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Britannica Illustrated Science Library

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Editorial Jacob E. Safra, Chairman of the Board Michael Levy, Executive Editor, Core Editorial John Rafferty, Associate Editor, Earth Sciences Jorge Aguilar-Cauz, President William L. Hosch, Associate Editor, Mathematics and Computers Michael Ross, Senior Vice President, Corporate Development Kara Rogers, Associate Editor, Life Sciences Rob Curley, Senior Editor, Science and Technology Dale H. Hoiberg, Senior Vice President and Editor David Hayes, Special Projects Editor Marsha Mackenzie, Director of Production Art and Composition Steven N. Kapusta, Director Carol A. Gaines, Composition Supervisor Christine McCabe, Senior Illustrator International Standard Book Number (set): 978-1-59339-797-5 Media Acquisition International Standard Book Number (volume): Kathy Nakamura, Manager 978-1-59339-813-2 Britannica Illustrated Science Library: Copy Department Space Exploration 2008 Sylvia Wallace, Director Julian Ronning, Supervisor Printed in China

Information Management and Retrieval Sheila Vasich, Information Architect

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Manufacturing Kim Gerber, Director www.britannica.com Space Exploration PHOTOGRAPH ON PAGE 1: Icecap on the south pole of Contents Mars. The image was captured by the Mars Express space probe in December 2004.

The Conquest of Space

Page 6

Flying Through Space

Page 26

Permanent Exploration

Page 46

Visiting Other Worlds

Page 62

Applied Astronautics

Page 78 THE IMPRINT OF HUMANKIND The footprints of the astronauts are clearly visible in the soil of the Moon. A Voyage into the Future

uring the greater part of our history, the Moon was quite unreachable. It D did not seem very big and far away but rather small. For the Greeks, the idea of walking on the Moon was certainly unthinkable, and as recently as the end of the 19th century many people doubted that humans would even be able to fly. Nevertheless, on July 20, 1969, the miracle happened. Since then many historic missions to explore the planets have been planned and executed, with the spacecraft and probes Mariner, Viking, Pioneer, Voyager, and Galileo leading the way. Thanks to human intelligence and effort we have succeeded in exploring many corners of our solar system. This book intends to show all this: the history of manned and unmanned voyages and the discoveries that were made. We will try, using simple and accessible language, to answer many questions, such as what rockets are, how they work, what shuttles exist, how astronauts live in space, and which robot probes are visiting other planets looking for signs of life. All this is accompanied by photographs and top- quality illustrations, providing a better picture of the successes by which we have Pluto in 2015, lifted off. This shows that the made giant steps in our understanding of the search has only begun. There is still far to go. composition of the other planets, their are being revealed. Orbiting spacecraft such Perhaps life may be found farther away than origin, and their evolution. Every day as Mars Odyssey and Mars Express have we had imagined. Or maybe, as some dreamers astronomers are more convinced that there confirmed the existence of ice under the imagine, in the next decade we will realize the are other places in the universe that are like surface of Mars. Sending exploratory project of colonizing other planets. For now, Earth. We only have to find them. They also spacecraft to Saturn was another prodigious the best candidate for us to land on is Mars. assure us that this is one of the most feat, a demonstration of human capacity to But that is still only a dream, the same kind of interesting moments in the exploration of dream of new worlds. Recently the New dream that was made into reality when the solar system, because so many things Horizons, whose final destination will be humans left their footprints on the Moon. YURY GAGARIN DESTINATION: OTHER WORLDS 8-9 NORTH AMERICAN SPACECRAFT 18-19 The Russian cosmonaut in the The Conquest of Space cabin of the spacecraft Vostok 1. FROM FICTION TO REALITY 10-11 A GIANT LEAP 20-21 NASA YESTERDAY AND TODAY 12-13 THE MOON WITHOUT SECRETS 22-23 OTHER SPACE AGENCIES 14-15 ECHOES OF THE PAST 24-25 RUSSIAN MISSIONS 16-17

he human adventure in space Earth in the spacecraft Vostok 1. The the arrival of astronauts on the Moon. long and costly space project whose began with Yury Gagarin, the cosmonaut had practically no control Neil Armstrong became the first man to objective was to explore Earth's only first Russian astronaut, who in over the apparatus, which was remotely set foot on the Moon, followed by Edwin natural satellite. In the following T 1961 reached an altitude of 196 controlled by Soviet engineers. The next Aldrin. The success of the Apollo 11 decades, the space program has had miles (315 km) and orbited the step was made by the United States with mission marked the culmination of a many significant successes. 8 THE CONQUEST OF SPACE SPACE EXPLORATION 9

The transmission of data to Earth is carried out Destination: Other Worlds when the probe is at the maximum height of its orbit around Mars. At that moment, the high-gain 4 antenna turns away from the Red Planet to aim he space age began in 1957 with the launching of the first artificial satellite. toward the Earth. Mars Express began orbiting T Since that time, astronauts and space probes have left the Earth to investigate Mars in December 2004. space. To date, 12 men have visited the Moon. Advances in astronautics have made it possible to develop automatic navigational HIGH-GAIN ANTENNA For long-distance systems with which a spacecraft can reach and enter orbit around a communication with Earth planet. The Mars Express probe, launched in 2003 to take photographs of Mars, used this system. Mars Express, one of the European Space Agency's most productive missions around the Red Planet, is powered exclusively by solar energy.

SOLAR PANEL Provides energy Automatic Navigational System for navigation Spacecraft that are unmanned, such as the artificial satellites that orbit planets, transmit their information to Earth using radio equipment. The area of satellite coverage depends on the type of orbit. There are also probes that touch down on the surface, as was the case with Venus, Mars, and the Moon. The real work begins when the apparatus reaches its target. The instruments are activated to gather data that are sent to Earth for analysis. FUEL TANKS Mars Express begins its voyage 70 gallons toward Mars, which will last almost (270 l) of propellant each seven months. The probe is CONVENTIONAL 3 monitored from Mission Control THRUSTER Center in Darmstadt, Germany. NAVIGATION Used to correct During the encounter, the orbit Communication with the probe is Earth-based optical done by radio. To avoid colliding with navigation is limited by the Mars, the Mars Express corrects its time it takes a radio signal trajectory. to reach the spacecraft. Space Programs The voyages are planned years in advance. the planet they are studying; others (orbiters) spacecraft, however, require designs that include Space probes are automatic vehicles that can follow a route that places them in planetary orbit. air, water, food, seats, and rest areas, as well as use the gravitational field of one planet to reach From there they can send smaller landing probes, navigation-, control-, and information-transmission another. Some only pass at a preset distance from which deploy data-collecting instruments. Manned equipment. Navigational systems based The probe deploys its solar panels on Earth UNMANNED SPACE WALK MANNED The images taken and begins its own life running on require radio are transmitted to To gather more information, the astronauts tracking. solar energy. It sends signals to Earth, and the conduct a space walk outside the spacecraft. navigational 2 Earth to check that its 5 feet 57.4 feet commands are sent instruments are working properly. 12 feet 89 feet (1.5 m) (17.5 m) to the spacecraft. (3.7 m) (27 m)

ARTIFICIAL SATELLITE METEOROLOGICAL VOSTOK PROGRAM APOLLO PROGRAM IN POLAR ORBIT SATELLITE Vostok 1 Apollo 11 Nimbus GOES

17 feet 4.3 feet 11.5 feet 56 feet (5.1 m) (1.3 m) (3.4 m) (17 m)

LAUNCH LAUNCH FLYBY SPACE PROBE ORBITING GEMINI PROGRAM SPACE SHUTTLE Mariner SPACE PROBE Gemini 8 Columbia Galileo

Maneuvers are On June 2, 2003, the Mars calculated on Express probe left Earth on a 11 feet Earth, and the Soyuz rocket launched from (3.3 m) 1 foot 115 feet 49 feet parameters are 1 Kazakhstan. Once it escaped (0.3 m) (35 m) (15 m) transmitted to Earth's orbit, the probe activated the spacecraft. its Fregat boosters and began its path toward the orbit of Mars. PROBE WITH A EXPLORATION SPACE STATION SPACE STATION LANDING DEVICE VEHICLE Mir Skylab Viking Sojourner 10 THE CONQUEST OF SPACE SPACE EXPLORATION 11

