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FIGURE 1. Father Louis Hennepin and Antoine Auguelle “discover” St. Anthony Falls in 1680. Artist: J. N. Marchand. Historical Society. 557016_Book_r 8/5/03 8:02 AM Page 53

Chapter 3 Discovery and Dispossession

The French During the French era, the Mississippi evolved from a rumor into a thoroughfare of exploration and Euro-Indian com- merce. The French period on the upper Mississippi covers approximately 100 years, but the French presence was limit- o French explorers and traders probing westward ed and sporadic. The French began exploring eastern from eastern Canada in the early 1500s, rumors in the early 1500s. In 1534 Jacques Cartier sailed up the of a great river stirred fantasies that only the St. Lawrence to the site that would become Montreal. But Tunknown can evoke. Was it the Northwest Passage, that long the French only established small fishing camps and trading hoped for shortcut to the riches of China? They knew that who- sites. Samuel de Champlain finally founded a settlement at ever found that fabled passage would gain enduring fame and Quebec in 1603-04, and the French began sending traders wealth. To talk of the ’s discovery,however, is and explorers into the continent’s depths. In 1623 or an ethnocentric endeavor. To the Dakota and other Native 1624, Etienne Brule became the first to report on rumors of Americans, the great river was as well known as a local freeway a vast lake (Lake Superior) to the far west. Ten years later, in to an urban commuter. It was their daily and seasonal highway. 1634, Jean Nicolet voyaged into Green Bay, contacting the But it was more. It was their front and back yards. It was their Winnebago, or Ho-Chunk. And in 1641, Recollet priests supermarket as well as their superhighway. They fished, hunt- Charles Raymbault and Isaac Jogues became the first to docu- ed,gathered plants, planted crops, swam, and prayed in or near ment the discovery of Lake Superior. They met the the river. The contrast between European discovery and Native Saulteurs, or Chippewa, and reported on news of the Dakota, American familiarity could not have been greater. The stories of who lived on a great river, only 18 days away. These are the European discovery lay bare this contrast. recorded accounts. The coureur de bois (independent, illegal Dakota life changed dramatically as French, British and fur traders, who ranged in advance of the official explorers American explorers and traders found the MNRRA corridor. and legal traders) may have visited the , the Where the Dakota lived, what they hunted and ate, and the Dakota and the Mississippi earlier, but we may never know.1 tools and other material objects they relied upon changed. Medard Chouart, Sieur des Groseilliers, and Pierre They began the era as the region’s dominant people and d’Espirit, Sieur de Radisson, might have been the first ended it, in 1854, with a forced exodus away from the river they had known and used for so long. While the French and British left little evidence of their presence in the MNRRA corridor, the Americans took it over, transforming not only Dakota life but the river valley’s landscape and ecosystems.

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RIVER OF HISTORY: A Historic Resources Study of the Mississippi National River and Recreation Area h is osietefrtaeo h ein assembled a tothe seize first the furtrade ofthe region, Fe de to the hoping river’s find mouth. After amonththey south, discovertionably the river. From here the drifted party J Fo took the near SaultSte. Marie, they left Michilimackinac, le Fr d that itwas the Northwest Passage. Jean the inden- Talon, grew and inflamed the hope or “Micissipi” “Mechassipi” Chequamegon in Bay. Rumorson Madeline Island, ofthe River.Mississippi They had west postsasfar asLaPointe, river’s fetched to give and Radisson the Groseilliers title ofthe Minnesota historian William Watts Folwell calls ittoo far Island. asPrairie as far The evidence and issketchy, trade. traveled and Groseilliers possibly Radisson upriver become hig oneoftheprincipal River. This route–the Fox-Wisconsin waterway–would the Wisconsin River and paddled down to the Mississippi Fo vo e 1660 they conducted expeditions furtrading into the west- Europeans to see the Between upper Mississippi. 1654and its inhabitants. ment to want more detailed about information the river and ro and to the find to capture the trade, its claim to America, unexplored. Joliet’s account and France’s desire to expand the reach aboveRiver, the Wisconsin River’s mouth lay theAlthough French had discovered the upper Mississippi T t n 7 63 becoming Europeans the first to unques- 1673, une 17, urned around and headed back River. to the rn Great Lakes and supposedly beyond. Onatleast one ant or head of finance, commerce and justice, in New in commerce and justice, ant or head offinance, rav ad ne chose Louis Joliet and Father Jacquesance, Marquette to t oteFrEs,hwvr spurred however, the Frenchute to govern- the Far East, ari cided that the river flowed into the GulfofMexico. x-Wisconsin waterway, and glided on into the Mississippi x River. They then crossed over ashort portage and into y age

el nepdto otefrofrvr O a 7 1673, an expedition to river. the far-off OnMay 17, yte17s the French were poisedBy the to , explore the Merchants from Mo gteSaihadNtv mrcntie,they ng the Spanish and Native American tribes, in ,t European discoverers. pteIlni,they crossed into Lake Michigan. g upthe Illinois, he y purportedly canoed into Green Bay and upthe 3 ntreal and 2 hways ofexp Quebec, hoping to be hoping loration and loration as possible. storied western river made duLuthwant to return assoon the Pacific Ocean. This news and hisdesire to discover the b 20 days to the west. Somespeculate have that thismight saltybody ofwater these men only heard ofagreat, hopes, and about aroute to the western sea. Boosting French e si gained royal permis- Sieur de la Salle, 1677 Robert Cavelier, Northwest Passage and the fursofthe upperIn Mississippi. re te Dakota vil he reached the 1679, onJuly1678. 2, The next summer, astheir leader. Heleft Montreal onSeptemberdu Luth, 1, pa s,leaving three men behind to learn more about the tribe ast, een on for anexpedition to discover the river’s mouth and sada rii uCin butthe river between in rs and duChien, atPrairie andamsey and othersmained hoped amystery, to beat duLuthto the t ovstteDkt n hs ailGesln Sieur rty to the Dakota visit and chose Daniel Greysolon,

Th the Great Salt Lake, although the although French hopedthe itwas Great SaltLake, e French had now been near the Mississippi’s headwa- lages on 4 Mille LacsLake.

Du Luththen returned 54 Chapter 3 • DISCOVERY AND DISPOSSESSION 5 after five days. five after . (For Hennepin’s description of description Hennepin’s . (For (Figure 1) (Figure where they arrived arrived they where e and one-half months later, months one-half e and 1, on July 1680, the re ng in small groups, Rum at the rendezvoused they i ission to continue down the Mississippi find the la to down continue ission to Th el ault stayed with the hunters. As they paddled down- paddled As they hunters. with the ault stayed m c wntown St. Paul. Artist: J. M. Stanley. Minnesota Historical Society. Historical Minnesota M. Stanley. Artist: J. St. Paul. wntown rav aul. When Hennepin,When 19,aul. here on March landed Accault and Auguelle 1680, stream, Hennepin and Auguelle came to the great falls of the stream, great the to came Auguelle and Hennepin Mississippi, saint, his patron for named Hennepin which Anthony of Padua Anthony,St. 6, Chapter see falls.) on the focuses which River’s mouth at Anoka. Hennepin and Auguelle received Auguelle and Hennepin Anoka. at mouth River’s per Salle, reinforcements. supplies and have to was who Ac Mille Lacs Lake, Dakota, along, Frenchmen the taking Lacs and Mille left Minnesota. hunt buffalo in off southwestern to started T FIGURE 2. beginnings and the mouth St. of Creek’s Phalen on down Looking P worlds, between stood they burial the ancient Hopewell one represented by become would hills that the low by Bluff and the other mounds on Dayton’s do . So the first recorded . So the (Figures 2 and 3) 2 and (Figures e small party headed down the Illinois the on February down e small party headed Th cted to return to Montreal, to Accault, return to Michael cted chose Salle la uld have to wait. Rather than continue upriver, continue than Rather wait. the to have uld r party of 120 men in 33 canoes. After convincing the convincing After in 33 canoes. r party of 120 men re Dakota that their enemies, their that Dakota Miami the of Illinois, had upriver. west, gone returned already parties two the beginning journey, their after esti- days Hennepin Nineteen Anthony Falls, St. below 14 miles the near were they mated in), filled (since Creek of Phalen mouth of just upstream Park Mounds about occurred corridor MNRRA the visit to European falls of the 19,March discovery European The 1680. wo to overland marched and canoes their abandoned Dakota a voyageur, to lead an expedition to the Mississippi, the to an expedition lead a voyageur, to accompa- Louis Hennepin. and Father Auguelle Antoine nied by 29, upstream, paddled As they a Dakota 1680. met they wa source. Delays,source. him only as far on the left as a fort however, Illinois River, Peoria, just below When 1680. in January di 55 557016_Book_r 8/5/03 8:02 AM Page 55 Page AM 8:02 8/5/03 557016_Book_r 557016_Book_r 8/5/038:02AMPage56

