianogo et al., 1997). 4.3.4. Dry matter and nutrient digestibility The apparent digestibility coefficients of nutrients by Washera sheep fed on different combinations of natural pasture and desho grass hays basal diet with supplementary concentrate are shown in Table 14. The result indicated that the digestion coefficients of all parameters (DM, OM, CP, NDF and ADF) were significantly different (P<0.05) in treatment groups and in the order of T5>T4>T3>T2>T1. The dry and organic matter digestibility coefficient of desho grass reported in the current study were higher than the digestibility of most tropical grasses (54%) (Minson, 1990) and OM digestibility reported for the same species from other countries (66%0 (Bougouma-Yaméogo, 1995). The apparent digestibility of all the nutrients including DM attained by the treatment groups fed on the treatment containing pure (100%) natural pasture hay 64 were significantly (P<0.05) lower than all the others, followed by the group fed on the treatment containing 25-50% desho grass indicating the better nutritive value of desho grass than the natural pasture used in this study. Table 14. Apparent digestibility coefficients of nutrients by Washera sheep fed natural pasture and desho grass hays basal diet supplemented with mixture of noug seed cake and wheat bran. Parameters T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 SEM SL DM 0.61d 0.68c 0.71bc 0.76ab 0.79a 0.01 * OM 0.66d 0.71c 0.74bc 0.78ab 0.81a 0.01 * c b ab a a CP 0.72 0.76 0.79 0.81 0.82 0.01 * NDF 0.66d 0.71cd 0.74bc 0.79ab 0.81a 0.01 * c c b a a ADF 0.65 0.67 0.71 0.76 0.78 0.01 * a b c: Means in the same row having different superscript are significantly different; DM=Dry matter; OM=Organic matter; CP=crude protein; NDF=neutral detergent fiber; ADF=acid detergent fiber; ADG=average daily body weight gain;***( P<0.05); SEM= standard error of means; SL= significance level. The apparent digestibility obtained from the group fed on 75-100% desho grass were significantly (P<0.05) higher than the others (with few exception) the results of which further confirm the better nutritive value of desho grass than the natural pasture used in the current study. The better apparent digestibility of desho grass might be due to relatively higher CP content of desho grass hay as compared to natural pasture hay. The higher protein content might have increased the digestibility of the crude fiber of the feeds. If the protein rich feeds are added to balance low protein roughages, there will be increase in the population of the microorganism and the resulting rate fermentation of the crude fiber component (Ranjihan, 1997). Earlier workers (Moore and Mott, 1972; Mugerta et al., 1973) showed that a digestibility coefficient of above 65% indicates good nutritive value and that below this level intake is limited by low digestibility. Evidence indicated that the digestibility of OM might be as high as 85% in young pasture grass and as low as 45% in winter herbage (McDoland et al., 2010). The digestibility of OM and CP in the current study is well above 65% indicating that the three diets used in this study were of good feeding value (Moore and Mott, 1972; Mugerta et al., 1973). 65 McDonald et al. (2010) remarked that concentrate feed which is rich in protein content promotes high microbial population which in turn facilitates rumen fermentation. 4.3.3. Body weight change and feed conversion efficiency The mean body weight gain and feed conversion efficiency data recorded from the feeding trial are presented in Table 15. The mean daily weight gain of treatment groups significantly and proportionally increased (P<0.05) with the increased level of inclusion of desho grass hay in the basal diet. However, final body weight and feed conversion efficiency (FCE) were not statistically significant (P>0.05). Table 15. Body weight parameters and feed conversion efficiency of Washera sheep fed on natural pasture hay and desho grass hay mixture and supplemented with noug seed