With a Dog SPUTNIK 2 From Fiction to Reality Aerodynamic nose Sputnik 2 was the second The canine passenger stronautics was born toward the end of the 19th century, when the Russian satellite launched into Earth's was protected by a orbit by the Russians (on Nov. 3, 1957) pressurized cabin. Mechanism for ejection Konstantin Tsiolkovsky foresaw the ability of a rocket to overcome the force and the first one to carry a living from the nose A creature, the dog Laika. The satellite of gravity. Other pioneers were Hermann Oberth, who designed a liquid- was 13 feet (4 m) long and 6 feet (2 m) fueled missile in 1917, which was later built by the American Robert Goddard in diameter. The dog was connected to a Scientific machine that registered her vital signs, instruments in 1926. The German Wernher von Braun built the Redstone, Jupiter, and and oxygen was provided to her by an Saturn rockets, which made the manned landing on the Moon possible. air regeneration system. Food and water Astronautics officially began in 1957 with the launching of the first were dispensed in the form of a gelatin. Radio artificial satellite, Sputnik 1. The second was Sputnik 2, Support structure transmitter which had on board the dog Laika. SPUTNIK 2 Launch November 1957 Orbital altitude 1,030 miles (1,660 km) Pressurized Heat shield cabin Orbital period 103.7 minutes Weight 1,118 pounds (508 kg) Country USSR Sputnik 1 Fan inaugurated the period of Russian supremacy in the so-called space race. Sputnik 1, WEIGHT ON EARTH Safety ring launched in 1957, was an aluminum sphere 23 inches (58 cm) in diameter. It had Retrothrusters instrumentation that for 21 days sent back information about cosmic radiation, meteorites, and 1,118 pounds the density and temperature of the Earth's upper atmosphere. It was destroyed by aerodynamic friction when it reentered the atmosphere 57 days later. (508 kg)

DIMENSIONS THE SECOND THE FIRST THE THIRD Sputnik 2 was PASSENGER Robert Goddard In Germany, Hermann Wernher von Braun, 13 feet (4 m) The dog Laika designed a rocket 10 Oberth designed a working for NASA, was feet (3 m) high. After liquid-fueled missile in the creator of the Saturn long and 6 feet was the first ignition, it rose 40 feet 1917 that would V rocket, which carried (2 m) in to visit space. (12 m) and then crashed promote the idea of astronauts to the Moon a diameter at Telecommunications 184 feet (56 m) away. spaceflight. number of times the base. between 1969 and 1972. antenna

Robert Goddard Hermann Oberth Wernher EXPLORER 1 1882-1945 1894-1989 von Braun Explorer 1 Launch The U.S. physicist studied The scientist who worked Jan./Feb. 1958 1912-1977 The United States independently developed its first satellite, Explorer 1, rockets and on rocket technology The German physicist Orbital altitude 1,580 miles which was launched from Cape Canaveral in 1958. The satellite was a demonstrated their use during World War II. worked for Adolf Hitler (2,550 km) for space travel. designing ballistic missiles. cylinder 6 inches (15 cm) in diameter; it weighed 31 pounds (14 kg) and measured cosmic radiation and meteorites for 112 days, which led to the discovery of the Orbital period 114.8 minutes Van Allen belts. It was designed and constructed by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory Weight 31 pounds (14 kg) of the California Institute of Technology. SPUTNIK 1 Organization NASA WEIGHT ON THE EARTH Launch October 1957 PIECE BY PIECE WEIGHT ON EARTH Orbital altitude 370 miles (600 km) 184 pounds Explorer 1 was designed by Cable antenna Micrometeorite Orbital period 97 minutes (83.6 kg) NASA in 1958. detectors 31 pounds Weight 184 pounds (83.6 kg) (14 kg) Country USSR ANTENNAS DIMENSIONS Sputnik 1 had Explorer 1 weighed four antennas 31 pounds (14 kg) and was 2.6 feet between 7.9 and Fiberglass Conical High-gain Internal (0.8 m) high and 6 9.5 feet (2.4-2.9 nose transmitter temperature ring m) long. cone indicator inches (15 cm) in diameter.

1609 1798 1806 1838 1926 1927 1932 1936 1947 1949 1957 GALILEO CAVENDISH ROCKETS DISTANCE THE FIRST ASSOCIATION VON BRAUN LABORATORIES ROCKET PLANE BUMPER SPUTNIK 1 constructed the first astronomical demonstrated that the law The first military rockets The distance to the star 61 ROCKET On July 5 the German began his investigations Guggenheim Aeronautical Laboratory. Chuck Yeager broke the The first stage of a two-stage On October 4 the Soviet telescope and observed the of gravity applies to all were invented. They were used Cygni was measured, using the Robert Goddard launched Association for on rockets for the Later its name was changed to the Jet sound barrier aboard the rocket, which reached an Union launched the Sputnik craters on the Moon. bodies. in an aerial attack in 1814. Earth's orbit as a baseline. the first liquid-fueled rocket. Spaceflight was formed. German military. Propulsion Laboratory. rocket plane X-1. altitude of 244 miles (393 km) 1 satellite into space. 12 THE CONQUEST OF SPACE SPACE EXPLORATION 13

SHUTTLE LANDING Kennedy Space Center NASA Yesterday and Today The Kennedy Space Center is the location The landing strip available at the NASA Kennedy Space Center is one of that has all the facilities for launching he National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) is the agency that the biggest in the world. It is used vehicles into space. It is located on Merritt not only for shuttle landings but also Island near Cape Canaveral in Florida. It is 34 organized the U.S. space program. It was created in 1958 as part of the space race for commercial and private flights. miles (54 km) long, and its area is 136 square T miles (352 sq km); almost 17,000 people work with the then Soviet Union. It planned all national activities linked with space there. It was established as a launch center on exploration. It has a launch center (the Kennedy Space Center) and other installations all July 1, 1962, and was named after the 35th over the country. president of the United States, John F. Kennedy. SHUTTLE The Apollo 11, which carried the astronauts who LANDING first set foot on the Moon, was launched from the Kennedy Space Center. Operations for FACILITY 15,000 feet launching and landing the space shuttle are (4,600 m) NASA Centers TOWWAY managed here. NASA's activities in astronautics and space research are so numerous and so varied that COMPLEX it has different complexes all over the United States. The agency has a number of 39B installations for research, flight simulation, astronaut training, and preparation. NASA's headquarters are in Washington, D.C., and the Mission Control Center is in Houston. Another APOLLO/SATURN V important center is the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, whose responsibilities include managing the Indian CENTER Deep Space Network, which maintains constant communication with space missions through River its facilities in California, Spain, and Australia.

SHUTTLE PROCESSING AMES RESEARCH LYNDON B. JOHNSON MARSHALL SPACE FACILITY CENTER CONTROL CENTER FLIGHT CENTER Founded in 1939, it is the exper- Astronauts are selected and manages the transport of imental base for many missions. It trained at the Houston center. equipment, the propulsion is equipped with flight simulators Spaceflight takeoffs and landings systems, and the launching of and advanced technology. are controlled from here. the space shuttle. VEHICLE ASSEMBLY BUILDING COMPLEX Its volume is 129,428,000 cubic feet 39A VISITOR'S VEHICLE VEHICULAR (3,664,883 cu m). It is the largest building in CENTER ASSEMBLY TRANSPORT the world in terms of volume. It is used for BUILDING the storage of external fuel tanks and flight instruments. CONTROL CENTER

LEWIS OBSERVATION RESEARCH OPERATIONS TOWER CENTER

INDEPENDENT COMPLEX 40 VERIFICATION AND VALIDATION FACILITY

GODDARD INSTITUTE INTERNATIONAL FOR SPACE STUDIES SPACE STATION CENTER HISTORIC Banana River LAUNCH SITES NASA CONTROL CENTER WASHINGTON, D.C.

LANGLEY RESEARCH CENTER LIBERTY CAPE CANAVERAL JOHN F. KENNEDY STAR LIGHTHOUSE WHITE WALLOPS FLIGHT AIR FORCE SPACE & SPACE CENTER SANDS TEST FACILITY MISSILE MUSEUM CENTER MICHOUD ASSEMBLY FREEDOM COMPLEX 17 FACILITY OTHER DEEP SPACE CENTERS STAR

HISTORIC LAUNCH ZONES Atlantic Ocean SHIPS FOR RECOVERING BOOSTER ROCKETS JET PROPULSION DRYDEN FLIGHT GODDARD SPACE The rockets are assembled here before LABORATORY RESEARCH CENTER FLIGHT CENTER launch. When the rockets fall into the designs flight systems and is involved in atmosphere- designs, manufactures, and monitors MADRID DEEP SPACE CANBERRA DEEP SPACE provides technical assessment. related activities. It has been scientific satellites to investigate the COMMUNICATIONS COMMUNICATION water after a mission, they are picked Directs the Deep Space Network. in operation since 1947. Earth and other planets. COMPLEX COMPLEX up and refurbished. 14 THE CONQUEST OF SPACE SPACE EXPLORATION 15