RIVER OF HISTORY: A Historic Resources Study of the Mississippi National River and Recreation Area i Dakota, 3. FIGURE European 1854, when theMinnesota when Territorial government forced1854, theDakota out. and theFrench when arrived, Recreation Area corridor between 1680, the Dakota hunters joined e Hennepin and Auguelle continued downstream butappar- Croix. Together they headed back to Mille Lacs. ncreasingly more intense ntly did notntly did make River. itto the Illinois Soon Accault and enhl,d uh itching to reach the Mississippi duLuth, Meanwhile, in

the lowe and American interactions became interactions and American them r MississippiNat somewher e below theSt. ional 6 River and party. Together they cont and Hennepin’s Dakota paddling upriver and “rescued” he found the French 1680, and pursued them. OnJuly 25, he took expecting a canoe they be French, might Spanish, shortly ahead ofhim. rumors ofsomeEuropeans who had passed downriver the St.Croix he River. heard At the St.Croix’s mouth, and canoed crossed over downBay, the continental divide, near Thunder left hispostonLake Superior, and the Dakota, ar ri ve nAgs 4 O hsti,the Dakota traveledd on August up 14.Onthistrip, Fe aring they in ued onto Mill co uld or be English e Lacs, where they 56 Chapter 3 • DISCOVERY AND DISPOSSESSION build

built Fort naged to naged hile Le Sueur’s voyage Le Sueur’s hile where he he where W 12 the French ma the French the Mankato River, the Mankato ansion into the fal- Mississippi upper River ansion the into p ex

gan gathering their forces around Montreal under Montreal around forces gan gathering their ch 13 e impact of French trade on intertribal relations and on intertribal relations trade e impact of French be transferred their claims in Canada and east of the east and in claims Canada their transferred en

Fr Th ch ch ty of Paris on February 10, on February ty of Paris treaty, the the 1763. Under s later, the French abandoned the fort and, fort the abandoned s later, French most the the for d during the late seventeenth century. By 1696 the By century. seventeenth d during late the ups: Mdewakantons, the Wahpekutes, Sissetons, and Europe and turned its attention away from Canada and Canada from away its attention turned and Europe the mouth of the mouth rt, on the and efforts among Dakota up their the gave ar ea

ahpetons. The Mdewakantons occupied the area around area the occupied Mdewakantons The ahpetons. ance became embroiled in the War of Spanish Succession of Spanish War in the embroiled became ance crease the Dakota’s use of the MNRRA corridor. At the corridor. MNRRA use of the Dakota’s the crease en en o

NRRA corridor, he reached the mouth of the Minnesota of the mouth the corridor,NRRA reached he re ’Huillier for the Dakota trade. Dakota ’Huillier the for Mississippi in America to the British, the to America Mississippi in New for except Orleans. another fort on Prairie Island in potential 1752. But the on Prairie Island fort another and French with the ended involvement French further for with the War, in concluded 1756 and Indian began which Tr Fr pressure from attacks. Then, attacks. Iroquois from 1713, 1702 to pressure from Fr in in ended 1713 that of Utrecht Treaty the Under America. Scotia, war,the Nova to its claims lost France Although Newfoundland, Bay. Hudson around its lands and thereafter, shortly Lakes Great the to returned French the on the Beauharnois) a post (Fort establish did not they until 1727, again river upper downriver well it was and at Frontenac,Ten corridor MNRRA the from Minnesota. ye pa Mississippi Lakes upper River, Great on the focusing instead Still, Valley. and Ohio River te Fr seemed to portend a surge in French trade, in a surge French did not portend trade to that seemed follow. M 9, on September River 1700, Minnesota up the pushed and to L W Spirit of the “People as the known were and Lacs Lake Mille Lake” Mystic Lake.” of the “People lived or Wahpekutes The Mdewakantons,Wahpetons the near and Sissetons the and tribal migrations exceeded the French presence and would and presence French the tribal migrations exceeded in contact, primary four Dakota time of French were there gr 9 bout ime a t st of the river cen- st of the river we the first In 1699 Le Sueur returned In 1699 Le Sueur 11 During 1680s, the built Fort Perrot Nicholas account, for learn we 10 7 om Hennepin we learn that to the Dakota the falls the Dakota the to that learn we om Hennepin the extent that we can trust Hennepin’s flawed and flawed trust Hennepin’s can we that extent the al of buffalo meat. Two hours later, hours 16 15 or Two al of buffalo meat.

Fr ne ahead and,ne ahead custom,” what to “contrary killed had ast of the Mississippi and 12

gain. After their early expeditions, the French hoped to estab- expeditions, to early their hoped After French the To As Hennepin’s party descended the Mississippi the below party descended As Hennepin’s go r. d around Mille Lacs Lake. Mille d around

m of our hosts,m of our grease bear’s and meat all the took and 8 America, and Biloxi to sailing Mississippi up the River isconsin, Pepin, Lake on on Prairie Island, and just above aggerated aggerated

re as a place of energy, Chapter as a place (see spirituality history and an-Baptiste Louis Franquelin draw “the first accurate map first“the accurate draw Franquelin Louis an-Baptiste do ish a series of posts in the interior to hold off and Spanish hold to of posts in interior the ish a series eft in canoes and took the Fox-Wisconsin route, Fox-Wisconsin proba- the they took and eft in canoes te Dakota culture and the Mississippi River in the MNRRA cor- in MNRRA the Mississippi the and River culture Dakota ri w 6). ex from there canoeing all the way to Minnesota. Entering the Entering Minnesota. to way all the canoeing there from St. Antoine on Lake Pepin. From the 1680s to the mid- the 1680s to the From Pepin. on Lake Antoine St. 1690s, Perrot, for worked trading Le Sueur Charles Pierre In 1695 Le Mississippi upper River. on the Dakota with the cartographer French the helped and France to returned Sueur Je Mississippi watershed.” upper of the 10 vil- map shows The e lages the river to St. Anthony, portaged around the falls and con- falls and the Anthony, around St. to portaged river the in Late Mississippi Rivers. up the Rum and tinued they Since east. finally returned September, Frenchmen the l corri- MNRRA Mississippi the the through down bly went dor a l As a result,English building expansion. began French the south posts were These Mississippi upper River. posts on the corridor, MNRRA of the Trempealeau, near however, W Wing. Red to they found.”they meat the those with that learned Hennepin had Therefore, those away. rest the scared and wanted they meat. the right take the to had coming later hunters St. Anthony Falls,Anthony St. of a Dakota some members found they a had They island. on an Issati camped the called he band de great falls, at the Dakota, Frenchmen with the been had who clubs in hand, war with their “came wig- the down pulled wa 57 557016_Book_r 8/5/03 8:02 AM Page 57 Page AM 8:02 8/5/03 557016_Book_r 557016_Book_r 8/5/038:02AMPage58

RIVER OF HISTORY: A Historic Resources Study of the Mississippi National River and Recreation Area in ancestral homeland. The Mdewakantons had begun living lages around from Mille Lacs. d he after gone being for five years, the upper river 1700, in to they extended their trips buffalo hunting 1680 and 1727, they began their changing lifestyle. Betweenonly moved, place for the eastern Dakota by thistime. The Dakota not havethat the fallsmight become gathering the primary but they had gone to St. Anthony Falls. Anderson suggests he hoped to the Dakota find build Fort there, Beauharnois, arrived at Lake Pepin September in 1727to Boucherville, on the St.Croix. SieurWhen de Pierre Boucher, below on the Mississippi and Minnesota St. Anthony, River, li Chippewa River. asserted control over the St.Croix River and lower River from itsheadwaters to well below Lake Pepin and still they remained the strongest onthe upper tribe Mississippi thethough Dakota had south begun and west, migrating toward th tive for the Sissetons and Wahpetons to moving begin 1720s. And the and buffalo horse provided astrong incen- Dakota Headwaters out ofthe Mississippi region by the atLake Pepinon the Mississippi and below helped draw the Gary Anderson suggests that the presence ofFrench traders pulled the Dakota away from Mille Lacs.Dakota historian contending that certain forces Other scholars disagree, a Chippewa the had better access to gunsand ammunition, the Dakotapushing out oftheir homelands. Since the re through the MNRRA corridor other increased. The Dakota, St. Anthony Falls traffic and onthe , gmn os they were more powerfulrgument goes, than the Dakota. iscovered the Dakota had west begun migrating and south ke si

the from plains afew weeks to afew months.Even semipermanent vil de ly convinced the Dakota to leave their traditional vil- By the 1750sthe Dakota had largely abandoned their Some scholars that argue the Chippewa had started As the Dakota settled River along the Mississippi below d to the north and west. e plains. Mille LacLake. 15 17 16 vrl,they remained very mobile. Overall, A combination ofthese factors most lages alo 14 ng thelower reaches ofthe Wh en