cake and wheat bran in 50:50 ratio. Parameters T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 SEM SL Initial BW (kg) 19.5 19.1 19.0 18.9 18.3 0.9 Ns Final BW (kg) 23.6 24.5 24.6 25.7 25.8 0.8 Ns ADG (g/d/h) 52.2b 59.9ab 70.0ab 74.4a 76.4a 4.9 *** FCE 0.08 0.09 0.10 0.10 0.11 0.0 Ns a, b, c=means within rows having different superscript are significantly different at P<0.05; BW=body weight; ADG=Average Daily gain; FCE=Feed Converstion effciecy; SEM=standard error of means; SL=significance level;ns=nonsignificant. The mean daily body weight gain (74.4-76.4 g/d/h) brought by the groups fed on the basal diet containing 75-100% desho grass was significantly higher (P<0.05) than all others. On the contrary, there was no significant difference betweent the treatment groups fed on the diets containing 0-50% desho grass in the mean daily body weight gain (P>0.05). The improved feed conversion efficiency although non-significant (P>0.05), in the current result may presumably be due to higher nutrient concentration of the basal diet due to the increment of level of desho grass. Owing to the total increment of CP intake from T1 to T5, insignificant but body weight 66 increment was observed in the current study which is in line with previous results (Getnet, 2007, Getu et al., 2012). Mean daily body weight gain of sheep obtained from this study was higher than the results of Simachew (2009) who reported that the mean daily gain of Washera sheep fed natural pasture hay supplemented with maize bran, noug seed meal and their mixtures ranged between 38.9 and 55.6 g/day. The ADG and FCE of sheep in the current result is comparable to the reports of Anteneh et al (2015) for Washera sheep fed natural pasture hay and supplemented with concentrate mixture and sugar cake tops. On the other side, the results of the current study was comparable to the results of Tiyoel et al. (1987) who reported 72.75 g/day from Horro sheep fed on natural grass hay basal diet supplemented with concentrate (300g/d DM). The general trends in body weight changes of Washera sheep fed on the combination of natural pasture with supplementation of concentrate mixture is shown in Fig. 5. As the figure illustrates, body weight of experimental sheep in the current study continued in an increasing trend throughout the experimental period. 30 25 20 15 10 Body Weight Weight (Kg) Body 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Weeks T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 Figure 5. Trends in body weight changes of Washera sheep fed natural pasture and desho grass hay and supplemented with mixture of noug seed cake and wheat bran. The study illustrates that supplementation of desho grass improves performance of animals. This statement supported by the result of Nianogo et al. (1997) who reported that the nutritive value 67 of desho grass is low especially hay is low and cannot support the maintenance requirements of adult rams of 17-25 kg, but supplementation with nitrogen and energy improves performance (Zoundi et al., 2002). The current result is supported by the work of Fluharty and McClure (1996) who indicated that lambs fed high protein ration (ad libitum) had greater DM intakes, mean daily weight gain, feed conversion efficiency within shorter period of feeding compared to those fed diets with normal protein concentrates (85% ad libitum). Generally, the current result is in agreement with Wude et al. (2012) who recommended supplementary level of 300 g/day DM concentrate for sheep fed crop residue as a basal diet. 4.3.5. Correlation between nutrients intake, digestibility and daily body weight gain of Washera sheep The correlation between nutrient intake and digestibility of the current study is shown in Table 16. Dry matter intake and digestibility were positively correlated (P<0.05) with CP, OM, NDF and ADF intake and digestibility and with each other. This result is in agreement with previous results by Fentie and Solomon (2008). The DMI and DMD were positively