Mission Threshold Canadian Space Other Space Agencies The project on which the ESA is concentrating the most Agency effort is the Planck mission. The The CSA was created in he activity of exploring the cosmos was increased in 1975 with the creation of mission intends to establish with 1990, although it had prior the European Space Agency (ESA). This intergovernmental organization is precision the age of the universe involvement in astronautic activities. The T and to test different expansion first Canadian launch occurred in 1962 with the second only to NASA in its investment in space. The Mir space station, launched models. It will also seek to improve Alouette 1 satellite. The most important work of by the Russian Space Agency (RKA), remained in Earth orbit for 15 on the results from the U.S. WMAP the CSA is Radarsat, launched in November 1995. mission on the formation and It provides information about the environment years and was a milestone for living in space. Other agencies, such evolution of the universe and the and is used in cartography, hydrology, as the Canadian Space Agency (CSA) and the Japanese Space background cosmic radiation. Planck oceanography, and agriculture. The Canadian will have 10 times better resolution PLANCK MISSION agency also participated in the International Agency (JAXA), also made technological contributions to the than WMAP. The launch is planned Space Station (ISS) by providing the robot arm exploration of the Earth's orbit and the solar system. for 2008 using an Ariane rocket. Launch year 2007 called the Mobile Service System (MSS). After a voyage of between four and Estimated duration 21 months six months, the satellite will adjust Launch vehicle Ariane 5 its orbit 900,000 miles (1.5 million Weight at launch km) from Earth. 4,000 lb (1,800 kg) Japanese Space KOUROU, FRENCH GUIANA Agency EUROPEAN LAUNCHING BASE TRANSPORT On Oct. 1, 2003, Latitude: 5° north, 300 miles (500 km) north ROUTE three independent of the Equator. Close to the Equator, which is organizations were combined an advantage for rockets in reaching Earth's to form the JAXA: the orbit. The region is almost unpopulated and Institute of Space and Astronautical Science free from earthquakes. (ISAS), the National Aerospace Laboratory (NAL), and the National Space Development Agency Surface area 285 square miles (750 sq km) (NASDA). Its most outstanding mission is the Total cost 1,600 million euros Hayabusa, launched in May 2003 as the first First operation 1968 (as a French base) mission designed to land on an asteroid. It reached TOWARD THE ASSEMBLY the asteroid Itokawa in November 2005. Despite Employees 600 FINAL DESIGN BUILDING problems with the probe, controllers expect it to The rocket goes to Once the process is return to Earth in 2010 with samples taken from LAUNCH PLATFORM the assembly complete, the rocket After covering 2 miles the surface of the asteroid. building for final is transferred to the (3.5 km) at 2 mph (3.5 details. platform. km/h), the Ariane is ready for liftoff. Russian Federal Space Agency Formed after the dissolution of the Soviet Union, it uses the technology and launching sites that it inherited from the Soviet space MIR STATION program. The Russian agency was housed the responsible for orbiting the Mir space station, the cosmonauts and direct predecessor of the International Space astronauts in space. Station. Mir was assembled in orbit after separate launches of different modules between 1986 and THE ARIANE FAMILY 1996. It was destroyed in a controlled manner at The development of the Ariane rocket made the the end of its useful life on March 23, 2001. ESA a leader in the space-launch market. Ariane PROGRESS-M USEFUL LIFE used to supply EUROPEAN SPACE AGENCY was chosen for satellites from Japanese, Canadian, and American companies. food and fuel. 15 years Founded 1975 Members 17 KEY SOYUZ ROCKET Annual investment 3,000 million euros Members of the The rocket of the Employees 1,900 European Space Agency Russian agency that is used to put spacecraft into orbit. 156 feet Europe in Space (47.4 m) The ESA was formed as a single organization in 1975 by the SOLAR PANELS supply the station fusion of the European Space Research Organization (ESRO) with electricity PRINCIPAL MODULE and the European Launcher Development Organization (ELDO). It used as living quarters from solar energy. carried out important missions, such as Venus Express, Mars and general control of Express, and Ulysses (with which NASA also participated). Twenty- the station. two percent of the ESA's annual budget goes into the construction Ariane 5 of launch vehicles. Ariane 1 Ariane 2 Ariane 3 Ariane 4 Ariane 5 evolution 16 THE CONQUEST OF SPACE SPACE EXPLORATION 17

Inflatable air lock From Russia with Love VOSTOK PROGRAM Russian Missions Nitrogen Vostok (“east” in Russian) was a Soviet spacecraft program that put MISSIONS storage tank six cosmonauts into orbit around the Earth between April 1961 and Vostok 1 fter the initial successes with small satellites, where the effect of June 1963. On June 16, 1963, a manned spacecraft of the series lifted off April 12, 1961 weightlessness was tested on animals, the Soviet Union, like the United carrying the first female cosmonaut in the world, Valentina Tereshkova. Vostok 2 Aug. 6, 1961 This was a joint flight with Vostok 5, piloted by Valery Bykovsky. During Vostok 3 Aug. 11, 1962 A this mission, medical and biological investigations were carried out, and States, began to develop programs for launching human beings into Vostok 4 Aug. 12, 1962 various matters related to systems development of the spacecraft were space. The first astronaut to orbit the Earth, at an altitude of 196 miles (315 analyzed. The spacecraft are still being used today, sending cosmonauts to Vostok 5 June 14, 1963 km), was Yury Gagarin in 1961. He was the sole crew member of the Russian the International Space Station. Vostok 6 June 16, 1963 spacecraft Vostok 1. Gagarin orbited the Earth in his capsule, which was lifted into orbit by the SL-3 rocket and which had an ejection system for the Cosmonaut VOSTOK BOOSTER ROCKET cosmonaut in case of emergency. To be able to leave the Earth, Vostok needed a booster rocket. Cosmonaut ejection seat Manned module Russians in Space Nitrogen and VOSTOK 1 oxygen storage In Vostok 1 the cosmonaut had practically no control over the tanks Launch spacecraft, which was controlled remotely by Soviet engineers. The April 1961 spacecraft consisted of a spherical cabin weighing 2.46 tons with a Orbital altitude 196 miles (315 km) diameter of 7.5 feet (2.3 m). The single-person cabin was mounted on the Orbital period 1 hour, 48 min module, which contained the rocket engine. Yury Gagarin's reentry was Weight 5,400 pounds (2,460 kg) done with parachutes. Organization U.S.S.R. FIRST STAGE SECOND STAGE THIRD STAGE

THE FIRST Yury Gagarin On board Vostok 1, 1934-68 Gagarin was the The Russian cosmonaut WEIGHT ON EARTH first person to go helped in promoting VOSTOK into space. In 1961 Russian astronautics. He he orbited the Earth died in a routine flight, on 11,000 pounds BOOSTER ROCKET at an altitude of The cosmonaut board a MiG-15 jet. Vostok was the first mission 196 miles (315 km). Access 3 ejects from the (5,000 kg) port that carried a human into rocket with a space, the cosmonaut Yury parachute. Gagarin. ANTENNAS THE FIRST WOMAN Valentina 15 feet It had powerful She traveled into Tereshkova (4.5 m) antennas to The space on board the (b. 1937) stay in contact 4 cosmonaut Vostok 6 in 1963. Tereshkova was a parachute with the Earth. Separation separates During that mission, jumping enthusiast. It was 2 occurred at 10:25, himself from she flew 48 orbits not until 19 years later that The spacecraft was and the cosmonaut's the ejection around the Earth in another woman became a 1 launched from the reentry began at 10:35. seat at an 71 hours of flight. cosmonaut. cosmodrome in altitude of Baikonur, in 13,000 feet PART BY PART Tyuratam, (4,000 m). Diagram of the at 9:07 A.M. Return Ticket Vostok with each of its components VHS antenna Aleksey The flight began in Tyuratam, rising to an A WALK IN SPACE altitude of 196 miles (315 km). First it crossed Leonov was the first A. Leonov to perform a space (b. 1934) a part of Siberia and then the entire breadth of the walk. In March 1965 In 1953 he joined the Air Pacific Ocean; it passed between Cape Horn and the spacecraft Force and in 1959 began Antarctica, and once it had crossed the Atlantic it Liftoff Voshkod 2 carried training for spaceflight. In flew in African skies over the Congo. The capsule him to outer space. 1975 he commanded the The cosmonaut Retrothruster with Gagarin separated from the launch rocket Apollo-Soyuz mission. 5 lands in Motor (which continued in orbit) and began its descent. It Saratov at controls landed in Saratov, approximately 460 miles (740 km) 11:05 A.M. east of Moscow.