Le Sueur returned to 18 T Rumand other rivers that fed into stem. the main Croix, he on the Minnesota. The Chippewa came down from the ri and traders often traveled throughIndians, the MNRRA cor- to they expectedthan sending the traders tribes to the tribes, we the furtrade ofthe River upper Mississippi valley and the and the Spanish from St.Louis. When thedidenter British the French coming upfromfrequent New the Orleans area, va created by butnoeconomic their victory over the French, Th Th na butthey unquestionably helped its define warfare, tribal in the M Dakota intensified and became acentral ofDakota part life warfare betweenAs aconsequence, the Chippewa and and because itbrought firearms directly to their enemies. be by and Fort they St.Charles onLake ofthe Woods 1732, in the French builtFort Beauharnois onLake Pepin 1727 in fare increased greatly asthe French spread westward. When we know oruntarily retreated that war- intertribal from it, gat to travelother tributaries em pad villages ther the corridorwithin or turned upthe Minnesota to Dakota le failed. In1767thegranted British licenses to traders and at the border ofLakes Michigan and Huron. The policy raders venturedraders up do hmrs noteitro,setting rampant competi- off t them rushinto the interior,

c c ad p ueadetn,aswould and the British Americans. ture and extent, c e British did not did immediatelye British the political fill vacuum tr ra ae,they tried adifferent system. Ratherstern Great Lakes, her, and go to war. go to and her, lydteMsispiadteMneoa St.Croix and ployed and the the Minnesota, Mississippi ause ittook away their middleman the trade in position uum occurred. French and Spanish traders continued to dled upstream to trade withthe Chippewa. The Dakota m ote tpsslk ihlmcia,which was ome to them Michilimackinac, atpostslike assed the Chippewa. The both Chippewa resented this, rts,1763-1815 e British, r ontheirway to andfrom wa Wh te NRRA corridor. The French not did invent inter- et rs her

to e. They alsopo

the Dakota moved out oftheir homeland vol- takteDkt,uigteMsispi St. the Mississippi, using attack the Dakota, the Mississippi to th the Mississippi

between their rtaged around village s on the main stems onthemain or village e Dakota

St. Anthony and St. Anthony ,to hunt, s,

villages 19 58 557016_Book_r 8/5/03 8:02 AM Page 59

Carver expands our knowledge of Dakota social and cultural traditions within the MNRRA corridor. On November 14, he came to “the great stone cave calld by the Naudowessee,” he said, “Waukon Tebee, or in English the house of spirits.” The cave would take Carver’s name. tion. By the 1780s many English traders worked among Carver “discovered” something already old to the Dakota. the Dakota. No evidence exists, however, that the French, He found “many strange hieroglphycks cut in the stone Spanish or English established posts in the MNRRA corridor some of which was very a[n]cient and grown over with during the British era. Prairie du Chien was the primary moss.” (Figure 4) Like a graffiti vandal, he etched the king trading place on the upper Mississippi. Not only did vari- ous tribes meet French, Spanish and British traders there, the traders fanned out from the wilderness entrepot. British and French traders canoed the MNRRA corridor regu- larly to trade with the Dakota and Chippewa.20 Not many British explorers or traders left detailed accounts of their travels on the Mississippi River or of their encounters with Native Americans. Fortunately, Jonathan Carver, 1766-67, and Peter Pond, 1773-75, did. Carver had asked to go west to help England secure the lands it had won from France. He had fought in the French and Indian War and knew well the French influence in the interior. After securing a commission from Robert Rogers, the com- mandant at Fort Michilimackinac, Carver set out for the Mississippi River from the fort on September 3, 1766. Rogers sent Carver west, hoping to discover the Northwest Passage. More pragmatically, he directed Carver to convince the Dakota and other tribes to visit the British posts and abandon the French and Spanish traders. Misinformation, plagiarism, deceit, and exaggeration plague Carver’s account. So his observations, like those of many early explorers, warrant caution.21 On November 8, 1766, somewhere between Lake Pepin and the St. Croix River’s mouth, Carver met the Dakota or “Naudowwessee” as he called them. Stopping for the day, he read them a speech from Major Rogers and offered them rum, tobacco and a wampum belt, hoping to FIGURE 4. These petroglyphs in Carver’s Cave demonstrate the historical persuade them to visit the British posts. To his journal, he and spiritual significance places within the MNRRA corridor held for the confided the Chippewa resented traders who bypassed them. Dakota and other tribes. Theodore H. Lewis, The Northwest Archaeological A band of the Chippewa (possibly the Pillager Band), Carver Survey, 1898. wrote, robbed traders they caught on the Mississippi between the St. Croix and Lake Pepin. The traders, accord- ing to Carver, usually went up and down the river in large groups for security. Carver left the next day and reached the mouth of the St. Croix.22

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RIVER OF HISTORY: A Historic Resources Study of the Mississippi National River and Recreation Area us odr tobacco and other powder, guns, Carver to return againwithmore traders them to bring the journey to Mi Americans were “great few travelers,” were to make willing the Dakota). Carver comments that while the Native still favored the(although trip French usually came to one British traderone British claimed few came Indians to the area. from St. Anthony Falls to duChien Prairie sointensely that Dakota and the Chippewa River along fought the Mississippi he whom Carver had learned that anIroquois man, the council, dwindled. supplies fur animalsand game to Prior entering and asthe as Dakota became more wellMinnesota, armed, as the Chippewa expanded farther south and west into cially wanted gunsfor war. el Fr addre si go provide Carver the opportunity to harangue the Dakota to of several bands planned to attend. Such ameeting would co c do F Carver headedacters. From upto the St. cave, Anthony of England’s coat the Native among ofarms American char- Mississippi to attackMississippi the Dakota. joined aband ofChippewa that had stolen down to the self invited to the council. bands attended. Eight at ornear a 30. The next possibly day he met the Dakota near the cave, traveled down to ofthe Dakota onthe Minnesota River and Encampment” he left what he termed the “Grand 1767, 26, April amp lso h 5h Atrvstn h al,Carver returned alls onthe 15th. After the falls, visiting bly Wabasha I)presided atthe conference. The chief ed en ni”to be held near the cave he had visited.uncil” The chiefs

wnstream andcanoed upthe

to had

ch to

Intertribal warfare intensified the era, British during Th Th ed the British andthe to British stop withthe trading French. Soon ssed the advantages and disadvantages ofgoing to the

the French in , although atleast although onechief the French Louisiana, in em and Hispeople British. feared disease ifthey trav-

e hereditary chief ofthe Mottobauntowha band (pos- Carver heard about “an annual e following April, with the Dakota for the winter. ployed had asaninterpreter the previous fall, village the Mississippi, c

hilimackinac. hilimackinac. The htwudbcm aoi,andgot him- that would become Kaposia, 25 Minnesota Riv 26 goo where hearri By the 1790sthe ds. The Dakota espe- c hief enco 23 er where he ve uraged 24 d on April 27 to trading yearer of c their traders out withwampum belts asmany to bring sent he that traders nine had Pond Indans who ware allto Randavese thare Spring.” in c ar found number“a Larg offrench &Indans out Makeing thare Pond Minnesota Rivers. duChien, atPrairie Uponarriving and especially the Dakota among and ofthe Mississippi themselves throughout the River upper Mississippi region co Carver. wanted Hesimply out to asmanyfurshe bring had less goals grandiose than account thisera, during Po startled Pond’sHeadwaters, party. Given the recent battles, accompanied by traders who had spent the winter near the adelegation from the Chippewa, Minnesota and Mississippi, him for the treaty negotiations. At the confluence ofthe en the between conflict the Dakota and Chippewa had wors- Headwaters. Minnesota River and to get to the Chippewa atthe throughthe the Mississippi corridor to reach bands onthe traders traveled on he shows, Dakota lands. At aminimum, numerous and French British traders had infiltrated the he demonstratesbartered that the MNRRA within corridor, PondAlthough does not indicate that traders wintered or by visited himand noted that he had aFrench competitor near- he tradedOctober. withthe Dakota the who winter, During two that he accompanied upthe Minnesota River in Ve how avoiding to serious Hoping conflict. end the intertribal pa [blood] was Scairs Cald the The Wound two was yet fresh.” if oMciiaknca osbe I17,after anoth- hiefs to Michilimackinac In1775, aspossible. anues to Differant Parts Like wiseGiveing Creadets to the angements for the InSewing winter and Sending ofthare

l. n17,Pn hw,furtraders had established Pond shows, uld. In1773, tru mn h epeIhdwt e for the Blad the Peaplentursum among Ihad withme, rties then proceeded some- together to Michilimackinac, e

nd the British entrepot bringing eleven entrepotthe British bringing Dakota chiefs with w d. Fearing that the trade would collapse, the British sent the British d. Fearing that the trade would collapse, ho had been withthe trading Dakota for several years. Pe fe eunn oMciiaknc Pond learned thatAfter returning to Michilimackinac,

re te c le,“Iwas Much Surprised to Sea themalled, So od another adventurer British to leaver Pond, an 28 nteMneoaRvr Pond headedon the Minnesota River, back to di to ffere tpae,including nt places, 60 Chapter 3 • DISCOVERY AND DISPOSSESSION where he had where posia, 21, Ka Pike reached

rcing him to stop. There is no indication There stop. rcing him to 1805,American to assert tried Pike Zebulon Lieutenant 32 they reached the St. Croix River, St. Croix the 19, September on reached they