correlated with mean body weight gain and the organic matter intake was positively correlated with CP, NDF, ADF digestibility except ADF intake which was not significantly (P>0.05) correlated with ADG. The result of the correlation analysis indicated that daily body weight gain was positively (P<0.05) correlated with DM, OM, CP, NDF, and ADF intake and digestibility which is in agreement with previous results obtained from the feeding trial conducted with Washera sheep (Abebe et al., 2011; Assefu, 2012; Yeshambel et al., 2012; Awoke, 2015) and Farta breed of sheep (Fentie and Solomon, 2008; Bimrew et al., 2010) in northwestern Ethiopia. The improved averagely daily gain for increased desho grass proportion in the total diet of sheep may presumably be due to higher nutrient concentration and nutrient digestibility which increased the body weight of sheep. As many research results made the fact evident thus far, the effect of increased digestibility on improving feed intake depends on the quality of roughage feed used. The correlation analysis result indicated that inclusion of desho grass hay as basal diet in small ruminant feeding is a promising feed in terms of nutrient utilization and animal performance. 68 Table 16. Correlation between nutrient intake, digestibility and body weight gain in Washera sheep fed natural pasture and desho grass hay supplemented with noug seed cake and wheat bran mixture. DMI DMD OMI OMD CPI CPD NDFI NDFD ADFI ADFD ADG DMI 1.00 0.95** 0.99*** 0.94*** 0.91*** 0.90*** 0.93*** 0.94*** 0.61*** 0.91*** 0.62** * * DMD 0.91*** 0.99*** 0.91*** 0.98*** 0.93*** 0.94*** 0.61*** 0.89*** 0.64*** 1.00 OMI 1.00 0.91*** 0.87*** 0.85*** 0.96*** 0.91*** 0.68*** 0.87*** 0.57** OMD 1.00 0.90*** 0.98*** 0.81*** 0.99*** 0.39* 0.93*** 0.61** CPI 1.00 0.91*** 0.84*** 0.91*** 0.55** 0.86*** 0.68*** CPD 1.00 0.77*** 0.98*** 0.38ns 0.92*** 0.61** NDFI 1.00 0.83*** 0.81*** 0.84*** 0.53* NDF 1.00 0.43* 0.94*** 0.61** D ADFI 1.00 0.52** 0.25ns ADF 1.00 0.56** D ADG 1.00 *** Significant at P<0.001;** significant at P<0.01; * significant at P<0.05; ns=non-significant.DMI= dry matter intake; DMD=dry matter digestibility; OMI=organic matter intake; OMD=organic matter digestibility; CPI= crude protein intake; CPD= crude protein intake; NDFI= neutral detergent fiber; NDFD= neutral detergent fiber digestibility; ADFI=acid detergent fiber intake; ADFD= acid detergent fiber digestibility; ADG=Average daily gain. 69 5. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION 5.1.Conclusion The most important factors affecting desho grass utilization were availability of feed, training and experience in production of desho grass. Results of the study indicated that the major production strategy of desho grass was backyard, although there are stock exclusion and soil bunds systems. Farmers, who have received training in desho grass production, tend to use it to a lesser extent as a feed instead they use it for other roles like land management practice. The grass was used mainly for animal feed (60%) in both districts (highland areas tend to use desho grass more than those in the midland area). Due to poor accessibility to feeds in the highlands, vulnerability of soil towards erosion, high density of livestock per household, desho grass might have a higher potential to be utilized as fodder and for soil conservation in the highland areas. Training on the use of desho grass is important to promote desho grass production as an avenue to generate income and for soil conservation in addition to animal fodder. Desho grass is multipurpose fodder used for soil water conservation, animal fodder and means of income for smallholder farmers in Ethiopia. Among the most important merits of desho grass is its ability to adapt both mid and high altitude, thrives well on different soil types (clay to red soils) areas of Ethiopia. The grass has potential to produce large amount of biomass per unit area, suitable to different forage production strategies (backyard, stock