1957 1958 1958 1959 1959 1960 1961 1961 1961 1964 1964 1965 SPUTNIK 2 EXPLORER 1 NASA LUNA 1 LUNA 3 LITTLE DOGS HAM VOSTOK 1 MERCURY GEMINI 1 VOSHKOD 1 VOSHKOD 2 On November 3 the First American The National Aeronautics Launched by the Soviet Launched in October, Strelka and Belka The first chimpanzee In a flight of 108 NASA's Alan Shepard The first two Gemini A crew of three Aleksey Leonov second Soviet satellite to orbit the and Space Administration Union in January, it it took photos of the returned alive from a to be sent into space minutes, the made a suborbital flight were launched as went into space for succeeded in leaving the satellite was launched, Earth. It was was founded in the United came within 3,500 miles far side of the Moon. trip in orbit that lasted on a suborbital flight Russian Yury Gagarin of 15 minutes. unmanned flights in the first time. spacecraft and carried with the dog Laika. launched in February. States. (6,000 km) of the Moon. one day. orbits the Earth. 1964 and 1965. out the first space walk. 18 THE CONQUEST OF SPACE SPACE EXPLORATION 19

THE VOYAGE North American Spacecraft Capsule During the flight, the Escape crew had more than Tower ver the course of the space race between the Soviet Union and the United 100 controls available. States, the United States developed the Mercury program between 1959 They were also able to O HELMET see out through a Tower and 1963. The manned capsule was small, with a volume of only 60 small window. cubic feet (1.7 cu m). Before the first manned mission in May 1961, the American project sent three monkeys into space. The Mercury Separating from the 2 escape tower and the booster engine, the spacecraft were launched into space by two rockets: the Redstone, escape rockets ignite used for suborbital flights, and the Atlas, which was used in the five and the parachute Booster Engine system is armed. orbital flights that were achieved. Little Joe was used to test the escape tower and controls for aborting a mission. The capsule turns Reentry 3 180°. Depending on Parachutes the mission, it can complete 1–22 orbits. Then the descent begins. Capsule THRUSTERS OBSERVATION WINDOW Escape The Mercury Experience With the fuel providing First Voyages tower The development of the mission hardware was more a product of the thrust, the launch The six successful flights of 1 vehicle deploys together Mercury politics than of scientific intent. After the launching of Sputnik 1 in the Mercury mission used a Spacecraft with the command 1957 and within the framework of the Cold War, the United States made module. The spacecraft solid-fuel rocket. The first, a efforts to start its own space program. The development of the Mercury has three solid fuel suborbital flight in May 1961, lasted spacecraft was the initial step for getting the Apollo project off the ground. It HEAT SHIELD rockets. 15 minutes. Over the years, the Manned was announced as a mission to fly past the Moon in 1961 but was changed by length of space flights increased module President Kennedy because he wanted an American to reach the Moon, set thanks to improvements in the Return foot on it, and return home. spacecraft. DOUBLE WALL TESTING Ham CONTROL PANEL The first sentient was the first monkey to beings in space fly into space. The were animals, sent spacecraft had sensors THRUSTERS in order to ensure and remote-control The descent begins at that humans could instruments; Ham 4 an altitude of 21,000 survive survived life in space feet (6,400 m). The spaceflight. without problems. capsule begins reentry. MERCURY FLIGHTS BOOSTERS The parachutes open. Principal Parachutes Fuel tank MERCURY WITH ANIMALS Little Joe Launch THE FIRST Alan Shepard Dec. 4, 1959 Sam PARACHUTES On May 5, 1961, 1923-98 rocket Redstone Jan. 31, 1961 Ham AERODYNAMIC Shepard lifted off After his first voyage ADJUSTMENT from Cape Canaveral into space, he held Atlas 5 Nov. 29, 1961 Enos Falling into and became the important positions the Ocean first American to fly with NASA. In 1971 he on board a Mercury was part of the Apollo MERCURY WITH ASTRONAUTS spacecraft. 14 mission. Redstone 3 Oxidant May 5, 1961 Alan Shepard WEIGHT ON EARTH tank Redstone 4 July 21, 1961 Gus Grissom Atlas 6 Feb. 20, 1962 John Glenn 4,257 pounds MERCURY THE LAST Gordon Cooper Atlas 7 May 24, 1962 Scott Carpenter (1,935 kg) TECHNICAL SPECIFICATIONS He was commander 1927-2004 RESCUE Atlas 8 1st launch of the last Mercury Selected as an astronaut Oct. 3, 1962 Wally Schirra MODULE July 29, 1960 ROCKET Before the mission, which in in 1959. In 1965 he Atlas 9 May 15, 1963 Gordon Cooper The height of the Maximum altitude retrieval, the May 1963 completed carried out a Gemini 175 miles (282 km) 5 Mercury capsule is pilot's 22 orbits and closed mission that lasted 190 Diameter 6 feet (2 m) parachute and the the operational hours and 56 minutes. He scarcely greater reserve parachute are Motor Maximum duration 22 orbits (34 hours) phase of the project. retired in 1970. than the height of detached; they fall the average person. Organization NASA into the sea and are retrieved.

1965 1965 1965 1966 1966 1966 1966 1967 1967 1968 1969 1969 MARINER 4 GEMINI 3 DOCKING LUNA 9 SURVEYOR 1 LUNA 10 APOLLO PROGRAM TRAGEDY SOYUZ 1 APOLLO 8 SOYUZ 4 AND 5 APOLLO 11 Mariner 4 flew past The astronauts Virgil (Gus) Gemini 6 and 7 succeeded at On February 3 the first The first American Moon In April the Soviet The Apollo program began in In January three The Soviet program also experi- The Saturn V is used for The Russian space The United States reaches Mars and took the Grissom and John Young completing a rendezvous and landing on the Moon took landing on June 2. More Union deployed another February 1966 with the astronauts died in a fire enced a fatal accident. On April 24, the first time as a booster. program successfully its objective. Edwin Aldrin first photos of the Red began the manned flights docking in space. Gemini was place. Photos were taken than 10,000 high-resolution satellite that sent radio objective of landing on the during a routine test of Vladimir Komarov died when his Apollo 8 orbits the Moon docks two spacecraft as and Neil Armstrong walk Planet. of this program. the preceding project to Apollo. and sent back to Earth. photos were transmitted. signals to Earth. Moon. the Apollo program. spacecraft crashed while landing. 10 times in six days. Gemini had done. on the Moon. 20 THE CONQUEST OF SPACE SPACE EXPLORATION 21

The Modules COMMAND SERVICE High-Gain A Giant Leap MODULE MODULE Antenna The Apollo 11 mission had he acceleration of the space race between the United States and the Soviet Union a spacecraft divided into Thrust two parts: the command module Control reached its height when President Kennedy's words set the goal of landing on Columbia and a lunar module, the Reserve Fuel T the Moon before the end of the 1960s. In meeting that goal in 1969, a MANEUVERABLE Eagle. Initially they were joined DOCKING ANTENNA together. When orbit was human being for the first time in history walked on the Moon. The mission took RADAR reached, the lunar module over a week, including the trip and the stay on the Moon. It was the first ANTENNA separated to complete its descent and land on the Moon. launch to use two boosters: one for leaving Earth to get to the Moon and the other to return from the Moon. Neil Armstrong was the first person to leave ORBITAL MODULE The use of two modules Motor a human footprint and place a U.S. flag in outer space. allowed for a crew of two in the cabin. CABIN

LIFTOFF BOOSTER OXYGEN TANKS LUNAR MODULE EAGLE ASSEMBLY FOR THRUST Cabin for Propulsion The module is powered by a Saturn V Launching CONTROL the Crew System rocket. With a weight of over 6 million Platform was divided into two sections, pounds (3 million kg), it was the heaviest one for ascent and one for Fuel Tanks Two Tanks rocket that had ever been built. descent. It was coupled to the of Helium orbital module during the In 2 minutes ascent and descent. 1 and 42 seconds, the rocket reaches a ULTRA HIGH- WEIGHT ON velocity of 6,100 mph WEIGHT ON EARTH CSM-107 COLUMBIA FREQUENCY EARTH (9,800 km/h) and 66,000 ANTENNA Launch enters Earth's orbit. July 16, 1969 pounds 54,000 EXIT Height PLATFORM 36 feet (11 m) (30,000 kg) Stage 1 pounds Diameter 12.8 feet (3.9 m) (24,500 kg) Cabin volume 220 cubic feet (6.2 cu m) The Voyage Crew 3 Organization NASA The total mission to the Moon and back lasted almost 200 hours. For the voyage, two modules were used: the orbital module FUEL TANK Revolution (Columbia) and the lunar module (Eagle). Both were attached to the Saturn V rocket until after The Crew the third stage. The Eagle module, with two OXIDANT The three members of the crew were men who already had much experience astronauts onboard, was separated after TANK at NASA. They were all part of the Gemini program, a very important making a 180° course correction that placed it preparation for landing on the Moon and walking on its surface. Armstrong and in lunar orbit. Then, having been separated, the Aldrin were the first human beings to set foot on the Moon. Collins orbited around module fired up its engine and prepared for the Moon at an altitude of 69 miles (111 km). landing on the Moon. The return trip began on July 24. The stay on the Moon lasted 21 hours 2 and 38 minutes. Neil Armstrong Michael Collins Edwin Aldrin One revolution (b. 1930) (b. 1930) (b. 1930) is made around carried out his first was the third astronaut took part in the Gemini the Earth. The Stage 3 SATURN V mission on board to carry out a space walk 13 training mission and second stage is The rocket that Gemini 8 in 1966. He with the Gemini 10 was the second man to jettisoned, and launched LANDING was the first person to mission. He was the set foot on lunar soil. the ship's Apollo into GEAR set foot on the Moon. command module pilot of He retired from NASA the Columbia. velocity reaches EQUIPMENT FOR 14,620 mph orbit was as in 1971. (23,000 km/h). high as a 29- EXPERIMENTS story building.