On September en ppened to Pike many times already, he had laid up to fix up to laid already, had many times he Pike to ppened lson Peale. Independence National Historic Park. Historic Independence National Peale. lson aser and Cameron begged leave to undertake some busi- some undertake to leave begged Cameron and aser est of the river through the of 1803. Artist: Charles 1803. of Purchase the Louisiana through the river est of ontrol over the upper Mississippi River. America had acquired the land acquired had America River. Mississippi the upper over ontrol FIGURE 5. In FIGURE 5. In c w Wi Fr mouth the below miles Three departed. and in area the ness Ferrebault’s” River, Minnesota of the “Mr. upon a came Pike had piroque trader’s The camp. Faribault) Baptiste (Jean damaged,been fo if, or this camp a trading site made Faribault that had as ha his boat. the Minnesota River. At Lake Pepin,Lake At River. trader, another Minnesota the Cameron, also Murdoch Cameron expedition. Pike’s joined River. Minnesota on the Dakota with the trade to planned Wh breakfast. He counted 11 lodges but the band was out col- out was band but the lodges 11 He counted breakfast. 30 29 31 . Wilkinson ordered Pike to choose the best sites best the choose to Pike ordered Wilkinson . e only official American effort to establish its pres- establish effort to American e only official tting the Dakota to agree not to cross the Mississippi the cross to not agree to tting Dakota the me after the Louisiana Purchase in 1803, Purchase Louisiana the me after which by boundary the tribes. two tradersThe between succeed- ge nnesota and Wisconsin, and nnesota including at Grand sites ca Pike left St. Louis on August 9,August on St. Louis left Pike proceeded As he 1805. Th British sovereignty (ignoring Dakota claims) over the over claims) (ignoring Dakota British sovereignty

the fur trade in the region and with it the politics with it the and and in region the fur trade the

ho was planning to winter with the Dakota bands on bands Dakota with the winter planning to ho was

r and ensure their profits, their ensure r and convince to British the tried in the east and the Chippewa not to go to the west. The west. the to go to not Chippewa the and east the w rtage, River), St. Louis of the mouth du Lac (at the Fond te ce

onomy. British traders, Northwest those of the onomy. especially

efore.) General James Wilkinson, James eliminate to General efore.) determined astern MNRRA corridor technically ended with the Treaty with the ended technically corridor MNRRA astern up the Mississippiup the River, thriving and fur an active found he Fraser, up James a trad- picked he At Prairie du Chien trade. er en an 825,000,000-square-mile over control gained America $15,000,000. for MississippiFrance of the from west tract years Spain three from Louisiana reacquired had (France b in region, the Britishthe influence Pike Zebulon dispatched headwaters river’s the to Mississippi St. Louis up the from 5) (Figure the from them for military land for the obtain posts and way the prepare to Pike He also directed Americans. Native trading posts, government for with the alliances make Dakota, and Chippewa intertribal fighting, stop locate and source. Mississippi’s the attempt to create a dividing line between the Chippewa and Chippewa the a dividing line between create to attempt at statements their Despite failed,Dakota however. of Michilimackinac, east some lands still viewed Dakota the Mississippithe as theirs. Po Prairie du Chien, Lake. Leech and Lake Sandy to e of Paris, in 1783, Revolution. American the concluded that east the to land the owned now States treaty,By that United west land the still claimed Spanish The Mississippi.of the domi- to In reality, continued British traders river. of the na ec in 1787), (established Company building posts continued Mi in ed wa the Mississippi the make River to Chippewa and Dakota the fixed 61 557016_Book_r 8/5/03 8:02 AM Page 61 Page AM 8:02 8/5/03 557016_Book_r 557016_Book_r 8/5/038:02AMPage62

RIVER OF HISTORY: A Historic Resources Study of the Mississippi National River and Recreation Area point and waitedpoint for the Dakota. be Pike reached the large island atthe Minnesota’s mouth that sep met a smallDakota offour camp lodges. Whether thiswas a lecti a wh Dakota villagewher Later that day Pike went upthe Minnesota River to the Little Crow and about 150ofthe band’s warriors arrived. be the cession wouldCrow and LeFils de Pinchow or Pinichon, Rivers. Little onlytwoAlthough Dakota leaders signed, Dakota lands atthe mouths ofthe St.Croix and Minnesota withseventiating Dakota chiefs atPike Island. Hewanted Pike began nego-Pike’s arrival. The at noon, following day, th Dakota warriors had left, a been remarkably red; wa “The he wrote, cross hisbateau. in Ittook only40. And, em re Pike the St.Croix’s mouth onhisjourney upstream, ta for aconsiderable dis- appear blue and clear, (Minnesota), as ink. The waters ofthe St.Croix and St.Peters bo of the day they waded freezing in “to cold force the water, pa that anyone less determined would have turned back. His next day became the Mississippi Pike claimed sodifficult having their to way fight of the day, over three rapids. The the river and became struggled hisparty shallow, for the rest however,found the river deep enough. Within four miles, Pike initially after portaging around St. Anthony Falls, bo bo nc marked that the river became narrow. surprisingly To ar c rty passed somelarge islands and more rapids. For much t f has n rwte hog ais”The river and draw them through rapids.” shoals, ats off te ph ich the Senate agreed initially to pay only$2,000. ome fact. The Dakota gave upsome100,000acres for ar ut the river itself the MNRRA in corridor. After passing ut the river above St. Anthony Falls. OnOctober 1, e below their confluence.” i ae he set onthe upcamp island’s northeast s hisname, g“osaon”or wildng rice. “fols avoin,” heTwo miles farther up, fteMsispi since we passed Lake Pepin has r ofthe Mississippi, nieCre n od Pike delivers someinsights CarverUnlike and Pond, He did not wait long. The next day Petit Corbeau or ate village or a temporary camp is not clear. not is When camp temporary a or village ate sz h on,he tested how manystrokes he need theasize point, to e Cameron and where ey

35 had had 33 it is deep, appears asblack appears it isdeep, Pike offers rare details

re his post. While the t urned upon he aring of 34 to mouth hailed him. Although they received initially him Dakota from anumber oflodges about three miles above the next day ashe headed back down some the Minnesota River, be the Dakota pipes asagesture ofhisdesire to establish peace placed someChippewa pipes that he had acquired next to Pike ..” set poles; against and asmanypipes, 40 chiefs, lo i Pike may have arrived atthe timeofanother annual meet- had 600 people. As thiswas timeofyear the same that Carver W Th Minnesota. Pike found some40Dakota chiefs waiting. ag the Dakota chiefs. LeFils de Pinchow came soon after and he sent when for he reached again Pike Island, on 11, April co they had killed. the indicating number ofmen and women on the paddles, ke in to continued and we saw five more; ashort distance higher up, shore; c “Opposite the mouth ofCrow river we found canoe, abark Pike recordedattack the Chippewa. that OnOctober 4, found onereason why the Dakota had probably set to off River from going to war. Uponreaching he the Crow River, had warfaretribal and rampant hoped to end it.Onlyhisarrival October 4. minable distance. They did Crow River’s mouth. For itseemed Pike’s crew, aninter- onlysome25mileswinds from St. Anthony Falls to the g Tecuclhue”Pk eodd “wasng. Pike“The two recorded, council large house,” ut to pieces withtomahawks and the paddles broken on gs capable ofcontaining 300men. Inthe upper were dges,

ahpetons. The Dakota numbered about 100lodges or te nv tween the tribes. Pike apparently had effect. little The re n arrows asChippewa. The Chippewa had carved marks Le FilsdePincho ey

rpreter recognized the canoes asDakota and somebro- ed stopped the Mdewakantons upthe Minnesota living attended agreat annual Dakota conference 1766, in in

nhsrtr rpdw h issip,Pike hoped to On hisreturn down trip the Mississippi, Pike found inter- Like thetraders British and explorers, r epresented Sissetons and the Mdewakantons,

ce to

the Dakota to make peace withthe Chippewa. So otacucl A ust the Dakota called Pikehost acouncil. At sunset, 36 e h rcs ni efudegt”Pike’s untilwe found eight.” see the wrecks, w’s vil lage, about about lage, not reach the Crow River until nine miles upthe nine 62 Chapter 3 • DISCOVERY AND DISPOSSESSION e–close to the e–close to Mdewakanton vil- Mdewakanton At Kaposia, dis- Pike 44 on the Mississippi above The

42 41 village ier travelers, and this had affect- By the end of the British era, of the end By the over- rl 43 ea

by ut 4,000 to 5,000 peopl ut 4,000 to a seasonal a seasonal 45

e Mdewakantons living in bark lodges,e Mdewakantons which urred, however. On both his trips to trade with the trade his trips to On both urred, however. ill had abo c Dakota bands holding regular councils within cor- the councils regular holding bands Dakota d the British period. The Dakota had moved out of out moved had Dakota The Britishd the period.