exclusion areas and soil bunds), acceptable to different livestock species and increases productivity of livestock. Hence, the grass has much untapped potential for smallholder crop livestock production systems and future commercial oriented animal production in Ethiopia The morphological and nutritional qualities of desho grass were highly affected by harvesting day than altitude. The grass well performed both in mid and altitude areas of Ethiopia provided appropriate management is applied. Generally, harvesting of desho grass from 90 to 120 days is recommendable since it has shown good result for yield and quality of the grass. As desho grass has high biomass yield and good chemical composition, it can be concluded that it has a potential to be an alternative ruminant feed in mid and highlands of Ethiopia. The results of animal 70 evaluation study indicated that desho grass hay had better chemical composition particularly in crude protein (CP) content, higher intake and palatability by sheep than a mixed sward natural pasture hay. Moreover, increasing the proportion of desho grass hay from 0 to 100% as a basal diet of Washera lambs increased the DM intake, digestibility of nutrients, body weight and feed conversion efficiency, with overall better performance at the high level of feeding of the grass. Overall, the series of experiments conducted in this study revealed that desho grass has multifaceted role for the smallholder farmers in terms of animal fodder, soil and water conservation, and income source. The grass can perform well both in the mid and high land areas of the country provided appropriate management practices are followed. Harvesting date had effect on plant characteristics and chemical composition as well as yield like other types of grasses. The animal evaluation study also showed that desho grass can be an alternative feed for growing local sheep in Ethiopia. 5.2. Recommendations Based on the current work, the following recommendations and future desho grass research and development priorities are highlighted. More extension work should be done on the production and utilization of desho grass to integrate it in the farming systems of mid and highland areas of Ethiopia. The agronomic trial should be conducted in successive years and different agro- ecological conditions. The response of desho grass to different manure levels and fertilizer rates should be investigated to recommend an optimum production package of the grass. As desho grass has relatively low CP, the grass should be combined with local protein sources such as indigenous and improved leguminous fodders, agro-industrial and breweries byproducts as supplements and tested on different types of animals. Further study on economical feasibility of inclusion of desho grass in sheep diet must be investigated. 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Bimrew Asmare, Solomon Demeke, Taye Tolemariam, Firew Tegegne and Jane Wumatu, 2016. Effects of altitude and harvesting days on morphological characteristics, yield and nutritive value of desho grass (Pennisetum pedicellatum)(Under review in the Agriculture and Natural Resources Journal) 92 7.2. List of Appendix Tables Table 1. Summary of ANOVA for plant morphological characteristics and number of re-growth days of desho grass as affected by altitude Parameters DF MS F Value Pr > F SL PH 16 206.86 0.60 0.45 ns NTPP 16 14.72 0.17 0.69 ns NLPP 16 6.72 0.00 0.95 ns LLPP 16 231.41 5.15 0.04 *** LSR 16 0.00 0.04 0.84 ns RGD 16 22.22 4.36 0.05 *** Table 2. Summary of ANOVA for plant morphological characteristics and number of re-growth days of desho grass as affected by days in the midland and highlands Mid altitude High altitude Parameters DF MS F Pr > F SL MS F Pr > F SL Value Value PH 6 1016.88 5.28 0.0476 *** 1016.88 5.28 0.0476 *** NTPP 6 497.66 18.40 0.0028 *** 497.66 18.40 0.0028 *** NLPP 6 5440.33 2.78 0.1399 *** 5440.33 2.78 0.1399 *** LLPP 6 131.25 4.99 0.0530 *** 131.25 4.99 0.0530 *** LSR 6 0.16 7.22 