Modules Joined Once lunar orbit LM-5 EAGLE is reached, the 4 Landing Eagle module July 20, 1969 ENORMOUS 3 separates and prepares Height 21 feet (6.5 m) EAGLE for landing on the Moon. Cabin volume The astronaut is The orbital and 235 cubic feet (6.65 cu m) just over one half lunar modules Crew stay together. Module 2 as tall as the leg Organization NASA of the module.

Correction 22 THE CONQUEST OF SPACE SPACE EXPLORATION 23

The Lunar Orbiter LUNAR PROSPECTOR LUNAR PROSPECTOR consists of a cylinder Launch January 1998 The Lunar Prospector was launched in Solar Sensors The Moon Without Secrets covered with thousands of Flight to 1997 and was in space for 19 months. It 105 hours photovoltaic panels. Antenna the Moon ix Apollo missions were able to land on the lunar surface. Apollo 13, because of an oxygen- orbited the Moon at an altitude of 62 miles used to maintain (100 km), traveling at a velocity of 3,400 mph communications Weight 650 pounds (295 kg) tank explosion, flew to the Moon but did not make a landing. Through the intelligence and with the Earth. (5,500 km/h), completing an orbit every two Cost $63 million S hours. This allowed it to obtain data from the Gamma-Ray expertise of the astronauts onboard, it was able to return to Earth safely. With the success Organization surface. Its objective was to attain a low polar Spectrometer searches NASA of these missions, the Moon was no longer unreachable. A dozen men were able to walk on the orbit of the Moon, which included a mapping of for potassium, oxygen, ANTENNAS uranium, aluminum, permit gray, crunchy lava soil strewn with craters. Each one of these voyages, besides bringing back data, the surface, reconnaissance for the composition silicon, calcium, and possible deposits of water in the form of magnesium, and titanium. communication encouraged the development of space science and increased the desire to carry out other missions ice, and measuring the lunar magnetic and with NASA's to different locations of the solar system. gravitational fields. Thrusters Deep Space Network.

LUNAR POLE Images taken by the Alpha Particle The Apollo Missions THE LUNAR ROVER Lunar Prospector Solar Panel Spectrometer Magnetometer detects particles Neutron Spectrometer The Apollo program began in July 1960. An important modern An electric vehicle used by the astronauts to looks for magnetic emitted by detects neutrons on the technological triumph, it succeeded in putting the United States explore the surface of the Moon fields near the radioactive gases. lunar surface. ahead in the space race. Six missions made landings: Apollo 11, 12, 14, 15, spacecraft. 16, and 17. The Apollo lunar module was the first spacecraft designed to fly in a vacuum without any aerodynamic capabilities. Television Camera TWENTY-ONE CHOSEN High-gain Low-gain End of the Apollo Program Apollo included seven Antenna Antenna After six landings on the Moon, the Apollo program was missions designed to land on Manual terminated. Apollo 18, 19, and 20 were canceled for budgetary the Moon, with a total of 21 Controls reasons. The program had put the United States in the lead of the astronauts. Six missions Sample space race. completed landings, and 12 Collection Bag astronauts walked on the Moon's surface. LUNAR ROVER APOLLO 13 Television James A. Lovell, Jr. Launch The pilot of the (b. 1928) Camera July 1971 LUNAR MATERIAL unfortunate Apollo 13 was the backup commander The samples of lunar Length 10.2 feet (3.10 m) mission, which was for the Gemini 4 flight and 740 pounds aborted because of command pilot of Gemini 7 Width rocks turned out to be 3.7 feet (1.14 m) an explosion on board Lunar and 12. similar to those in the Velocity 10 mph (16 km/h) the service module (336 kg) Earth's mantle. Communications Transmission Unit Organization NASA

DISTANCE TRAVELED ANTENNA The total distance High-gain, in SCIENTIST Harrison 15.5 miles traveled by the Lunar the form of The only civilian on the Schmitt Moon. He traveled on (b. 1928) Rover in the Apollo 15, an umbrella on the Lunar board Apollo 17 and North American geologist (25 km) 16, and 17 missions was the first geologist who flew on the last Rover to work on the Moon. Apollo mission STAY The duration of the WEIGHT ON EARTH 301:51´50´´ Apollo 17 mission, the longest, was almost 302 hours. 406 pounds APOLLO-SOYUZ Aleksey Leonov Russian cosmonaut Leonov (b. 1934) Storage Locker Data Console (209 kg) was part of the Apollo- was born in Siberia. During HAPPY ENDING Soyuz test project in which the Voshkod 2 mission, he The Apollo-Soyuz the two craft remained was the first person to WEIGHT ON THE MOON mission ended the space docked for seven days. walk in space. race to the Moon. 77 pounds (35 kg) APOLLO MISSIONS LATER MISSIONS

1970 1972 1975 1994 2003 2008 APOLLO 13 SAMPLES APOLLO-SOYUZ CLEMENTINE SMART LRO The explosion of the During the last lunar The spacecraft Apollo and The spacecraft The ESA launched Smart 1, NASA will launch a liquid-oxygen tank of Apollo mission, the Apollo the Soviet Soyuz docked in Clementine orbited the its first unmanned rocket carrying the the service module 17, the astronauts Eugene space in the first and Moon and mapped its spacecraft, with the Moon Lunar Reconnaissance forced an early return Cernan and Harrison historic joint mission surface. It was also as its destination. Its Orbiter to the south pole of the crew: James Schmitt drove over the between NASA and the used to obtain radar purpose was to analyze of the Moon to look for Lovell, Fred Haise, and Moon in the Lunar Rover Soviet Space Agency. It data on the unlit unexplored regions and to water that could be John Swigert. and took rock samples was the last Apollo mission. craters near the Moon's test new technologies, such used on future missions. from the surface. south pole. as solar ionic propulsion. 24 THE CONQUEST OF SPACE SPACE EXPLORATION 25

WMAP TRAJECTORY Observation Day 90 (3 months) Before heading for point L2, the probe makes a flyby of WMAP DIMENSIONS the Moon to get a gravity boost toward L2. Echoes of the Past To be able to observe the heavens, the probe The probe has completed coverage of one half of the Launch is located at the point called Lagrange L2, Axial rotation June 30, 2001 12.5 feet sky. Each hour it covers Lunar Orbit which is 900,000 miles (1.5 million km) from the 129 seconds PLAN hanks to the data obtained in 2001 OMNIDIRECTIONAL Useful life 27 months (3 (3.8 m) a sector of 22.5º. VIEW from NASA's WMAP (Wilkinson ANTENNA months for travel Earth. This point provides a stable orbit far from Orbital Phases and 24 for the influence of the Earth. Sun shields protect its Earth T Microwave Anisotropy Probe), observation) instruments, which always point away from the Precession of L2 the equinoxes: Cost Sun. WMAP observes the heavens in several stages SUN $150 million 22.5° around scientists have succeeded in making and measures temperature differences between WMAP Organization NASA the Sol- the first detailed map of cosmic 16.4 feet various regions of the cosmos. Every six months it WMAP line. (5 m) completely covers the entire sky, which makes it Encounter with the Moon background radiation, a remnant possible to compare different maps to check data consistency. 900,000 MILES of the Big Bang. The ITS PARTS (1.5 MILLION KM) conclusion of the experts PRIMARY PROFILE VIEW REFLECTORS is that this map provide the Day 180 (6 months) desired angular The whole sky has been reveals clues about resolution; can mapped. This is repeated point in any four more times. Day 1 when the first direction. Because it can focus on generation of stars Line of Sight the sky in two directions was formed. PASSIVE The purpose of observing simultaneously, WMAP THERMAL the entire sky every six is capable of observing a RADIATOR months is to obtain large portion of the sky Earth redundancy in the data every day. INCOMING gathered over two years. IMAGES WMAP Then the maps can be Sun Every 24 hours, compared to test their WMAP observes consistency. 30 percent of the sky. THERMALLY INSULATED CYLINDRICAL Terrestrial INSTRUMENT Orbit

THE MAP MOST RECENT SUCCESSES Temperature Regions of greater-than- The details provided by WMAP are unprecedented. In a photograph of March 31, 2006, difference average temperatures The various colors of the regions in the detailed map polarized zones are visible in different between two WARM SECTION of the sky correspond to very slight differences in areas of the universe. points, measured Contains: temperature in cosmic background radiation. This by WMAP -Electronic instrumentation radiation, the remains of the Big Bang, was -Position and propulsion control discovered in the 1960s, but only recently has it been -Managing information and command possible to describe it in detail. The latest results of -Battery and power control WMAP show polarized temperature zones.

