Positive Psychology an Anthology First Edition Edited by Jenny Anderson

Positive Psychology An Anthology First Edition Edited by Jenny Anderson

Included in this preview: • Copyright Page • Table of Contents • Excerpt of Chapter 1

For additional information on adopting this book for your class, please contact us at 800.200.3908 x501 or via e-mail at [email protected] Positive Psychology

First Edition

Edited by Jenny Anderson

University of Delaware Bassim Hamadeh, Publisher Michael Simpson, Vice President of Acquisitions Christopher Foster, Vice President of Marketing Jessica Knott, Managing Editor Stephen Milano, Creative Director Kevin Fahey, Marketing Program Manager Melissa Barcomb, Acquisitions Editor Sarah Wheeler, Senior Project Editor Luiz Ferreira, Licensing Associate

Copyright © 2013 by Cognella, Inc. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reprinted, repro- duced, transmitted, or utilized in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereaft er invented, including photocopying, microfi lming, and recording, or in any information retrieval system without the written permission of Cognella, Inc.

First published in the United States of America in 2012 by Cognella, Inc.

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Printed in the United States of America

ISBN: 978-1-60927-459-7 Contents

Introduction 1

Positive Psychology as the Evenhanded Positive Psychologist Views It 13 Christopher Peterson and Nansook Park Enhancing Savoring 21 F. B. Bryant and J. Veroff The Value of Positive Emotions 37 Barbara L. Fredrickson Positive Emotions in Early Life and Longevity 45 Deborah D. Danner, David A. Snowdon, and Wallace V. Friesen Beyond Money 63 Ed Diener and Martin E. P. Seligman Loss, Trauma, and Human Resilience 123 George A. Bonanno Optimism as Virtue and Vice 139 Christopher Peterson and Robert S. Vaidya Self-Efﬁ cacy Training to Speed Reemployment 151 Dov Eden and Arie Aviram Classical Sources of Human Strength 167 Michael E. McCullough and C. R. Snyder The Anatomy of Consciousness 175 M. Csikszentmihalyi Effects of Differential Self-Monitoring and Level of Mastery on Sports Performance 189 Daniel S. Kirschenbaum, Arnold M. Ordman, Andrew J. Tomarken, and Robert Holtzbauer Exercise: A Neglected Intervention in Mental Health Care? 195 P. Callaghan The Nature of Love 207 Harry F. Harlow Group Well-Being 219 Christopher Peterson, Nansook Park, and Patrick J. Sweeney Introduction

erman Ebbinghaus, a German psychologist, recovery and cure” (NIMH, 2009, NIMH Mission H said that “psychology has a long past, but only ¶1). In 1947, NIMH awarded the fi rst mental health a short history” (Boring, 1950, p. ix). Although the research grant (NIMH, 2009). formal discipline of psychology has been practiced Aft er WWII psychologists found that they for over 100 years, philosophers, theologians and could make a living treating mental illness and everyday people have long grappled with questions academics could receive grants from NIMH if pertaining to human behavior and mental function- their research was directed toward pathology ing (Peterson, 2006). Seligman & Csikszentmihalyi (Seligman & Csikszentmihalyi, 2000). Seligman (2000) state that before World War II (WWII) & Csikszentmihalyi (2000), state that since WWII psychology had three distinct missions: “curing psychology has “become a science largely about mental illness, making the lives of all people more healing” concentrating on “repairing damage within productive and fulfi lling, and identifying and nur- a disease model of human functioning” (pg. 5). turing high talent” (p. 6). Since WWII the fi eld of psychology has been WWII lasted from 1939–1945. When soldiers asking questions, questions about pathologies. returned from WWII many began to experience Myers 2010 discusses the trend in Psychological psychopathologies (US Department of Veterans Abstracts (a guide to psychological literature). He Aff airs, 2009). As a result, in 1946 Harry Truman examined article abstracts since 1887 and found signed the National Mental Health Act, which called 14,899 articles mention anger, 93,371 mention anxi- for the establishment of the National Institute of ety, and 120,897 mention depression. He states, “For Mental Health (NIMH) (NIMH, 2009). Th e mis- every 17 articles on these topics only 1 dealt with sion of NIMH is to “transform the understanding the positive emotions of joy (1789), life satisfaction and treatment of mental illness through basic and (6255), or happiness (5764)” (p. 520). (Myers, 2010) clinical research, paving the way for prevention,

