I

CONTENTS

Page

PREFACE iii FOREWORD v

INTRODUCTION 1

CHAPTER-I

HISTORICAL BACKGROUND...... 5

CHAPTER - II

SOCIAL STRUCTURE...... 16 (i) Badhei ...... 17 (ii) Bagata ...... 17 (iii) Bariki ...... 17 (iv) Bauri ...... 18 (v) Bavuri ...... 18 (vi) Bhandari (Barbers)...... 18 (vii) Brahmin ...... 18 (viii) Chandala20 (ix) Chitra-ghasi...... 20 (xi) Dandasi ...... 21 (xi) Dhakkodo...... 21 (xii) Dhobi (Dhoba)...... 21 (xiii) Dhuliya ...... 21 (xiv) Domb ...... 22 (xv) Gauda (Cowherd)...... 22 viii

(xvi) Golla .... (xvii) Gudiya .... (xviii) Haddi (xix) Jaggali (xx) Kalinji (xxi) Keuta (xxii) Kandara ... (xxiii) Kansari (xxiv) Karan (xxv) Kshatriya25 (xxvi) Kumhara 25 (xxvii) Lohara ...... 26 (xxviii) Mali ...... 26 (xxix) Paika ...... 26 (xxxi) Rana ...... 26 (xxxii) Sundi ...... 27 (xxxiii) Sankhari 27 (xxxiv) Telli 27

General structure of Tribes :...... 27 (i) Bonda Poraja...... 28 (ii) Gadaba ...... 30 (iii) Gond ...... 31 (iv) Jatapu ...... 32 (v) Khond, Kond or Kandha...... 32 (v) Kanda-Dora...... 33 (vii) Koya ...... 34 (viii) Paroja ...... 34 (viii) Saora, Savar, Saura or Sabara...... 34

DRESS: ...... 35 ■ Ornaments ...... 36 Type of Houses ...... 37 Status of Women ...... 38 Marriage and Mortals...... ,..38 Food and Drink ...... 40 ix CHAPTER - III

EDUCATION AND LEARNING...... 43 System of Education in South Orissa before the advent of the British...... 43 Chatasalis ...... 43 PRIMARY EDUCATION...... -...... 46 Secondary Education ...... 53 Middle Vematular Schools : ...... 56 Middle English Schools : ...... 56 High Schools : ...... 57 HIGHER EDUCTION...... 62

CHAPTER-IV

SOCIAL REFORMS ...... 73 THE CUSTOM OF SATI...... 73 Mode of Performing Sati ...... 75 HUMAN SACRIFICE...... 78 ORIGIN OF THE RITE...... 78 REASONS OF SACRIFICE...... 79 AGE AND PRICE OF VICTIMS...... 80 Modes of Human Sacrifice...... 81 INFANTICIDE ...... 88

CHAPTER-V

RELIGION AND CULTS...... 96 SAKTISM ...... 96 STAMBESWARI (Khambeswari of Aska)...... 98 TARA TARINI ( Purusottampur)...... 98 MAHURIKALUA...... 99 NARAYANI (Khallikote)...... 99 BYAGHRADEVI (Kuliada)...... 99 RANAGHANTA (Tilisingi)...... 100 BIMALA (Nirmalajhara)...... ^ SIDDHA BHAIRABI (Mantridi)...... 100 MAHAMAYI BUDDHITHAKURANI (Berhampur) ...... *00 MAHAMA YEE (Kabisuryanagar)...... 10* KANDHUNI DEVI (Sorada)...... 103 SIMHASINI ...... 103 BANKESVARI (Dumula)...... 103 THE CULT OF ...... 104 THE EARLIEST TEMPLES...... 109 THEJAGANNATHA TEMPLE OF ATHAGADA . 109 THE MARADAJAGANNATH TEMPLE...... 110 THE KHALUKOTE JAGANNATH TEMPLE...... 110 THE KULLADA JAGANNATHA TEMPLE...... 110 THE SORADA JAGANNATHA TEMPLE...... Ill THE CHIKITIJAGANNATHA TEMPLE...... Ill MAHIMA CULT...... 113 Origin: ...... 114 Life of Mahima Gosain :...... 114 TEACHINGS OF MAHIMA GOSAIN ...... 118 Monotheism : ...... 118 Ahimsa or Non-Violence :...... 118 Opposition to caste System : ...... 119 Opposition to Idol Worship : ...... 119 Guru-Worship : ...... 119 Emphasis on Jnana Yoga and Bhakti Yoga:...... 119 Emphasis on Morality :...... 120 Code of Conduct: ...... 120 Organisation : ...... 121

CHAPTER-VI

CULTURAL PANORAMA...... 125 NATAKS (Plays) ...... 125 Prahalad Natak ...... 125 ...... 127 XI

Stages of Danda N ata...... 128 Dhuli Danda : ...... ;...... 128 Pani Danda : ...... 128 Agni Danda : ...... 129 THE LEELAS ...... 129 Rama Leela : ...... 130 Krishna leela ...... 133 Radhaprema Leela : ...... 136 Rasa leela : ...... 139 Gopa Leela : ...... 141 Bharata Leela : ...... 141 NACHA (NRUTYA)...... 147 Dasakathia : ...... 147 Oshakothi : ...... 148 Kella Nacha : ...... 149 Kandha Nacha : ...... 149 Sakhi Nachha : ...... 149 Ranapa Nacha : ...... 150

CHAPTER-VII

ART, ARCHITECTURE AND PAINTINGS...... 152 The Place of Parlakhemundi : ...... 153 PAINTINGS ...... 155 Palm Leaf Paintings : ...... 157 Paper paintings : ...... 159 Patta Paintings : ...... 160 Tribal Paintings (ldital) : ...... 161 Saura Wall Painting : ...... 161 Origin of the ldital : ...... 162 Classification of Tribal Wall Painting : ...... 164 Kurualsoom ldital :...... 165 Aamgansoompur ldital : ...... 165 Gongsoom ldital : ...... 166 xii CHAPTER-VIII

AIRS AND FESTIVALS______168 Thakurani Yatra : ...... 169 The Kothisala : ...... 170 Janhi Osha : ...... 171 Baruni Snana: ...... 171 Danda Parva or Mahavishuba Sankranti : ...... 171 Sabitri Vrata: ...... 172 Ganesh Chaturth i: ...... 173 Mahalaya: ...... 173 Dasahara: ...... 174 Janmastami: ...... 174 Nandatchh o b a: ...... 174 J hulan Jatra: ...... 174 Kartika pumima: ...... 175 Jhami Yatra : ...... 175 Nrusingha Chaturdasi: ...... 176 Mana Basa Gurubara: ...... 176 : ...... 176 Magha Pumima: ...... 177 : ...... 177 Ugadi: ...... 177 Pongal: ...... 178 Nag-Chaturthi: ...... 178 Sivaratri : ...... 178 Sitala Sasthi: ...... 178 Somanath Brata : ...... 179 Sasthi O sha: ...... :...... 179 Dola Yatra of Ganjam : ...... 179 Chaitra Mangalbar Yatra of Tara Tarini: ...... 179 CONCLUSION GLOSSARY BIBLIOGRAPHY