COBE, the Predecessor STAR TRACKER The results obtained by COBE in 1989 set the stage for the future. The resolution is lower, so much PROTECTIVE SHIELD TO less detail is visible. PROVIDE THE SPACECRAFT WITH SHADE

Regions of below-average ENLARGED temperatures 419 1,850 pounds AREA watts The oval shape is a projection to (840 kg) show the entire sky. OF POWER WEIGHT ON EARTH

1973 1976 1977 1981 1986 1989 1990 1997 1998 2001 2004 2005 SKYLAB VIKING VOYAGER 1 SPACE SHUTTLE MIR COBE HUBBLE PATHFINDER ISS WMAP SPIRIT MRO The launching of the American satellite, AND 2 The first manned mission The first phase of the Russian First results concerning One of the most The probe released a robot The first module of the WMAP is launched to The robot, together with its Launched in 2005, the first American space takes photos of the Fly by Jupiter in 1979 was conducted with the space station Mir was the cosmology of the powerful telescopes that took photographs on International Space obtain the most precise twin Opportunity, reached probe found traces of station, Skylab surface of Mars and Saturn in 1980. shuttle Columbia. successfully put into orbit. universe. was put into orbit. the surface of Mars. Station is launched. data about the universe. the surface of Mars. water on Mars. SPACE SHUTTLE DEFYING GRAVITY 28-29 SPACE SHUTTLE 36-39 The spacecraft developed by Flying Through Space NASA can be reused after POINT OF DEPARTURE 30-31 FAR FROM HOME 40-41 satellites have been lifted into space and put into orbit. THE ROCKETS 32-33 PROFESSION: ASTRONAUT 42-43 LAUNCH SEQUENCE 34-35 CONTROL FROM EARTH 44-45

ith space vehicles that new discoveries about the origin and there are still many problems to be immigrated to new regions of the planet have ever more structure of the other planets. Beginning solved. However, the future of the to survive and prosper, we have a capabilities, humans have in 1981 the space shuttle became a key human species over the long term is in destiny that will take us away from the W attained many goals in component in astronautics. Life space, and there is no choice but to Earth to find new places to live. space, such as making onboard the shuttle is still difficult, and follow that path. Like our ancestors, who 28 FLYING THROUGH SPACE SPACE EXPLORATION 29

0 g Parabolic Flight 5.3 MILES (8,500 M) Defying Gravity To achieve microgravity, a C-135 aircraft The engines are ascends at an angle of 47° until the pilot stopped. The engines shuts off the engines and the plane begins its free are started he human body is suited for conditions under Earth's gravity. Therefore, fall by following a parabolic trajectory. During this again. if the force of gravity increases or decreases, the body feels a distinct, phase, everything in the airplane floats, both equipment and people, because they are in a T unfamiliar sensation. It causes a decrease in heartbeat; muscles 4.7 MILES weightless condition. Such flights are organized by (7,600 M) become weaker and bones lose calcium. Engineers and medical doctors NASA, ESA, and RSA (the Russian Space Agency). The engine velocity 31 have investigated how humans can survive long periods where there is decreases. FLIGHTS little gravity without causing the body to atrophy. Orbiting PER SESSION laboratories have been built to experiment with zero gravity on Earth. LIQUIDS disperse in the air 3.7 MILES 47º during conditions of (6,000 M) microgravity. Acceleration of the engines 1.8 G 1.8 G/1.5 G MICROGRAVITY 1.8 G

Microgravity Gravitation is the universal force of attraction between two bodies. It depends on two principal factors: mass WITHIN THE AIRPLANE and distance. The greater the mass, the greater will be the During parabolic flights, 15 attraction; on the other hand, with greater distance, the force nine to 15 scientific EXPERIMENTS of gravity is less. A spacecraft in orbit is essentially constantly experiments can be PERFORMED falling around the Earth, and astronauts aboard do not feel the performed. force of gravity even though they are being pulled by the Earth's gravity. This condition of seeming weightlessness is called a microgravity environment. EXPERIMENT 8 EXPERIMENT 7 Studying smell Testing a new and taste shower system for the astronauts

EXPERIMENT 15 FREE-FLIGHT The behavior of ZONE ferro-fluids

WEIGHTLESSNESS A body floats in space. Water: Another Method for Simulating Weight Reduction Other methods of training for the astronauts make use of a gigantic swimming pool in which an environment can be created to simulate working in ACTION microgravity. In the Johnson Space Center a simulator AND REACTION was installed, completely underwater, which allowed the Newton's third law says mission crew that was to be sent to repair the Hubble that when one body telescope to test what the working conditions inside the exerts a force on another, space shuttle would be. the second one exercises an equal force on the first in the opposite direction.

MMU

GRAVITATIONAL Sun TRAJECTORY OF THE ASSISTANCE CASSINI SPACECRAFT LEGS Some spacecraft take During weightlessness, Venus advantage of the gravitational Saturn REACTION an astronaut's legs get force of the planets so that 44 pounds (20 kg) thinner from lack of they can increase their speed exercise, and the Earth Satellite to get to their destination. This Simulation Less ACTION muscles atrophy. is the case with the spacecraft Weight 44 pounds (20 kg) Cassini, among others. 30 FLYING THROUGH SPACE SPACE EXPLORATION 31

LIGHTNING RODS The mast protects people, the shuttle, Floating Platform Point of Departure and the other platform components from lightning. It is located in the Earth-based launching platforms are very expensive. For this reason, some upper part of the fixed structure and countries have developed floating launch platforms. At sea it is much pacecraft launching sites typically meet one or more optimal criteria. For example, is 348 feet (106 m) tall. simpler and safer to pick a location at the Equator, where the Earth's rotational S choosing a location close to the Equator makes it easier to put a spacecraft into velocity is the greatest, an advantage for putting space missions into orbit. orbit. Moreover, a number of coastal areas have been chosen, because they are more accessible for the transport of the goods needed to build the launch vehicles. SPACE ROCKET The danger of an accident during launch must also be taken into account. Therefore, sites have been chosen in areas with low-density population, such as Cape Canaveral, Florida. FIXED SERVICE STRUCTURE ROTATING SERVICE The structure is 246 feet STRUCTURE (75 m) high and divided into Vehicle Assembly Building 12 floors. It has three arms has a height of 189 feet PLATFORM The spaceport has an immense building for the (57.6 m) and moves in a that connect it to the shuttle. preparation and assembly of rockets and of the semicircular path around external shuttle tank. The dimensions of the building the shuttle. 1 2 3 are impressive: 525 feet (160 m) high, 715 feet (218 MOUNTING TRANSFER STORAGE m) long, and 387 feet (118 m) wide. The orbiter A rocket is built on an The rocket is transferred The rocket is stored until travels on top of the crawler-transporter from this assembly barge 660 to the launching launch. The assembly barge feet (200 m) long. platform Odyssey. leaves the location. building to the launch pad. ORBITER ACCESS ARM PROPULSION OTHER LAUNCHING BASES ASSEMBLY ROCKETS The preference to use locations close to the Equator for BUILDING spaceports has an explanation. The speed of rotation of the Earth's surface is greatest at the Equator, and vehicles launched near the Equator can take advantage CRAWLER- WHITE ROOM of that speed to help reach orbit. TRANSPORTER Exclusively for astronauts. From here they go to the FIRST LAUNCHES FROM THE MOST IMPORTANT BASES shuttle.

PLESETSK (1966)

KENNEDY (1967)

LAUNCHER PLATFORM EQUATOR KOUROU SAN MARCO (1970) (1967)

TAIL SERVICE MAST These structures connect the Fixed Service platform with the spacecraft. Structure They provide oxygen and hydrogen to the external tanks. This steel giant is located at the launch pad. It consists of fixed and rotating structures. Atop the transport caterpillar, the mobile launch platform brings the space shuttle to this location. ELEVATOR When the astronauts 130 ft (40 m) arrive at the launch pad, they ride the elevator to ROTATING SERVICE CRAWLER-TRANSPORTER a facility called the white STRUCTURE The orbiter sits on top of two protects the shuttle while room. From there, they caterpillar tracks and is the contamination-free enter the shuttle. carried to the launch pad. A fuels are being pumped system of laser rays precisely into the tanks. guide it as it moves at 2 mph (3.2 km/h). 32 FLYING THROUGH SPACE SPACE EXPLORATION 33 The Rockets eveloped in the first half of the 20th century, a short time acquire the velocity necessary to reach orbit D rockets are necessary for sending any kind of in space around the Earth. On average, more than one object into space. They produce sufficient force rocket per week is sent into space from somewhere in to leave the ground together with their cargo and in the world.