0.0253 *** 0.16 7.22 0.0253 *** RGD 6 16.44 5.92 0.0380 *** 16.44 5.92 0.0380 *** 93 Table 3. Summary of ANOVA for plant morphological characteristics and number of re-growth days of desho grass as affected by the interaction of harvesting days and altitudes Parameters DF MS F Value Pr > F SL PH 16 1388.47 5.11 0.04 *** NTPP 16 217.99 2.89 0.12 ns NLPP 16 5504.00 4.12 0.06 *** LLPP 16 7.80 0.13 0.72 ns LSR 16 0.33 11.06 0.00 *** RGD 16 56.33 19.00 0.00 *** Table 4. The effect of altitude on chemical composition and yield of desho grass Parameters DF MS F Value Pr > F SL DM 16 28.55 5.55 0.03 *** DMY 16 22.13 0.97 0.34 ns OM 16 39.90 7.77 0.01 *** CP 16 10.07 6.26 0.02 *** CPY 16 1.11 11.87 0.00 *** NDF 16 26.79 2.73 0.12 ns ADF 16 26.11 3.72 0.07 *** ADL 16 0.28 0.17 0.69 ns IVOMD 16 13.71 0.44 0.52 ns ME 16 0.05 0.05 0.82 ns Ca 16 1.21 2.20 0.16 *** P 16 1.29 7.97 0.01 *** 94 Table 5. The effect of harvesting dates on chemical composition and yield of desho grass in mid altitude area. Parameters DF MS F Value Pr > F SL DM 6 1.90 0.50 0.63 ns DMY 6 52.72 2.87 0.13 ns OM 6 12.29 10.44 0.01 *** CP 6 2.07 2.28 0.18 ns CPY 6 0.11 0.88 0.46 ns NDF 6 3.01 0.57 0.59 ns ADF 6 12.32 5.11 0.05 ns ADL 6 1.72 1.96 0.22 ns IVOMD 6 75.80 2.97 0.13 ns ME 6 2.61 3.66 0.09 ns Ca 6 1.76 10.66 0.01 *** P 6 0.30 6.20 0.03 *** Table 6. The effect of harvesting dates on chemical composition and yield of desho grass in high altitude area. Parameters DF MS F Value Pr > F SL DM 6 1.90 0.50 0.63 ns DMY 6 52.72 2.87 0.13 ns OM 6 12.29 10.44 0.01 *** CP 6 2.07 2.28 0.18 *** CPY 6 0.11 0.88 0.88 ns NDF 6 3.01 0.57 0.59 *** ADF 6 12.32 5.11 0.05 ns ADL 6 1.72 1.96 0.22 ns IVOMD 6 75.80 2.97 0.13 ns ME 6 2.61 3.66 0.09 ns Ca 6 1.76 10.66 0.01 *** P 6 0.30 6.20 0.03 *** 95 Table 7. The effect of harvesting dates on chemical composition and yield of desho grass in high altitude area. Parameters DF MS F Value Pr > F SL DM 16 3.66 0.97 0.41 ns DMY 16 0.63 0.06 0.94 ns OM 16 27.70 16.37 0.00 *** CP 16 3.29 3.68 0.06 ns CPY 16 0.02 0.18 0.84 ns NDF 16 14.50 3.49 0.06 *** ADF 16 0.91 0.27 0.77 ns ADL 16 0.09 0.05 0.95 ns IVOMD 16 91.58 3.73 0.05 ns ME 16 2.61 3.80 0.05 ns Ca 16 0.24 0.84 0.15 ns P 16 0.88 14.39 0.00 *** Table 8. Summary of ANOVA for the dry matter and nutrient intake of Washera sheep fed natural pasture and desho grass hay supplemented with noug seed cake and wheat bran mixture in 50:50 ratio. Parameters DF MS F Value Pr > F SL Basal DMI (g DM/day) 20 4795.71 24.08 <.0001 *** Con DMI (g DM/day) 20 0.00 . . ns TDMI (g DM/day) 20 4795.90 24.08 <.0001 *** OMI (g /DM/day) 20 3563.79 22.94 <.0001 *** CPI (g /DM/day) 20 64.52 255.45 <.0001 *** NDFI (g /DM/day) 20 1160.94 16.36 <.0001 *** ADFI (g /DM/day) 20 648.65 68.63 <.0001 *** ADL (g /DM/day) 20 130.95 5.89 0.0027 *** ME (MJ/Kg DM) 20 3.82 31.27 <.0001 *** 96 Table 9. Summary of ANOVA for nutrient digestibility of Washera sheep fed natural pasture and desho grass hay supplemented with noug seed cake and wheat bran mixture in 50:50 ratio. Parameters DF M S F Value Pr > F SL DM 20 0.02 20.73 <.0001 *** OM 20 0.02 21.65 <.0001 *** CP 20 0.01 18.10 <.0001 *** NDF 20 0.02 20.28 <.0001 *** ADF 20 0.01 40.19 <.0001 *** Table 10. Summary of ANOVA for body weight parameters of Washera sheep fed natural pasture and desho grass hay supplemented with noug seed cake and wheat bran in 50:50 ratio. Parameters DF MS F value Pr > F SL IBW 20 0.55 0.13 0.9676 ns FBW 20 2.23 0.58 0.6781 ns ADG 20 211.78 2.28 0.0966 *** FCE 20 0.00 0.48 0.7470 ns 97 7.3. Questionnaire Questionnaire for “Assessment of desho grass (Pennisetum pedicellatum) production and utilization in Burie Zuria and Doyogena districts of Ethiopia” The information obtained from this interview questionnaire will be used only for academic purpose and the personal information will be kept confidential. I, therefore, kindly request you to feel free in answering the questionnaire. Thank You Name of the Enumerator ------Signature ------ Date------1. Personal information 1.1 