Introduction 1 Anger, anxiety, and depression are real problems of psychology, “making the lives of all people more in the United States. NIMH (2009) reports that about productive and fulfi lling, and identifying and nur- 18 percent of adults experience an anxiety disorder. turing high talent” (Seligman & Csikszentmihalyi, Anxiety disorders include panic disorder, obsessive- 2000, pg. 6). Peterson (2006) says that our focus on compulsive disorder, post-traumatic stress disorder, the disease model has even crept into our worldview etc. Depression is the leading cause of disability for in the United States; “We have become a nation of individuals age 15–44. In a given year depression self-identifi ed victims, and our heroes and heroines aff ects 12.8 million American adults. Depression is are called survivors and sometimes nothing more” not just feeling blue or sad, depression “interferes (pg. 5). with daily life, normal functioning and causes pain Positive psychology is the study of human good- for both the person with the disorder and those ness and excellence. Proponents of positive psychol- who care about him or her” (NIMH, 2009, What is ogy hold to the belief that goodness and excellence Depression, ¶1). (NIMH, 2009) are as authentic as disease, disorder, and distress Seligman (2005) says that the fi eld of psychol- (Peterson, 2006). Just as traditional psychology, ogy has “concentrated on repairing damage using a positive psychology has a long past, but a very short disease model of human functioning” (p. 3). What if history. Philosophers, theologians, and everyday the fi eld of psychology started asking diff erent ques- people have been looking for lasting happiness and tions? Questions that could strengthen our abil- the good life. ity to appreciate, anticipate, and heighten positive Many see a connection between humanism, “the potential (Cooperrider, Whitney, & Stavros, 2007). doctrine that the needs and values of human beings Seligman 2005 explains that we have “neglected the take precedence over material things and further, possibility that building strength is the most potent that people cannot be studied simply as part of the weapon in the arsenal of therapy” (p. 3). Seligman material world” (Peterson, 2006, p. 8), and positive 2005 discusses the positive health or positive psy- psychology. Positive psychologists believe that there chology view and states; “Treatment is not just fi xing are diff erences. Positive psychology does not always what is wrong; it also is building what is right” (p. 4). assume that people are inherently good, and posi- Th e focus on the disease model in psychol- tive psychologists are committed to the scientifi c ogy has yielded many benefi ts. First, the Diagnostic method (Peterson, 2006). and Statistical Manual of Mental Health Disorders In 1998 Barbara Frederickson published the (DSM) was created. Th e DSM is now in its fourth broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions. Her edition and is used by mental health professionals theory suggested that positive emotions broaden worldwide. Th e DSM promotes reliable research, one’s awareness, which in turn leads to building cog- accurate diagnosis, appropriate treatment, and nitive, psychological, social, and physical resources patient care (American Psychiatric Association, (Fredrickson, 1998). In Fredrickson’s 2005 study 2000). Fourteen mental disorders are now either she was able to show experimentally that positive treatable or can be cured (Seligman, 1994). We emotions broaden people’s awareness. Fredrickson’s have a well established science that can measure, 2005 paper was my fi rst encounter with the emerg- classify, and understand the causality of mental ing fi eld of positive psychology and set me on a path illness (Seligman, 1999). Traditional psychological that eventually led me to study positive psychology. practices have long forgotten the other two missions Subsequent studies have reinforced the fi nding that