ARIANE 5 CONICAL First operational flight Oct. 11, 1999 COMPONENTS ACCORDING TO THE FUEL TYPE THEY NOSE CONE USE, THESE WOULD BE CONSIDERED Diameter 16 feet (5 m) protects CHEMICAL (FUEL) ROCKETS. Total height 167 feet (51 m) the cargo. In liquid-fuel rockets, hydrogen and oxygen are Booster rocket weight in separate containers. In solid-fuel rockets, they 610,000 pounds (277,000 kg) Payload are mixed and contained in a single cylinder. each (full) System Geosynchronous 15,000 pounds (6,800 kg) payload Guidance KEY Gases expelled System Organization ESA UPPER PAYLOAD Propulsion Up to two System satellites

LOWER PAYLOAD Up to two satellites Boeing Space Ariane 5 Shuttle UPPER ENGINES release the 1,645,000 satellite at a precise angle and speed. LIQUID SOLID HYBRID pounds LIQUID OXYGEN TANK contains 286,000 (746,000 kg) pounds (130,000 kg) WEIGHT OF ARIANE 5 for combustion. Engine Operation Before liftoff, the fuel is ignited. The boosters THERMAL INSULATION ignite only if the ignition of the main engine is To protect the combustion chamber from high successful. The rocket lifts off, and two minutes later temperatures of the burning fuel, the walls are the boosters are extinguished, their fuel completely sprayed with rocket fuel. This process manages consumed. The main engine remains attached until its to cool the engine off. fuel is used up, and it is then jettisoned.

INTERNAL CONNECTOR STRUCTURE OF THE TUBE MAIN ENGINE

LIQUID HYDROGEN TANK

LIQUID COVER PROPELLANT INSULATION OXYGEN TANK FUEL PUMP TYPE OF ROCKET DEPENDING ON ITS COMBUSTION PROPULSION CHAMBER Rockets with chemical propellants are the most LIQUID common. Their thrust comes from the exhaust HYDROGEN produced through combustion. For propulsion in space, TANK an ion drive can be used to produce an exhaust of contains accelerated ions (electrically charged atoms). The use 225 tons. of nuclear energy has been studied as a possible source of energy for heating a gas to produce an exhaust. How It Works To do its job, the rocket must overcome KEY Thrust gravity. As it rises, the mass of the rocket is COHETE reduced through the burning of its fuel. Moreover, AUXILIAR because the distance from the Earth increases, the effect of gravity decreases.

WATER OR IONS LIQUID BOOSTER ACTION AND HYDROGEN ROCKETS REACTION burn fuel for The thrust of the FUEL NUCLEAR rocket is the REACTOR two minutes. reaction resulting from the action of the hot exhaust escaping from the rocket.

LIQUID CHEMICAL NUCLEAR IONIC HELIUM THRUSTERS expel gases so MAIN that the rocket ENGINE can begin its burns for ascent. 10 minutes. ROCKET THRUST

EARTH GRAVITY

1926 1942 1961 1969 1988 1999 On March 16, Robert V2 rockets were being The Soviet rocket Vostok 1 The rocket Saturn V sends The powerful rocket After two failed attempts Hutchings Goddard built by the Germans for lifts the first astronaut, Yury a man to the Moon on the Energia puts a prototype in 1996 and 1998, the launched the first liquid- military use. They were Gagarin, into space; he orbits Apollo 11 mission. The Soviet space shuttle, the Ariane 5 achieves its first fueled rocket in the the first rockets to be the Earth at an altitude of giant rocket is more than Buran, into orbit. successful commercial United States. built on a large scale. 196 miles (315 km). 330 feet (100 m) high. flight. 34 FLYING THROUGH SPACE SPACE EXPLORATION 35 Launch Sequence carcely 50 years have elapsed since the first spaceflights. Nevertheless, access to space—whether for placing satellites into orbit, sending probes to other planets, or launching astronauts into S space—has become almost routine and is a good business for countries that have launch capabilities. Preparations for launch begin with the assembly of the rocket, followed by its placement on a launch pad. When its engines are ignited, the rocket rises into the atmosphere. Once the atmosphere has been left behind, less thrust is needed. For this reason, rockets consist of two or more stages stacked on top of each other. Booster rockets are typically used to produce greater initial thrust. Final phase The work of the upper stage begins. The upper- stage rocket is the only Bound for Space rocket not used on the The upper stage, launching pad. Instead it is used to insert the HOW IT FLIES FLIGHT GUIDANCE STAGES which carries the payload, is payload into its proper The hot gases As the gases The rocket's guidance computer The Ariane 5 has ignited once it orbit. The rocket can be produced by escape through uses data from laser gyroscopes a main stage, an reaches space. reignited after it is shut the burning the open nozzle, to control the inclination of the upper stage, and down and can burn for a fuel push in all they generate an nozzles, directing the rocket along two booster total of 19 minutes. directions. opposing force. its proper flight path. rockets. The main stage and The main stage uses Laser booster liquid hydrogen and Gyroscope rockets are oxygen. ignited at Fuel tank Electrical launch. The booster rockets Signals are solid-fuel rockets. The main stage, ignited at the end of the countdown, separates Computer and falls back to Earth. Its Gas supply of liquid hydrogen and direction Gimbals oxygen has been used up.

Nozzle Inclination

Nozzle

Fairing The fairing is jettisoned when the air becomes so thin that wind no longer poses any danger to the payload.

Launch Countdown

The countdown for the Ariane 5 typically lasts six hours. At the Launch Window Latitude of the Direction end of the countdown, the launch begins with the ignition of the launching point of the Earth's main stage's liquid-fuel engine. Seven seconds later the two solid-fuel Rockets must be rotation launched at boosters are ignited. Before the boosters' ignition, the flight can be Launch predetermined times, which aborted by shutting down the main stage. Window depend on the objective of the launch. If the objective is to place a satellite into orbit, the latitude of the Detachment launched rocket needs to The launch Explosive bolts coincide with the trajectory countdown begins. separate the boosters of the desired orbit. from the main stage When the mission involves Ideal and the main stage docking with another object trajectory from the second stage. in space, the launch window The tanks begin might fall within only a few to be filled. Projection Planned minutes. of the orbit orbit

Mechanical reinforcements are made. Comparison 218 feet (66 m) At 200,000 feet (60,000 m) the solid-fuel boosters 200 The automatic launch separate and fall to the feet 184 feet (56 m) sequence starts. ocean in a secure area. 167 feet (51 m)

The main-stage 150 engines are ignited. feet 363 feet 100 The solid-fuel (111 m) feet boosters are The height of the ignited. The rocket Saturn V, the largest begins to lift off rocket ever launched. 0.3 second later. It was used in the 50 late 1960s and early 1970s to take feet astronauts to the Moon. During launching it could be heard 90 miles (150 km) away. ARIANE 5 DELTA IV M+ SPACE SHUTTLE Solid-fuel boosters provide 90 percent of the initial Weight at launch: Weight at launch: Weight at launch: thrust needed to launch the 822 tons (746 t) 330 tons (300 t) 2,200 tons (2,000 t) Ariane 5. The boosters are 102 feet (31 m) high and contain First operational flight: 1999 First operational launch: 2002 First operational launch: 1981 525,000 pounds (238,000 kg) of fuel. Once the fuel is used up, Maximum payload: 7.5 to 17.6 Maximum payload: 6 to 12.9 Maximum payload: 27.5 tons the boosters are separated from tons (6.8-16 t) depending on the tons (5.5-11.7 t) depending on (25 t) into low Earth orbit. the main stage, 130 seconds desired orbit the desired orbit into the flight. 36 FLYING THROUGH SPACE SPACE EXPLORATION 37

Primary Engines Space Shuttle There are three primary engines, which are fed by oxygen and liquid hydrogen from the external tank. Each engine has nlike conventional rockets, the U.S. space shuttle can be reused to lift computer-based controls that make adjustments to obtain the satellites into space and put them into low Earth orbit. Today these correct thrust and mix of fuel. U vehicles are also used to make flights to the International Space Station. LIQUID LIQUID The U.S. fleet has three shuttles: Discovery, Atlantis, and Endeavour. The OXYGEN HYDROGEN PRIMARY ENGINES Challenger exploded in 1986 and the Columbia in 2003. External Fuel Tank connects the shuttle to the launch rockets. It carries liquid oxygen and liquid hydrogen, which are ignited via TECHNICAL DATA FOR THE SPACE SHUTTLE SATELLITE a tube that connects one container to remains in the the other. The tank is discarded after First launch April 12-14, 1981 payload bay each voyage. Mission length 5-20 days and is moved Width 79 feet (24 m) by the arm. Length 121 feet (37 m) CIRCULATION OF LIQUID Organization NASA EXTERNAL ROBOT ARM HYDROGEN THERMAL FUEL TANK moves satellites in and SHIELD 25,500 pounds out of the payload bay. WEIGHT ON EARTH (11,600 kg) ORBITAL ENGINES SPACE SPACE provide the thrust for orbital insertion and ORBITER for orbital changes required in the orbit. ORBITER The engines are located on the outside of the fuselage.