Date of interview ------1.2. Region ------1.3. Zone ------1.4. Districts ------1.5. Kebele------1.6. Name of farmer ------1.7. Sex of HH ------1.8. Age (yrs) of HH ------1.9. How many family members do you have? a. Male ------b. Female ------c. Children (≤14 years) ------d. Adult (≥18-60 years) ------e. Dependants (>60years) ------1.10. Religion: a. Orthodox Christian b. Muslim c. Protestant d. Catholic 1.11. Marital status of the household: a. Married b. Single c. Divorced d. Widowed 98 2. Socioeconomic Characteristics 2.1. Family member’s age, sex and educational status Age Sex Educational Status Male Female 0 1-4 5-8 9-10 Certificate Diploma University 0-5 years 6-14 years 15-25 years 25-35 years 36-45 years 46-65 years >65 years 2.2. Educational status the of household head a. Cannot read & write b. Read & write (1 - 4) c. Elementary School (5 - 8) d. Secondary School (9 - 10) e. High School (11 - 12) f. Certificate and above 2.3. Number of active workers in the family including household head a. one b. two c. three d. four e. more than four 2.4. What is your major occupation? a. Farming b. Trading c. Governments employ d. Laborer e. other (specify) ------2.5. In which income group do you locate yourself in the community? a. High income group b. Middle income group c. Low income group 2.6. Do you have farm land? a. Yes b. No 2.7. If no, specify your job------2.8. If yes, specify the number and size of the plot ------&------hectare 2.9. Land holding and land use system a. Total area of land owned by the household (ha) ------b. Food crop production (ha) ------c. Improved forages grown in natural resource conservation areas (ha) ------d. Grazing land (ha) ------e. Fallow land (ha) ------ 99 f. Forage production (ha) ------g. Fodders grown in the soil conservation areas (ha) ------h. Rented/contracted land (ha) ------i. Other (specify) ------ 3. Livestock Production 3.1. Do you have farm animals /livestock? a. Yes b. No 3.2. If yes, state the type and quantity. Cattle herd structures Types of animal Number of animals Local Cross Total Milking cows Dry cows Oxen Calves male Calves female Heifers Bulls Sheep and goats Type of Number of animals animals Local Cross Total Ewe Ram Lamb Does Bucks Kids 100 Equine Type of animal Total Horse Mule Donkey Poultry Types of Number of animal animal Local Cross Total Hen Cock Cheek 3. 3. Why do you keep the livestock? In order of rank. a. traction b. milk Production c. traction and milk d. savings e. other (specify) ------ 4. Improved forage production and their utilization 4.1. What are the improved forage development strategies you practice? a. backyard forage development b. under sowing of cereal crops with forage legumes c. grazing on sown-mixed pasture d. forage strips on bunds e. forage seed production and collection 4.2. How do you improved forage production feed your animals? a. Indoor feeding (confined in a house) using individual feeding system b. In a collection yard using group feeding c. Let to graze in a grazing land (grazing in an improved forage pasture land, natural d. Other (specify) ------4.3. Do you have access to improved forage production land? a. Yes b. No 4.4. If yes, is it communal or private? ------4.5. What is the size of your improved forage production land? ------ha 4.6. What are the major strategies you follow to solve this improved forage grow shortage? ------ 101 4.7. What types of improved forage grow? Improved forag Months e types 1st 2nd 3rd 4th Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug 4.8. Is the grazing resource adequate to your animals? a. Yes b. No 4.9. What are/is the major feed for your livestock during dry season? a. grazing and browsing b. crop residues c. improved forages d. local breweries byproducts 4.10. What are/is the major feed for your livestock during wet season? a. grazing and browsing b. crop residues c. improved forages d. local breweries byproducts 4.11. Do you face feed shortage for your livestock? a. yes b. no 4.12. If yes, what measures do you take to alleviate problems of feed shortage? a. Purchase concentrates b. Purchase forage (rent grazing land) c. Purchase crop residues d. Reduction of stock e. Other (specify) ------4.13. At which season do you face feed shortages? a. Short rainy season (sept-Nov) b. Long rainy season (June-Aug) c. Short dry season (Dec-Jan) d. Long dry season (Feb-Apri) 102 5. Desho grass production and utilization 5.1. Desho grass production and management 5.1.1. When did you start planting desho grass?