2 Positive Psychology positive emotions not only broaden our awareness Positive Emotion, (Talarico, Berntsen & Rubin, in press; Wadlinger Engagement, and Meaning & Isaacowitz, 2006; Rowe, Hirsh, Anderson, & Smith, 2007), but they also have been shown to Seligman (2002) argues that there are three types of alter the physiological eff ects of negative emotions happiness: positive emotion—the pleasant life, en- (Fredrickson & Levenson, 1998; Fredrickson, gagement—the good life, and meaning—the good Mancuso, Branigan, & Tugade, 2000; Tugade & life. Positive emotion includes pleasure and one’s Fredrickson, 2004). ability to amplify happiness (Seligman, 2002). He Melchert, 2002, states that the virtuous or excel- argues that the problem with this type of happiness lent person is one who can discover their mean is that it is about fi ft y percent heritable. Furthermore (Aristotle’s “just right” point) in emotions, disposi- pleasure habituates. Th is means that what made you tions or habits, and actions (Melchert, 2002). By happy yesterday may be old hat today. Engagement achieving that “just right” point we are able to focus occurs when you are using your strengths as much on the important, positive aspects of life and are no as you can (Seligman, 2002). When we are truly longer controlled by negative emotions or habits. engaged we can experience what Csikszentmihalyi Researcher Barbara Fredrickson states: “Only when refers to as fl ow. Flow is, “the state in which people positivity ratios are higher than 3 to 1 is positiv- are so involved in an activity that nothing else seems ity in suffi cient supply to seed human fl ourishing” to matter; the experience itself is so enjoyable that (Fredrickson, 2009, p. 129). people will do it even at great cost, for the sheer Marty Seligman founded and legitimized the sake of doing it” (Csikszentmihalyi, 1990, pg. 4). fi eld of positive psychology in 1998 as one of his ini- Meaning emerges when you use your strengths to tiatives as president of the American Psychological belong and contribute to something greater than Association (Seligman, 1999). Seligman (1999) yourself (Seligman, 2002). stated: “At this juncture, psychology can play an enormously important role. We can articulate a vi- sion of the good life that is empirically sound and, Engagement at the same time, understandable and attractive. We can show the world what actions lead to well-being, Th e Values in Action (VIA) survey and classifi cation to positive individuals, to fl ourishing communities, is a self-assessment measure that was developed over and to a just society” (pg. 3). a three-year period with Dr. Christopher Peterson Seligman (2011) outlines the fi ve elements of as the VIA Science Director. Th e VIA Institute well-being: positive emotion, engagement, relation- claims that the VIA Survey of Character (VIA-IS) ships, meaning, and achievement (PERMA). Each is “the world’s most scientifi cally validated tool contributes to well-being, is pursued for its own for measuring character strengths” (VIA Institute, sake, and can be defi ned and measured indepen- 2007, ¶ Guidelines for Use and Interpretation). Th e dently (Seligman, 2011). 24 strengths evolved though brainstorming sessions by a core group of scholars, discussions at positive psychology conferences, and surveys of pertinent literature that address good character. Ten criteria were then set in place to help narrow the list. Th e

Introduction 3 strengths were organized into “six core moral A study by Powdthavee (2008) attempted to place virtues that emerge consistently across cultures a monetary number on the intrinsic value of social and throughout time” (Peterson & Seligman, 2008, relationships in Great Britain. Using the shadow p. 28). Th e six core virtues are: transcendence, pricing method, an economic model, they estimated wisdom and knowledge, temperance, courage, that the level of social interaction with friends and humanity, and justice (VIA Institute, 2007). As relatives was worth up to an extra £85,000 a year, stated above, engagement occurs when you are which translates to 139,713.09 US dollars. Th is is using your top strengths (which can be discovered larger than getting married £50,000; 82,184 US. through the VIA) as much as you can. Peterson, Kahneman & Shaler (2006) propose that people Ruch, Beermann, Park, & Seligman (2007) found adapt more slowly to activities that require more that “strengths of character most associated with attention such as social relationships compared to life satisfaction were associated with orientations to income so they have more of a lasting eff ect. pleasure, to engagement, and to meaning, implying Haidt (2006) examined studies that found that that the most fulfi lling character strengths are those social relationships strengthen the immune system, that make possible a full life” (pg. 149). extend life, speed up recovery from surgery, and reduce risks of depression and anxiety disorders. He even found that people who had fewer social Relationships constraints, bonds, and obligations were more likely to kill themselves (Haidt, 2006). Seligman & American culture is said to be more individualistic Csikszentmihalyi (2000) state that positive psychol- now than ever before. Schwartz (2000) states that ogy, at the group level, “is about the civic virtues and “the emphasis on the individual to which psychol- the institutions that move individuals toward better ogy has contributed may well be undermining what citizenship: responsibility, nurturance, altruism, ci- may be a crucial vaccine against depression: deep vility, moderation, tolerance, and work ethic” (p. 5). commitment and belonging to social groups and Cooperrider, Whitney, & Stavros (2008) believe that institutions—families, civic institutions and faith positive institutions or organizations “are creative communities” (p.5). Egeland & Hostetter (1983) centers of human relatedness, alive with emergent studied the Amish of Lancaster, Pennsylvania, a and unlimited capacity” (p. 17). Cooperrider (2009) very tight knit group. Th ey found that the Amish states that positive institutions are, “institutions that had about half of the national rate of depression. elevate, combine and magnify, and refract, our high- Further studies have shown that social support is est human strengths into the world” (p. 1). correlated to fewer heart attacks, higher survival With the emergence of positive psychology we rates for cancer, resistance to common colds, lower have begun to develop tools that can measure dif- mortality, less stress, more positive outlook on life, ferent forms of happiness, human strengths, and and resilience (O’Donovan & Hughes, 2008; Von Ah, the eff ects of positive relationships. We are also Kang & Carpenter, 2007; Decker, 2007; Kennedy, discovering the impact that positive interventions, Kiecolt-Glaser, & Glaser, 1990; Forster, & Stoller, such as a gratitude visit, 3 blessings, you at your best, 1992; Piper, 2007; Brissette, Scheier, & Carver, 2002; can have on life satisfaction (Seligman, Steen, Park, Armstrong, Birnie-Lefcovitch, & Ungar, 2005). & Peterson; 2005).

