Chapter 6/9: Learning Learning

 A relatively durable change in behavior or knowledge that is due to experience.  The acquisition of knowledge, skills, and behavior through reinforcement, modeling and natural learning.

Classical Conditioning

 Learning in which a stimulus acquires the capacity to evoke a natural involuntary response that was originally evoked by another stimulus.  Also known as Pavlovian conditioning.  Ivan Pavlov- Russian physiologist  Nobel Prize then Honorary Doctorate Cambridge University Classical Conditioning cont.

 Phobias- irrational fears of specific objects or situations ◦ Ex. Bridges, elevators, tunnels, heights, dogs, cats, bugs, snakes, doctors, and thunderstorms

(NS)

NS+UCS= Classical Conditioning cont.

 UCS_-> UCR  NS-> Nothing  NS+UCS-> UCR  CS->CR  Unconditioned stimulus (UCS)- a stimulus that evokes an unconditioned response without previous conditioning. (Food)  Unconditioned response (UCR)- an unlearned reaction to an unconditioned stimulus that occurs without previous conditioning. (Saliva) Classical Conditioning cont.  Conditioned stimulus (CS)- a previously neutral stimulus that has, through conditioning, acquired the capacity to evoke a conditioned response. (Bell)  Conditioned response (CR)- a learned reaction to a conditioned stimulus that occurs because of previous conditioning. (saliva)  Trial- any presentation of a stimulus or pair of stimuli NS+UCS  Strength of the stimuli determines # of pairing needed for learning to take place

Classical Conditioning cont. Classical Conditioning cont.

 Acquisition- the initial stage of learning  Stimuli are contiguous if they occur together in time and space  Extinction- the gradual weakening and disappearance of a conditioned response

 Spontaneous recovery- the reappearance of an extinguished response after a period of no exposure to the conditioned stimulus  Renewal effect ◦ Extinction suppresses a conditioned response rather than erasing a learned association

Classical Conditioning cont.

Classical Conditioning cont.

 Stimulus generalization occurs when an organism has learned a response to a specific stimulus responds in the same way to new stimulus  Watson and “Little Albert”  Stimulus discrimination occurs when an organism that has learned a response to a specific stimulus does not respond in the same way to new stimuli that are similar to the original stimulus ◦ Animal’s survival relies on this by being able to distinguish friend from foe, or edible from poisonous food

Classical Conditioning cont. Classical Conditioning cont.

 Higher-order conditioning- a conditioned stimulus functions as if it were an unconditioned stimulus ◦ New conditioned responses are built on the foundation of already established conditioned responses Operant Conditioning

 A form of voluntary learning in which responses come to be controlled by their consequences  Christened “operant conditioning” by B.F. Skinner in the 1930s  Also known as instrumental learning by Edward L. Thorndike  Thorndike’s “puzzle box” experiments  Law of effect- if a response in the presence of a stimulus leads to satisfying effects, the association between the stimulus and the response is strengthened

Operant Conditioning cont.  Skinner demonstrated that organisms tend to repeat those responses that are followed by favorable consequences. reward)  Reinforcement occurs when an event following a response increases an organism’s tendency to make that response.

Operant Conditioning cont. Operant Conditioning cont.  An operant chamber, or Skinner box, is a small enclosure in which an animal can make a specific response that is recorded while the consequences of the response are systematically controlled.  To emit means to send forth  Reinforcement contingencies- the circumstances or rules that determine whether responses lead to the presentation of reinforcers. ◦ The experimenter manipulates whether positive consequences occur when the animal makes the designated response

Operant Conditioning cont.  The cumulative recorder creates a graphic record of responding and reinforcement in a Skinner box as a function of time.  Shaping- the reinforcement of closer and closer approximations of a desired response. ◦ Necessary when an organism does not, on its own, emit the desired response. ◦ Sports, music, school.  Gymnastics, track, martial arts, learning an instrument, math, language arts, etc. Operant Conditioning cont.  Extinction refers to the gradual weakening and disappearance of a response tendency because the response is no longer followed by a reinforcer  Resistance to extinction occurs when an organism continues to make a response after delivery of the reinforcer has been terminated

Operant Conditioning cont.  Skinner said that reinforcement occurs whenever an outcome strengthens a response, as measured by an increase in the rate of responding  If a delay occurs between a response and the positive outcome, the response may not be strengthened

Operant Conditioning cont.  Primary reinforcers- events that are inherently reinforcing because they satisfy biological needs. ◦ Food, water, physical or emotional attention  Secondary, or conditioned, reinforcers are events that acquire reinforcing qualities by being associated with primary reinforcers. ◦ Money, tokens, privileges

◦ Big Bang theory season 3 episode 3

Operant Conditioning cont.  A schedule of reinforcement determines which occurrences of a specific response result in the presentation of a reinforcer ◦ Continuous reinforcement occurs when every instance of a designated response is reinforced ◦ Intermittent, or partial, reinforcement occurs when a designated response is reinforced only some of the time

Operant Conditioning cont. Schedules of Reinforcement  Fixed-ratio (FR) schedule- the reinforcer is given after a fixed number of responses. ◦ Rat given food after pressing the lever a set number of times. ◦ Being paid for painting a house not by hour but by job.  Variable-ratio (VR) schedule- the reinforcer is given after a variable number of responses. ◦ Slot machines ◦ Fly fishing  Fixed-interval (FI) schedule- the reinforcer is given for the first response that occurs after a fixed time interval has elapsed. ◦ Being paid every 2 weeks.  Variable-interval (VI) schedule- the reinforcer is given for the first response after a variable time interval has elapsed. ◦ Being rewarded randomly. ◦ Fishing ◦ Surfing?????? Schedules of Reinforcement

(con’t)

Contingencies of Reinforcement  Positive reinforcement occurs when a response is strengthened or increases because it is followed by the presentation of a rewarding stimulus. ◦ Money, food, tokens, praise

 Negative reinforcement occurs when a response is strengthened or increases because it is followed by the removal of an aversive stimulus. ◦Putting your seatbelt on to stop the buzzing

Contingencies of Reinforcement  Punishment – Occurs when an event following the response weakens or decreases the tendency to make that response. ◦ Beatings, loud noises, taking away privileges, being grounded, being yelled at, paying a fine, community service.

 Escape learning- an organism acquires a response that decreases or end some aversive stimulation  Avoidance learning- an organism acquires a response that prevents some aversive stimulation from occurring

Operant Conditioning cont. Observational Learning  Occurs when an organism’s responding is influenced by the observation of others, who are called models  Albert Bandura  Both classical and operant conditioning can take place in observational learning  Ratings on TV.  Involves the process of learning to copy or model the action of another through observing another doing it.  Thought to be particularly important during childhood, particularly as authority becomes important  The best role models are those a year or two older for observational learning

Observational Learning cont.

 4 key processes of observational learning ◦ Attention: ◦ Retention: ◦ Reproduction: ◦ Motivation:

Observational Learning cont.  Bandura's Bobo doll experiment is widely cited in psychology as a demonstration of observational learning and demonstrated that children are more likely to engage in violent play with a life size rebounding doll after watching an adult do the same  It may be that children will only reproduce a model's behavior if it has been reinforced Observational Learning cont.