(year)______a. 1 year b. 2 years c. 3 years d. 4 years e. 5 years f. 10 years g. 15 year and above 5.1.2. What is the source of desho grass planting material? ______5.1.3. How do you plant desho grass? ______5.1.4. From the total land you have, how much area is covered by desho grass?______(local unit) 5.1.5. When do you plant desho grass? ______(Month) 5.1.6. Do you use irrigation for desho grass production? a. yes b. no 5.1.7. If your answer is yes for the above question, is irrigation economically to use for desho production? a. yes b. no c. I don’t have information 5.1.8. Do you apply fertilizer on your desho grass? a. yes b. no c. I don’t have information. 5.1.9. If your answer is yes for the above question, what kind of fertilizer you apply on desho grass? a. DAP b. Urea c. Manure d. depends on availability 5.1.10. Do you practice weeding desho grass? a. yes b. no c. I don’t have information. 5.1.11. When do you harvest desho grass? ______(Month) 5.1.12. How much is the production of desho grass biomass per unit area?(local units per unit area)______5.1.13. Where do you plant desho grass? a. Backyard b. Soil bund c. Road side d. stock exclusion e. Other (specify)______ 5.2. Desho grass utilization 5.2.1. For what purpose you use desho grass primarily? a. Animal feed b. To earn money c. Soil conservation d. Other (specify)______5.2.2. For what other purposes you use desho grass? a. Animal feed b. To earn money c. Soil conservation d. Other (specify)______ 103 5.2.3. If you are using desho grass for animal feed for which species do you feed? a. Cattle b. Sheep and goat c. Equine d. Other (specify)______5.2.4. If you are feeding desho grass for lactating cows, what is the unique advantage of desho grass these groups? 5.2.5. In what form are you feeding desho for your animals? a. Cut and carry b. Hay c. Silage d. Other (specify)______5.2.6. What is the role of desho grass for animal? a. Basal diet b. Supplement c. both 5.2.7.If you are not feeding desho grass for your animals but you have planted it, what is the reason not feeding?______5.2.8. If you are earning money by selling desho grass, in what form are you selling? a. Planting material/seedling b. Fresh cut grass c. Hay d. Other (specify)______5.2.9. What are the special features of desho grass over others grass species you planted? ______5.2.10. From animal feed aspect, please describe the special characteristics of desho grass. ______5.2.11. What are the merits of desho grass in terms of biomass productivity? ______5.2.12. Have you got training on production and utilization of desho grass? a. yes b. No 5.2.13. If your answer is yes, please describe the topic of training and the organization offered the training. ______5.2.14. List any demerits of desho grass in terms of production, utilization and feeding. 104 a. What are (is) the problems associated with desho grass production?______b. What are (is) the utilization constraints of desho grass?______5.2.15. What are (is) the feeding problems of desho grass?______5.2.16. Do you require training or support in terms of desho grass? a. Yes b. No 5.2.17. If your answer is yes, in what areas you need training? a. Production of desho grass b. Desho grass utilization c. Feeding management of desho grass d. other (specify) ______5.2.18. Please describe the general comments to increase the production and utilization of desho grass in your area?______ 105 7.4. Some Photos Desho grass utilization Land preparation and planting 106 Data collection 107 108