4 Positive Psychology Accomplishment Control Consciousness

Seligman formally added the fourth element of Popular media would lead you to believe that hap- well-being in 2011. He states that, "Th e addition piness is genetic and therefore unchangeable. Fox of the achieving life also emphasizes that the task (2008) reported: “Researchers say they’ve found of positive psychology is to describe, rather than that genes control half of the personality traits that prescribe, what people actually do to get well-being" make a person happy” (p. 1). Although roughly half (Seligman, 2011, p. 20). of your happiness may be accounted for by your biological parents, you can still fi ght the urgings of your “genetic steersman” (Seligman, 2002). Studies Incorporate the Research support that positive aff ectivity is infl uenced by ge- Findings into Your Life netics (Peterson, 2006) but Seligman (2000) argues that heritability does not determine whether or not While examining undergraduate positive psychol- a trait is changeable. ogy courses around the country, I have found During the psychoanalytic movement (a therapy the cornerstones of the most successful positive in which it is believed that childhood events and un- psychology courses are weekly or bi-weekly posi- conscious feelings, thoughts, and motivations play tive interventions. Students are assigned positive a role in mental illness and maladaptive behaviors) interventions to implement in their lives during the Aaron Beck developed a new system of therapy, week and then meet in small groups to discuss what called cognitive therapy. In cognitive therapy the happened, how they felt, if they believe the inter- patient is instructed on ways to change their think- vention could be used on a wide scale, etc. Th ese ing to overcome depression and anxiety. (Reivich & small group discussions help the topic become alive. Shatté, 2002) Andrew Shatté describes a patient who Students leave these courses not only with a greater had undergone psychoanalytic therapy and wanted knowledge of the subject but as happier, more ful- a change: fi lled individuals. “I felt like an accident victim in that therapy,” he said. “I felt like anxiety and depression had hit me like a truck and I was lying injured in a ditch Why Discussions? by the side of the road. My old doctor spent eight years examining me—right there while I was in Fredrickson (2009) emphasizes that you need to fi nd the ditch. She gave me details about every broken what works for you. Emotions are highly individual- bone and ruptured organ, every bump and bruise. ized and refl ect your own style (Fredrickson 2009). But she didn’t change anything. She didn’t mend the We need to use our strengths to fi nd our own path bones or ease the pain. She didn’t even get me out toward genuine and heartfelt positivity. Th rough of that ditch. I don’t want to know any more about focusing on the positive interventions that are rel- how damaged I am. I’m looking for someone who is evant to your life and playing to your strengths you going to help fi x me.” (Rivich & Shatté, 2002, p. 53) can succeed in attaining a higher happiness ratio In cognitive therapy the therapist and patient and lead a happier, more fulfi lling life. “tackle the client’s inaccurate belief systems and thoughts-cognitions” (Reivich & Shatté, p. 54). Just