Assuming Carver’s and Pond’s accounts are somewhat are accounts Pond’s and Assuming Carver’s By the end of the British era in 1815, British era of the end By the much know we oc settled on the Mississippi in the MNRRA corridor and Mississippi on the corridor in MNRRA the settled n thinking about agriculture. As early as 1775,As early n thinking agriculture. about Pond r or just up the Minnesota River. And the Kaposia the And band River. Minnesota just up the r or r had become increasingly important to the Dakota. the to important increasingly become r had

ze ng an important transition. ng an important tribal unity.” wnstream and up the Minnesota River. The MNRRA cor- MNRRA The River. Minnesota up the and wnstream i

gi her rn to rely more on corn and beans. Anderson also argues Anderson beans. and on corn more rely rn to ri do do bundance of game along the Mississippi of game the Minnesota along and bundance covered thcovered pat- in subsistence a change indicated suggests Anderson te up the broken had conditions “changing economic that seen larger villages ed hunting and the depletion of fur and game of fur and animals forced depletion hunting the and to and groups smaller into break to Mdewakantons the be noted, Minnesota of the living mouth the near Dakota the . . .” of Corn. “Plentey raised River British made an effort to keep trade open, trade keep an effort to British made sided Dakota the of Treaty Only with the British duringwith the war. the Ghent, in 1815, war, the ended British which did the withdraw. begin to traders true, charac- know we particulars many of the capture they te ri had established sea- than more gained had area The mouth. St. Croix’s the Kaposia the band, to importance sonal burial as the of band more about the MNRRA corridor. While some aspects of some aspects While corridor. MNRRA the about more little, changed had under- lifeways were Dakota Dakota the go lages st lages their traditional homeland around Mille Lacs Lake. They Lacs Lake. Mille around homeland traditional their had do ri Carver, and Pond, Mdewakantons the found others and ot numbers they held 20 years earlier. Important changes Important earlier. 20 years held they numbers had Dakota on the Minnesota River, Pond commented on the River, Minnesota on the commented Dakota Pond a deer, He killed Rivers. buffalo, ducks, ani- other and geese mals with little effort. On 38 had

goods to goods to and hile that hile they W 39 een when b As the Americans limited Americans As the 40 hing the Dakota and as American as and hing Dakota the goods reac 37 utlook and condition had condition and utlook d. On September 27,d. On September his wife to a letter penned he Pike’s expedition signaled a new era. His was the first the His was era. a new signaled expedition Pike’s Pike’s influence was short-lived, was to influence failed America Pike’s as n ds and,Anderson, to according impover- Dakota the left ll, the Dakota forcefully let him know they intended to ll, intended they know him let forcefully Dakota the suffer. The War of 1812 led to even greater shortages of shortages greater even to of 1812 led War The suffer. llecting furs from Indians in the western Great Lakes and Lakes Great western in Indians the furs from llecting yo

omen and had had children by them, by children had had and the omen because and ut the region. As tensions between the and States United the between As tensions region. ut the assed earlier. They had been tired, been had They cold, earlier. assed sick,“just and aunch into an unknown wilderness; an unknown into aunch . . . ” goo Dakota married had English the traders Because ished. w p men, of civilized haunts the and borders upon the to about l April 10, trip, on his return again on this commented he confessed, he now,” my sensations different “How feeling. expe- the bleak how about description with a long following o dition’s the supply of the traders failed to make up the difference, up the make to failed traders began Dakota the to we go to war. America’s of missions establish number to of an increasing Mississippi. upper the over control economic and political active remained traders now,But for French British and the activity he much how Demonstrating river. upper on the Anthony Falls, St. below Mississippi on the River found wilderness the to gateway falls as the the regarded Pike be wilderness may have been unknown to Pike and the and Pike to unknown been have may wilderness Americans, long. for be not it would growing The of 1812. War the up until after follow of trade did disrupt flow the presence American through- and corridor in MNRRA the Americans Native the o embargoed Britain mounted, Jefferson Thomas President active- States United The in fall of 1807. the all commerce delivering from British traders stop to ly tried co some forced move This valley. Mississippiupper River withdraw. to British traders and prepared a package for his commander in St. Louis. his commander for a package prepared and business,“This closing sealing,” and remarked, he world.” civilized the to adieu last like the “appeared 63 557016_Book_r 8/5/03 8:02 AM Page 63 Page AM 8:02 8/5/03 557016_Book_r 557016_Book_r 8/5/038:02AMPage64

RIVER OF HISTORY: A Historic Resources Study of the Mississippi National River and Recreation Area be RiverMississippi and the MNRRA corridor. and fur As game l forcingmore changes their in smaller and smaller area, they wouldof Americans squeeze swelled, the Dakota into a la itwouldalthough be decades before Americans knew the and the era ofsettlement these during begin 25years, uralized or leave. The Americans, however, had to enforceto had however, leave.oruralized The Americans, which required foreign traders to becomeAct of1816, nat- Astor convinced Congress to pass the Foreign Intercourse the furtrade. Inanattempt to foreign eliminate traders, the Unitedposts in States and began control asserting over under John bought the Jacob Northwest Company’sAstor, ther their undermining traditional ways. c the Dakotathe river would and itswatershed, turnto agri- th ra the area. postin manent military Steamboats hurried explo- na natural resources get to them. natural and they would increasinglytheir existence, deplete their Dakota would look more often to outsiders for the tools of frequent and deadly. the While stillanindependent people, was becoming more asaresult ofthe furtrade, and warfare, factures. Gunshad become essential for successful warfare, the Dakota grew more dependent uponforeignfull, manu- i wh nearmembers the American explorers an Th years years which codified the American victory.1815, Onlyeight RiverMississippi valley following the Treaty ofGhent in ng native goods. Although the supplywas never steady and ifestyle and, before long, forcing them forcing away from the before long, ifestyle and, ulture and annuities fur- from the American government, nd in rd n eteet and they hurried change for trade and settlement, tion, e ari iaeteuprMsispiRvr reachedvigate the River, upper per- the first Mississippi ich European and American products had begun replac- Da e Americans

as well asthe native inhabitants had. As the number Fo One ofthe mostobvious changes was the extent to gaiasdsperd upsetting the ecosystems of ng animalsdisappeared, after the the treaty, ko lwn h a f11,the Americanllowing FurCo., the War of1812, ta

an d th e village demo ri ve d trad r.