Introduction 5 as cognitive therapy is a “highly eff ective treatment ever aft er tend to escape” (p. 125). Some habits for anxiety and depression” (Reivich & Shatté, p. 54), help to simplify action and diminish fatigue, such controlling consciousness can also aid in obtaining as a habit of tying your shoes or getting dressed in greater happiness. Positive interventions utilize the morning. James (1892/1984) further explains strategies used in cognitive therapy to just that. that when we obtain profi ciency, action will follow Csikszentmihalyi (1990) states that, “whatever from a single cue. In order to initiate long-term the dictates of fashion, it seems that those who take change James states that we must, “launch ourselves the trouble to gain mastery over what happens in the with as strong and decided an initiative as possible consciousness do live a happier life” (p. 23). Some (James, 1892/1984, p. 134). James (1892/1984) says, may argue that consciousness has been shaped by “Seize the very fi rst possible opportunity to act on millennia of biological evolution. Csikszentmihalyi every resolution you make, and on every emotional disputes this claim by stating that an individual can prompting you may experience in the direction of override these genetic tendencies. He emphasizes the habits you aspire to gain” (pg. 136–137). this by giving an example of a protester who starves Th e fi eld of psychology has been asking ques- to death to prove a point. What we allow to enter tions. But it is time to ask new questions; questions our consciousness determines the content and the that will lead us to uncovering the answers to hu- quality of our lives. Our experiences are coded by man fl ourishing, happiness, and well-being. Studies our interpretation of them. If we wish to improve have already begun to show the long-term eff ects our lives we must learn to focus our consciousness of happiness. Although genetics play a part in our and attention on the positive. If we can do this we happiness, we can infl uence our current and future can direct our goals and intentions in productive happiness. Cognitive therapies have long shown that ways. (Csikszentmihalyi, 1990) we can gain control of our consciousness. Gaining control of one’s consciousness is a crucial step in changing well-being. We do not need to be victims Create Habit of our minds; instead we should use our minds to achieve our goals. Forming new habits of positive William James (1899/1983) suggests that to initiate cognition may allow our bodies to form pathways to this change we need to begin changing right now. lasting change. If you want to be cheerful, “sit up cheerfully, look around cheerfully, and act and speak as if cheer- fulness were already there” (James, 1899/1983, p. Is Negativity a Bad Thing? 118). James says that action and feeling go together. Upon regulating the action we can regulate feeling. Th is is not to say that we should all be obnoxiously Positive interventions allow us to start to form hab- happy people. Appropriate negativity is useful in its of lasting change. keeping us grounded, real, and honest. If we only Focusing on the positive will help us to cre- had positive thoughts we would fail to deal ap- ate a habit of positive thinking. William James propriately with negative life events, see troubles (1892/1984) believes that an acquired habit is, coming and avoid dangers. (Fredrickson, 2009) “nothing but a new pathway of discharge formed in the brain, by which certain incoming currents

6 Positive Psychology Why Is Research Important? positive psychology curriculum and interventions across the world. Th e Drug Abuse Resistance Education (DARE) program is a school-based drug prevention program focused on negative outcomes and overcoming Positive Psychology as weakness. DARE was created in 1983 by the Los Character Education Angeles Police Department and the Lose Angeles Unifi ed School District. DARE has been adopted Character education has been a concern in the by approximately 50% of local school districts na- United States since the beginning of the public tionwide. DARE instructs students to “just say no to school system (Ryan, 2008). For a number of years drugs.” Th e program consists of 17 lessons providing character education was ignored or left behind. But information about drugs, teaching decision-making the onslaught of school violence, cyber-bullying, skills, building self-esteem, and choosing healthy and bad behavior has led many to search for ways to alternatives to drug use. (Ennett, Tobler, Ringwalt, instill values in our young people. It is believed that Flewelling, 1994) if we can improve the character of our young people A meta-analysis of DARE found that “DARE’s they may avoid problems that occur later in life short-term eff ectiveness for reducing or preventing such as depression, divorce, violent behavior, and drug use behavior is small (Ennett, Tobler, Ringwalt, drug use (Lapsley & Power, 2005). A poll conducted Flewelling, 1994, p. 1394). Th ey also found that indi- by Hunter (2001) found that 85 percent of parents viduals who participated in DARE actually smoked believe that children attending public schools marijuana more frequently than the control group should be taught about moral values. Park (2004) (Ennett, Tobler, Ringwalt, Flewelling, 1994). states that: “Strengths of temperance predict school Th e self-esteem movement of the early 1990s was grades, even when ‘ability’ test scores are controlled a success in that we were able to change people’s per- for, which indicates the relationship between certain ceptions of themselves. But this “feel good” state did character strengths and actual behaviors” (p. 48). not accomplish its goal of reducing social problems. Pawelski (2003) discusses four points that we Self-esteem does tend to refl ect on how well one is should take into account if we are to try to improve doing at school, work, or in personal relationships another’s character. First, we must be careful that but high self-esteem does not promote a healthy the values we choose are not simply the values of lifestyle (Baumeister, Campbell, Krueger, & Vohs, those who have “the power to defi ne it or want oth- 2003). Once we performed research on self-esteem ers to have” (p. 1). Secondly, we must be sure that in curriculum the researchers concluded that boosting the developing character or values we are not simply self-esteem is not a reasonable policy for increasing “indoctrinating” others. Th ird, we should seek to “triumphs of society” and decreasing social ills (Tice create programs that are eff ectively sustainable. & Gailliot, 2006). Fourth, we must ensure that our measures to track Th rough decades of applying the scientifi c our progress don’t “wreak havoc in the psyches of method psychologists have developed tools to study students who are told that they are defi cit in char- pathology. Proponents of the positive psychology acter” (p. 1). Peterson (2006) states that values are movement fi nd it imperative to apply the scientifi c those things we deem worthy to pursue. “Values are method as we develop and implement successful oft en moral, religious or political in nature, and they