Virg The era of exploration would end exploration The of era ers dispersed through the upper the through dispersed ers inia nstrated. ,the fi r st steamboat to the act. he Longdecidedcrossed the river to see nearby if 40strokes, in the river was only100to 120yards wide. Since Pike had na wide by the pool behind Lock 2–Longsaid and was Dam the Fo uncounted traders who had been through itsomanytimes. tion about the MNRRA corridor than had been left by the beyondthe Mississippi provides thispoint more informa- re sitestial military to the and upper map locate Mississippi poten- Engineers), a a TopographicalStephen (abranch Engineer ofthe H.Long, the out. British e and medals. traders ButBritish continued to reach the east- Crow and uptheir flagsWabasha British giving conceded, re Mdewakanton leaders had first to renounce and the British refused to let them. insisted Smith that the two Smith, BrevetAmerican Brigadier General commander, Thomas A. and above camp the withthe other Dakota already there, duChien.Prairie When they tried to pass the frontier hub do le seriously.answered: Little Crow and Wabasha quickly should take the Americans. The commander British to learn how seriously they near SaultSte. Marie, Island, Wa Americans. In1816Little Crow II(Cetanwakanmani) and they not did readily accept the traders, married English and Green Bay. 1816theyand in began forts building duChien atPrairie the Butthistime Mississippi. Americans had come to stay, traders someBritish remained onthe upper new act, nDkt,and the Americans felt agrowing need torn Dakota, drive rmy that temporarily had from split the Corps of a ached the mouth ofthe St.Croix River. Hisdescription of co ur miles above the St.Croix’s mouth–an area now made nteWsosn entering justbelow the Mississippi wn the Wisconsin,

rrowest place below St. Anthony Falls. As he measured it, rned what he meant. They returned upthe Fox River and co basha IItraveled to postatDrummond the British gnize the Americans astheir new sovereigns. Little oi 87 Secretary of War John 1817, So in sent C.Calhoun steMeaatn a eido,fuh ih and with, fought As the Mdewakantons had relied on, uld beat him. Pike’sAlthough bateau may have been 46 Despite the American victory the and ignoring 47 (Figure 6) O uy1,11,Long 1817, . OnJuly 15, 64 Chapter 3 • DISCOVERY AND DISPOSSESSION r and all ve 52 d free from everything that everything from d free ommanded the ri ommanded lage c 51 olorless an olorless the vil c

54 it impure, a It has sight the taste. or to either fs of sandstone nearly perpendicular. Next suc- Next perpendicular. nearly fs of sandstone er llapsed in many places and was filling with was and in many places llapsed During 1823 voyage, the that reports Keating co 53

Pike was much more impressed with Fountain Cave, with Fountain impressed more much was Pike On July 16,On July 1817, Kaposia, party passed Long’s which but was day that Cave at Carver’s Long also arrived had 14 lodges (three more than Pike had counted 12 years counted had Pike than more (three 14 lodges the sandstone inside. Cass and Schoolcraft had visited had Schoolcraft inside. Cass and sandstone the a most beautiful circular room, circular a most beautiful and above finely arched s below the Minnesota River’s mouth. Long observed mouth. River’s Minnesota the s below

s a narrow passage & difficult of entrance which opens which & difficult of entrance passage s a narrow

nish appearance, bot- the from reflections by occasioned

ich lay some three miles above Carver’s Cave and a few and Cave Carver’s above miles some three lay ich le e water is entirely is entirely e water me it has acquired,me it has originally implies, which River. Clear to rlier), that Demonstrating burialground. its nearby and ve g] hall, 8 in & from width 15 feet in length feet 150 about to ee ed ho tried to pass. Little Crow’s people, Crow’s Little pass. to ho tried remarked, he used eld nts a stream dramatically different from the one choked the from dramatically different nts a stream om, but when taken into a vessel is perfectly clear.”om, perfectly is a vessel into taken but when While o16 in height, finely arched over head & walled on both o16 in height, & walled head over finely arched that “The entrance of the Cave is a large windinding is a large [wind- Cave of the entrance “The that in t clif by sides ce in sand. He records no markings by anyone in his 1817 no markings anyone by He records sand. account. the cave in 1820. cave the they found the names of Henry R. Schoolcraft and the party the and R. Schoolcraft of Henry names the found they Cass,of Lewis Governor, carved Territorial Michigan the in wh mi Mississippi above the St. Croix emphatically deserves the deserves emphatically St. Croix the Mississippi above na Th h ea St. of the out Mdewakantons the forced not had Chippewa the hunting up yet, were people valley Croix Crow’s most of Little was river the narrow how Given Long passed. when river that here, that Long noted Native contained once had cave the While unimpressed. a small lake, and etchings American the that Long found ca t Long pres- river,” “great means accurately Mississippi more e Like century. of the end at the sediment and with pollution the below appearance Pike, reddish water’s the Long noted St. Croix. of the mouth would rend gr w traders. from tolls exact position to strategic their Long. Long. Artist: Vincent Peale. Charles It was only nine miles to the to only nine miles It was 49 Shortly after passing this narrow gap, passing this narrow after Shortly 48 50 as slow.” Long provides the first comment on the river’s water river’s on the first the comment Long provides ating, journalist, expedition’s the river the that grumbled at. Delaying him further,at. Delaying twist- the that Long complained alls of St. Anthony.” alls of St. ng river made using their sail nearly impossible. using sail nearly On Long’s made their ng river Independence Hall Collection,Independence Hall Philadelphia. FIGURE 6. Stephen Harriman Harriman FIGURE 6. Stephen up to St. Paul was “crooked and its channel impeded by impeded its channel and “crooked was St. Paul up to sandbars; rapid, current the and of the progress the that so w boat i Mississippi, up the expedition second in 1823, H. William Ke Minnesota River overland, River Minnesota observed, he by days but two bo quality. Long recorded, during his 1817 trip,quality. “The that much more clumsy than Long’s six-oared skiff, six-oared Long’s clumsy than more much Long needed only 16 strokes. Long commented that his party had “Passed the Detour de Detour the “Passed his party had that Long commented Mississippi of the (Pine Bend),Turn Pin Pine or is the which the and St. Louis river, turn of the between most westwardly F 65 557016_Book_r 8/5/03 8:02 AM Page 65 Page AM 8:02 8/5/03 557016_Book_r 557016_Book_r 8/5/038:02AMPage66

RIVER OF HISTORY: A Historic Resources Study of the Mississippi National River and Recreation Area Minnesota Historical Society. 7. FIGURE fl re might inthe region. An growing try to impress the Dakota withthe Americans’ be learned had had been discovered recently,says, and the Mdewakantons re stream flowed through the cave “& cheers the lonesome dark ro expanding occasionally into small meandering course, a Mississippi MdewakantonMississippi RiverMississippi two in armed keelboats. Hestopped atthe O’Fallon took adetachment of50U.S. soldiers upthe O’Fallon assumed initially thisrole. of1818, Inthe spring largest U.S. expedition into Da into U.S. expedition largest up the Minnesota to Shakopee’s village. This was the bo ue ra ihiselvnn umr. onanCv,Long Fountain Cave, treat withitsenlivening murmurs.” c oms of a circular form.” Long alsorecorded Long that aclear oms ofacircular form.” c ommended that the United States build afort atthe con- ome a popular nineteenth-centuryome apopular attraction. ut 50feet diameter. in The cavern then continues a nc W fteMneoaadMsispiRvr,he not did e ofthe Minnesota Rivers, and Mississippi hil e iteCo I Cetanwakanmani. Inman. Henry Artist: Little Crow II, Lo of itabout years six earlier. The cave would ng ex amined the sites acquired by Pike and Indian agent na

village kota territ kota s andcontinued 30miles med Be o ry and helped con- njamin 55 Minnesota go a re vince the Dakota to abandon anyhope themight British at C te the fort becamethe fort. atrade cen-As Forsyth promised, and Winnebago visited Menominee, the Chippewa, Dakota, in agreed. Snelling fort’s be name changed from Fort St. Anthony to Fort Major General Winfield Scott recommended1824, that the co set Snelling the fort’s and onSeptember 10, Leavenworth, probably atalltheMd Thomas Forsyth. and At Indian agent, Wabasha’s village, i ar States stillneeded to make thispoint. When O’Fallon the fort represented aninvasion oftheir land. they not did think Mdewakantons. he surmises, Therefore, de co They saw itnot asasymbol of American ..” as anasset, Little Crow and other Mdewakantons “viewed the garrison Anderson asserts that toContrary common assumptions, tradersfrom British and to control the Native Americans. we emphasize, not did he which and itwould be atrade center. objectives, The Americans’ wo wo the it three purposes that the fort would serve for the tribe: en Colonel Henry Leavenworth arrived1819, atthe conflu- ng anew fort. Joining was himonthe trip the Sacand Fox bo r, turn. ri te rnerstone. After the nearly visiting completed fort in to,which ishow butasa the Americans viewedntrol, it, ne to and visit protect traders British western in osrto fteAeias care and concern for the monstration ofthe Americans’ ce uld provide ablacksmith to their weapons fix and tools; uld protect it them from the Chippewa and other Indians; ut their permanence the following year. In August ve as traders located across the river atMendota and nearby amp Coldwater. and gatherings negotiations.rtribal Inaddition to the

Th Fo In August 1820Colonel Josiah replaced Snelling of the Minnesota Rivers and Mississippi to build- begin d atLittleCrow’s 56 59 rt Snelling quicklyrt Snelling became the regional center for e Americans eliminated anydoubts Little Crow had (Figure 8) Little Crow’s made actions itclear that the United (Figure 7) . theThe War following year, Department 60 . 57 ew

ilg,the village, akanton vil re to protect protect to re

c hief was abse ae,For lages, the furtrade 58 syth laidout t having nt, 66 Chapter 3 • DISCOVERY AND DISPOSSESSION ds became abun- ds became 63 goo rtisan and Medicine Pa ong greater the traders even encouraged raders relied more on alcohol, and alcoholism a few buffalo near the Buffalo River (Beef Buffalo River the buffalo near a few am

lage together. Grand lage together. n io it As more American traders moved into Dakota lands, Dakota into moved traders American As more et During 1820s, the fur trade the by introduced forces 62 me rampant. At Kaposia factionalismme rampant. intensified. struction of fur and game of fur and resources. struction mp ca ank from or wallowed in Mississippi. the had Long wallowed or ank from ant, replacing ever more native articles. Faced by growing by ant, Faced articles. native more ever replacing ommunity life. More traders and steamboat transportation steamboat and traders ommunity life. More d competition, t be drinking, Crow, excessive Little to prone himself not could the vil hold co and the growing American presence began to tear at Dakota tear to began presence American growing the and c European and American that meant de of the Mississippi River below St. Paul. Buffalo longer no Paul. St. below Mississippiof the River dr encountered Slough), Pepin, Lake below just during expedi- his 1817 tion. animals east aring e and fur-b and ating, of Stephen in his account Ke 61 Snelling about 1848. Artist: Henry Lewis. Minnesota Historical Society. Artist: Historical Minnesota Henry 1848. Lewis. Snelling about lts, many more capture to had Dakota so the e destruction of game e destruction pe

Th By the 1820s the Dakota participated in an economic participated Dakota 1820s the By the er ds and food,ds and furs to the acquire to hunted they more the av isappearing. He found little game a 200-mile reach isappearing. He found along urned to muskrats. Muskrat skins brought far less than far skins less Muskrat brought muskrats. to urned muskrats. Muskrats totaled three-fourths of the furs of the three-fourths totaled Muskrats muskrats. during 1820s, the Dakota the by trapped mid- the by and 1830s, some 95 percent. for accounted they other and muskrat on the Mississippi focus of the the and to Mdewakantons the furs forced and food small animals for west. hunt farther system that would undermine their traditional culture. The culture. traditional their undermine would that system trade American then and on European relied they more goo scarce, were 1820s beaver Dakota By the the and trade. t be Long’s 1823 expedition,Long’s rapidly game that was reported d 67 FIGURE 8. Fort FIGURE 8. Fort 557016_Book_r 8/5/03 8:02 AM Page 67 Page AM 8:02 8/5/03 557016_Book_r 557016_Book_r 8/5/038:02AMPage68

RIVER OF HISTORY: A Historic Resources Study of the Mississippi National River and Recreation Area i and before he gets the means ofliv- the extinction ofgame, in ofthe Dakotaplight hunter well. he wrote “‘This period,’” captured the the superintendent for Indian Affairs, Clark, he and warfare sapped their population. Thinking epidemic, ber began le Dakota families pa Small groups worked more efficiently (suggesting asimilar Mdewakantons broke into smallgroups to huntmuskrats. the up the Minnesota River from , less andless success each ye they had Saukand Crow Wing Rivers, St.Croix, Chippewa, pa brought changes to the Dakota settlement and economic a Pa Bottle l ar ment more withagriculture. The smallnumber living to experi- especially the Mdewakantons, forced the Dakota, c the Mdewakantons w l w Littleits tributaries. Crow and IV, the Taoyateduta, man to huntmuskratsMississippi onthe Minnesota River and we their lands east River. ofthe Mississippi settlersAlthough suggested that the Dakota agentIndian sell atFort Snelling, Dakota way oflife. undermined the a traditional way for men to status, gain which had been American to efforts stop warfare, intertribal selected the west end ofGrey Cloud Island for his.Even eft for the prairies. g from the produce offlocks and agriculture.’”ng, ult. The demise ofthe region’s resources furand game bo owudasm i rnfte’ aeadrl,evenho would assumehisgrandfather’s and name role, ou

ttern for Little Crow’s people). Bythe mid-1830s, tterns. While the Mdewakantons stillhunted along the rtisan establishedrtisan

1826, “‘is that in which “‘isthat from in he ceases to be ahunter, 1826, re co a alnt bu ,0,a train asmallpox asstarvation, s had fallen to about 1,400, tegtmlssuho aoi,and Medicine Bottle milesut eight south ofKaposia, nd

By 1836the Mdewakantons faced acrisis. Their num- Th yteedo h 80 n al 80,survival for By the end ofthe 1820s and early 1830s, l tptedwwr prl Lawrenceuld the stop the downward Taliaferro, spiral, o rsigfrteln,Taliaferro thoughtthe not pressing for the land,

eft to create theirown e depletion and the ofgame focus onmuskrats also the fort increasingly relied onhandouts. 64 a vil ho stayed their in aving theirvil aving lage at ar . At Black Do village “Pine Turn” or Pine Bend Pine or Turn” “Pine s after 1825.Grand lages onthe villages beca g’s vil 65 66 lage, W me diffi- illiam just Ta li Jo o fiilyapoetetet ni ue1,1838. approvenot officially the treaty untilJune 15, sented the interest ona$300,000trustfund. Congress did also to get apermanent $15,000annual annuitythat repre- and goods annually for 20years. tools, farm They were food, the Mdewakantonsthe treaty, were to receive $25,000in b hoped themoney wo Dakota could benefit more far from itssale than itsuse.He the Dakota, although they although had begun experimenting with the Dakota, and pork and flour replaced wild meat and wild rice. And Americans. This dependence deepened disappeared asgame Mdewakantons depended more uponthe annuities and the buy food the and trade goods. Without muskrats, allowing them tofurnished mostofthe Dakota’s income, muskrats traders quittaking them. Outside the annuities, muskrat prices had fallen solow the Eastthat in some Dakota’s and furresources. game Bythe late 1830s, the hunt. by upfor the making success declining of nomadic lifestyle, tr the contends, we members returning from the 60-percent surge. (Granted, a at about 1,400.By1850itreached 2,250individuals, the MdewakantonOn the treaty’s population had stood eve, their population began to recover.smallpox vaccinations, another food source and asmore members tribal received Mdewakantons respite. abrief As the annuities provided endorsed endorsed W in Cloud Man’sfarming. people planted crops atLake Calhoun Cloud Manhad asked Taliaferro to help their people learn ta een worked worked een ve ke nEtn the Secretary 135Dakota of War.hn Eaton, By1834,

isconsin Territory in August 1836, the government the Territoryisconsin 1836, Augustin l 80 salsigacmuiynmdEtnil,after acommunity establishing named Eatonville, 1830, st boosted the band’s Anderson numbers.) Ironically, iaferro’s treaty proposal. Butwhen Congress created the d atEatonville. The U.S. government balked initially at

up agriculture. Already Black Dog Little and Crow, yteedo etme 87 the treaty’s detailsBy the end had ofSeptember 1837, Th Th e annuities could not hide the demise ofthe e payments from the 1837treaty gave the the idea. o ut and the Dakota had agreed to them. Under ea ty allowed the Dakota to continue their 67 uld enco urage the Mdewa kantons to 68 68 Chapter 3 • DISCOVERY AND DISPOSSESSION . Pig’s Eye–the old Eye–the . Pig’s (Figure 10) (Figure Pressure began mounting for the Dakota to sign anoth- to Dakota the mounting for began Pressure rpower on the west side of St. Anthony Falls (like some Falls Anthony of St. side west on the rpower vitably open to settlement. Some hoped to capture the capture to Some hoped settlement. to open vitably te treaty, one that would bring an end to their residence their to bring an end treaty, would that one e

moving the Dakota intensified. Within a couple of years a couple Within intensified. Dakota the moving his time the Americans would force the treaty on the treaty the force would Americans his time the ntrepreneurs had already done on the east after the 1837 the after east on the done already had ntrepreneurs American settlers started crossing over by the hundreds to hundreds the by crossing over started settlers American would Government Federal the believed they on lands squat in wa e treaty). Others simply wanted to stake their claim to farms, to claim their stake to simply Others wanted treaty). as possible. as cheap land the get could they knowing er River. Minnesota lower and Mississippi the along River T in 1848 and a state became Wisconsin After Dakota. in 1849,Territory Minnesota the of talk created Congress re 142 buildings had St. Paul . te si