Introduction 7 fi gure mightily in the lives that we lead or should Program (PRP) that is an intervention for late lead” (p. 165). elementary to high school students. Th e curriculum is strengths-based but is also infused with cognitive behavioral and social problem solving skills. At the Why Are Positive Psychology Courses and core of PRP is the Adversity-Consequences-Beliefs Seminars “The Place To Be”? (ABC) model. Th rough the ABC model students are taught to detect inaccurate thoughts and chal- In the undergraduate courses I have taught I have lenge negative beliefs. Current PRP projects include found energy and a life that I have never felt before working with two Philadelphia school districts, in a group of college students. the United Kingdom, Geelong Grammar School in Walter & Bruch (2008) talk of the ‘Positive Australia, and Swarthmore College in Pennsylvania. Group Aff ect Spiral’, in which positive group aff ec- (University of Pennsylvania, 2007) A modifi ed ver- tive similarity and within-group relationship quality sion of PRP has also been implemented in the US are reciprocally interrelated in the form of a self- army (Seligman, 2011). reinforcing spiral. Th is spiral is driven by mecha- nisms of aff ective sharing and aff ective similarity attraction between group members. It is thought to So Where Do We Go From Here? strengthen both the similarity of group members’ positive aff ect and the quality of their interpersonal In a talk on positive psychology given at Claremont relationships. (Walter & Bruch, 2008) Th erefore University on January 24th, 2009 Seligman discussed any positive intervention that increases happiness the future directions of positive psychology; positive in an individual or in a dyad such as the three good physical health, positive neuroscience, positive so- things in life exercise, or the gratitude visit will lead cial science, and positive education. Positive health to greater happiness within groups. is the study of the fl ourishing human body. Positive Students enrolled in positive psychology courses Health will investigate subjective, biological, and gain greater well-being through weekly or bi-weekly functional indicators that can predict a higher qual- positive interventions. Not only do these interven- ity of life and a better prognosis when illness strikes. tions change the lives of the students but they create Positive social science is the quest for what makes an energy and level of continuity within the group of life worth living and includes programs in positive students. Th is attunement enables students to help psychology such as the University of Pennsylvania’s one another make and maintain positive change. Master of Applied Positive Psychology (MAPP); the University of East London’s program in applied positive psychology; certifi cate programs that are avail- Penn Resiliency Program able in Mexico City, Australia, etc; and Claremont University’s doctoral program in positive psychol- Th e movement towards cultivating character ogy. Positive education, including undergraduate through strength based positive psychology positive psychology courses, set out to build posi- techniques has already begun in many other ar- tive emotion, engagement, good relationships and eas of education and training. Th e University of accomplishment, a recipe for greater happiness and Pennsylvania has created the Penn Resiliency wellbeing. (Seligman, January 24, 2009)

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