70 69 . Almost . old village old (Figure 9) (Figure the land at the far from becoming sedentary. becoming far from

osia II, Little Crow’s Village. Artist: Seth Eastman. Minnesota Historical Society. Artist:osia II, Historical Minnesota Seth Eastman. Village. Little Crow’s e river was supposed to have been a boundary, but been have to supposed was e river Th As the Mdewakantons and other Dakota relied more relied Dakota other and Mdewakantons As the r steadily increased,r steadily missionaries opened Methodist and rrant had built a cabin at Fountain Cave on June 1, on June Cave built a cabin at Fountain had rrant 1838, ve Pa others and Parrant kicked commandant Snelling’s but Fort set- then Parrant year. that later off military the reservation the Throughout Kaposia village. old the near at or tled 1840s,1830s and of the east population American the ri a school near Kaposia shortly after the 1837 treaty. the Kaposia after near shortly a school agriculture, were upon Americans,the onto pushed Americans steadily the moved had Crow By 1838 Little lands. Mdewakanton’s the MississippiKaposia the River across immediately settlers,immediately Pierre seller including whiskey the “Pigs Eye” Parrant, claimed 69 FIGURE 9. Kap 557016_Book_r 8/5/03 8:03 AM Page 69 Page AM 8:03 8/5/03 557016_Book_r 557016_Book_r 8/5/038:03AMPage70

RIVER OF HISTORY: A Historic Resources Study of the Mississippi National River and Recreation Area FIGURE 10. FIGURE houses stood atthe new Kaposia and two frame village–hadKaposia about adozen farms, Americans made another treaty inevitable. exp ansion and theansion Dakota’s growing dependence uponthe St. Paul about 1848.Lewis. Henry Minnesota HistoricalArtist: Society. (Figure 11) 71 . St.Paul’s we began the territorial negotiating governor, withtheRamsey, under headed acommission byUnited States, Alexander were despera becoming bands, and MinnesotaMississippi the other like rivers. Butthey, knew they would uptheir homeland be giving onthe Mdewakantons were not soanxious. The Mdewakantons W heos wanted the atreaty sotheyahpetons, could get annuities, tr,o pe ad,ofthe Dakota. Despite someini- or upper bands, stern, W ietewsenbns the Sissetons and hile the western bands, t . nJl 8 81 the 1851, e. OnJuly 18, 70 Chapter 3 • DISCOVERY AND DISPOSSESSION 73 and services and 76 goods raverse Sioux des sig- d T of Mendota an of Mendota basha then warned everyone that some that everyone warned then basha

Wa osion of American settlement around the around settlement American osion of 77 74 . Thirty-five other leaders followed. With this With followed. leaders other Thirty-five . . 75 e Senate finally ratified both treaties but eliminated treaties both finally ratified e Senate The Treaties Th Under the Treaty of Mendota, called,Treaty as it became the Under the ateduta) stood up for the Mdewakantons and signed and Mdewakantons the up for stood ateduta) failed to comply with provisions of the 1837 treaty, 1837 of the with provisions comply to failed

s, before the Senate ratified it. The Mdewakantons com- s, Mdewakantons The it. ratified Senate the before basha III and the other chiefs balked. The United States United The balked. chiefs other the III and basha Pilot (III) request, to outside basha’s moved council the nt, Mdewakantons of the leadership assumed Crow Little d. The government also promised also promised government The d. rth $1.41 million. Of this, into go to $1.16 million was u should pass away from the river and go farther west.’” farther go and river the from away pass u should oy hile the Mdewakantons resented the settlers, the resented relied they Mdewakantons the hile e nt ($58,000) of this annually to the bands as food, bands the to nt ($58,000) of this annually accul- n te eferred the matter to Washington and nothing came of it. nothing came and Washington to matter the eferred Mdewakantons had threatened to kill any chief who signed who kill any chief to threatened had Mdewakantons Nevertheless, 5,August on (IV or treaty. the Crow Little Ta 12) (Figure ev their leave to have would his people that acknowledged and homeland. wo 5 per- pay would government The 50 years. for a trust fund ce ($30,000). cash and projects turation thenaled expl area. metropolitan Cities Twin in the Mississippi River two the celebrated Territory in Minnesota the Settlers of news the at river the across west hurried Many treaties. farms town- and to claims staked and treaty Mendota the si payments any made not had government The plained. Snelling at Fort commandant The treaty. the by promised r W handouts, their for from on them returned they when hunt. winter then Dakota The reservations. permanent for provision the the whites along the river in front but all around you, all around but in front river the along whites the . . . Yo Wa had At continuing. before met be these insisted Dakota the and Wa Knob, River, Minnesota the land of the in above full view so long for them to so important been had that rivers and 11) (Figure a 20-mile- receive to were Wahpekutes and Mdewakantons their for in return River Minnesota on the reservation wide la 72 ssed the Dakota frankly: Dakota the ssed only have not would “‘You On July 29 the Mdewakantons and the Wahpekutes the and Mdewakantons 29 the On July e dr gan negotiating with Governor Ramsey and the U.S. the and Ramsey with Governor gan negotiating ign a treaty. be commission,treaty Ramsey at Mendota. in a warehouse ad tial troubles, the Sissetons and Wahpetons signed the Treaty the signed tial troubles,Wahpetons and Sissetons the Wahpekutes put the This 23. on July Sioux des Traverse of the to ceded of lands in middle the Mdewakantons and to bands on both pressure the intensified and States United s 71 557016_Book_r 8/5/03 8:03 AM Page 71 Page AM 8:03 8/5/03 557016_Book_r 557016_Book_r 8/5/038:03AMPage72

RIVER OF HISTORY: A Historic Resources Study of the Mississippi National River and Recreation Area tance of waterfalls 1881.Min totheDakota. Both images attest of todepth Dakota history thearea. in RudolphArtist: Cronau, Indian face ispainted thewaterfall into at awaterfall Fawn’s that lay justbelow Leap, St. Anthony. The face may suggest som This image captures of something s what theMdewakantons gave the1851 upin 11. FIGURE Treaty. aDakota sacred object, Red Rock, they wanted. get would apparently assured theRamsey, Mdewakantons that they am the agreed band finally to the 1852, On September 4, the Mdewakantonsbands agreed rejected to the change, it. questioned whether they should move. While the western en Th mns HnyM ie aSt.Paul furtrader hired by dments. Henry M.Rice, e task ofconvincing the Dakota to leave their ances- the reservation on the upper Minnesota River that 78 and convinced Gorman to let the Mdewakantons stay onthe his people could not survive the winter without provisions wa prepare the reservation by fields planting and building however.from Gorman, The United States had agreed to the Dakota to leave grew. Little Crow won ashort reprieve and Wakute Wabasha, (Red Wing) and did pressureDog, on re Dakota’s fields. While Little Crow’s people not did overtly ve speculators and settlers sur- of1853, 1853. Inthe spring Alexander Ramsey asMinnesota’s territorial governor in who succeededtral homes fell to Willis A. Gorman, si ye r tteituin,th st theintrusions, hue,butfailed to do so. Little Crow insistedehouses, that d Kaposia II for town lots and farms, usurping the usurping IIfor townd Kaposia lots and farms, e Dakota atthe ething aboutething impor- thespiritual nesota Historical Society. village its totheleft. An s under Black 72 Chapter 3 • DISCOVERY AND DISPOSSESSION 79 ally. But under the fur trade, the But under began Dakota ally. the c gi Removing the Mdewakantons from the Mississippi the from Mdewakantons the Removing used the river without changing it much, without river the used or physically

wn the forests,wn the ground, the plowed fully harnessed and olo Minnesota River to the new reservation near Redwood. By Redwood. near reservation new the to River Minnesota of June, reached end had the Mdewakantons of the most home; new their the around remained only a few Mississippi River. the falls. As more Americans came and the more they relied they more the and came Americans As more falls. the river the change to want river,on the would they more the of pointAt this history the fit needs. their to land the and corridor. in MNRRA the story the over takes settlement River and the MNRRA corridor closed an important era in era important an closed corridor MNRRA the and River history, history, of in in history Dakota river’s and the the of years, hundreds For Dakota the settlement. American had ec ecosystem, river’s the altering eliminating nearly some left, Dakota the cut After freely settlers American species. do Little Crow. Prisoner at Ft. Snelling following the 1862 Ft. Snelling following Prisoner at Little Crow. In the springIn the of 1854, to Crow Little took Gorman eived enough assurances about the reservation to satisfy to reservation the about assurances enough eived ashington, of D.C., Secretary the him to introduced and c Mississippi through the winter of 1853-54. winter Mississippi the through W Crow Little Pierce. Franklin President and Interior the re In May be. him, would resisting futile how learned he and 1854, up the on an exodus his people led Crow Little Dakota Conflict. Photo by J. E. Whitney. Minnesota Historical Society. Historical Minnesota Whitney. E. J. Conflict. by Dakota Photo FIGURE 12. 73 557016_Book_r 8/5/03 8:03 AM Page 73 Page AM 8:03 8/5/03 557016_Book_r