121 feet (37 m) AUXILIARY ROCKETS

Boeing Standard Space Aircraft Airplane Shuttle WING The wings have no function in space. They are needed for landing The Cabin the spacecraft. The place where the members of the crew live is divided COMMAND into two levels: an upper level houses the pilot and the CABIN copilot (and up to two more astronauts), and a lower level is used for daily living. The amount of habitable space inside the cabin is 2,470 cubic feet (70 cu m). Thermal Protection HATCHES When a shuttle begins reentry from Earth's orbit, are opened when the orbiter friction heats the surface to a temperature between 570 reaches low Earth orbit. and 2,700° F (300-1,500° C). Various parts of the spacecraft CONTROLS They have thermal panels must have protective layers to keep them from melting. The COMMAND There are more than 2,000 separate that protect the spacecraft inner parts of the wings and the nose heat up the most. controls in the flight cabin, three times CONSOLE from overheating. as many as in Apollo. ADHESIVE CERAMIC FIBER CONTROL PILOT SEAT CABIN PROTECTIVE FELT Solid-Fuel Rockets CERAMICS are designed to last for some 20 flights. shuttle to an altitude of 27 miles (44 km) and make up the layers After each flight, they are recovered from are capable of supporting the entire weight of that protect the the ocean and refurbished. They carry the the shuttle while standing on the ground. spacecraft from heat. KEY 1,200-2,300° F (648- IGNITION SOLID THRUST GLASS COVERING 1,260° C)-also silicon SECTOR FUEL NOZZLE Ceramic fiber: temperature below Metal or glass, without 700° F (370° C) thermal protection SILICON COMMANDER'S CERAMIC TILES Silicon ceramic: Carbon in areas above CHAIR 700-1,200° F (370- 648° C) 2,300° F (1,260° C) 38 FLYING THROUGH SPACE SPACE EXPLORATION 39

ORBITAL SPECIFICATIONS

Orbital altitude 190-330 miles (310-530 km) 2 Orbital period 97 minutes Average orbital speed 17,200 mph (27,800 km/h) 5-30 DAYS ORBITAL MANEUVERING ORBITS IN SPACE 00:08:00 CONTROL SYSTEM Once the necessary altitude has been THE EXTERNAL puts the shuttle into an appropriate orbit. reached for the mission, the shuttle remains TANK IS JETTISONED. Depending on the mission, its altitude in space between 10 and 16 days. It is then could be as high as 700 miles (1,100 km). oriented for the return flight to Earth.

ORBITAL BOOSTER ROCKETS MANEUVERING are jettisoned and begin to SYSTEM fall toward Earth. Later they will be refurbished.

Front Back 00:02:00 View View 27 MILES (44 KM) ALTITUDE: THE SOLID- FUEL ROCKETS ARE JETTISONED. EXTERNAL TANK Its fuel is fed to the shuttle 3 ASCENDING PHASE engines until just before the The space shuttle turns 120º and shuttle reaches orbit. The tank is immediately jettisoned and REENTRY INTO THE ascends upside down, with the crew in ATMOSPHERE an upside-down position. It maintains as it falls it burns up through atmospheric friction. The shuttle undergoes a communications this position until reaching orbit. blackout because of the heated air that surrounds it. 17,400 mph Retrieval System (28,000 km/h) 1 Two minutes after the shuttle's liftoff, the SPEED REACHED BY THE SHUTTLE booster rockets have burned up their fuel. They are jettisoned, and the parachutes deploy for COMPARTMENT WITH their fall into the ocean. Later the booster rockets 00:00:00 THREE PARACHUTES are retrieved by ships and refurbished. Used for jettisoning the LIFTOFF rockets The two solid-fuel rockets and the three main engines go into action. They burn two million pounds (900,000 kg) of 4 propellant, and the shuttle reaches an altitude of 27 miles (44 km). The solid fuel is CARGO BAY LANDING completely consumed. carries the apparatus that The shuttle landing sequence is completely will be put into orbit. automatic and kicks in two minutes before returning to terra firma. It lands on a BOOSTER 4,900° F runway 3 miles (5 km) long. ROCKETS (1,500° C) MAXIMUM TEMPERATURE BOOSTER ROCKETS provide the thrust 2,200 tons essential for liftoff. THE LIFTOFF WEIGHT OF THE SPACE SHUTTLE

EXTERNAL SHUTTLE TANK houses the astronauts and carries fuel to the cargo once in orbit. be used in TURNS liftoff. 20º It makes various “S” turns to reduce LANDING ANGLE its velocity. 40 FLYING THROUGH SPACE SPACE EXPLORATION 41

Far from Home 1 90 SLEEP minutes Once a day THE LENGTH OF A he experience of leaving the Earth to live in a space station or to take The Sun rises and sets every hour and a half when the DAY IN ORBIT a trip in the shuttle is a fascinating adventure. Life in orbit requires shuttle is in orbit, but the T many adjustments to survive in an environment where there is no astronauts attempt to sleep Sleeping eight hours once a day. They Bag must stay tethered to keep water, air pressure, or oxygen. The crew cabin is pressurized, and from floating. water is produced electrically with oxygen and hydrogen. Food requires special packaging, and the garbage is pulverized. 2 TOILET To go to the bathroom, a system of suction with air is used because it is impossible Crew Cabin to use water. Baths can be The crew cabin is located at the front of the shuttle. taken. After a bath, the same The control deck is on the upper level, and the lower clothes are used because level has sleeping and living compartments as well as the there is no way to wash clothes in space. hatch for entering and leaving the cabin.

CABIN EARPHONES help maintain 3 DORMITORY communication.

BATHROOM FOOD 3 times a day CUPBOARD Every day the astronauts have breakfast, lunch, and dinner. They must bring the food to their mouths very CLOTHES carefully. They must drink HATCH Comfortable enough water or they could clothes are used begin to suffer from dehydration. during the day. Physical Ailments 4 The human body is accustomed to Earth's effects on the body, such as bone and muscle WORK gravity. In space the astronauts reduction. In many cases, living in small spaces 8 hours a day They work four hours on Saturdays experience weightlessness, floating in the can cause psychological problems. Also, radiation and have Sundays off. Weekdays are spacecraft. Life in space can have undesirable from solar storms can cause severe damage. normal workdays. The most common tasks are scientific experiments and 5 normal maintenance. LOSS OF CALCIUM IN THE BONES EXERCISE Hallucinations In microgravity, the bone tissue is not and Seasickness regenerated but absorbed by other tissues. 2 hours a day The loss of mass can appear as an excess of Every day, in order to stay in good health, astronauts calcium in other parts of the body (for must do physical exercises. RESPIRATORY example, kidney stones). Because weightlessness SYSTEM causes muscle loss, exercises that tone the muscles are performed. TETHER holds down the Work Clothes body to keep it in Space from floating.

CIRCULATORY SYSTEM Diseased Healthy Bone Bone Device to Increase Muscle Tone MUSCULAR 72 20 72 VARIETIES VARIETIES SYSTEM OF DISHES OF DRINKS 42 FLYING THROUGH SPACE SPACE EXPLORATION 43

CAMERA PLASTIC HELMET RESCUE SPHERE Color television The helmet is treated is to help the members Profession: Astronaut equipment to prevent fogging. of the crew who do not have space suits. It is ow do you become an astronaut? Before undertaking a mission in space, every “SNOOPY CAP” made of space-suit material and has its MICROPHONE candidate must submit to rigorous examinations since the tasks they are to own oxygen supply. H perform are very delicate and risky. They must intensively study mathematics, HELMET Contains the meteorology, astronomy, and physics and become familiar with computers and communication navigation in space. They must also train physically to get used to low-gravity equipment OXYGEN microphone SUPPLY conditions in orbit and to be able to carry out repairs. EXTERIOR VISOR Protects MADE OF SPACE against the Sun SUIT MATERIAL Manned COMPUTER Maneuvering Unit VISOR CARRYING HANDLE The training program is difficult and exhausting. There are daily activities in the flight simulators with specialized computers. DIGITAL CAMERA

IMAGE FLIGHT SIMULATOR CONTROLLER COMMANDS Physical Training OXYGEN This is the hardest part. To habituate themselves to the microgravity of SUPPLY space, the astronauts begin training in modified airplanes, where they handle ORIFICE equipment, eat, and drink during the moments of least gravity. The manned For water COMPUTER maneuvering unit (MMU), with which the astronauts go out of the spacecraft to entry and exit Pocket make repairs in space, has an underwater model for preparatory training on Earth. LIFE-SUPPORT communication SYSTEM equipment. BELT Keeps the OXYGEN astronauts in LIFE-SUPPORT comes in through place to cope BACKPACK this part of the with zero gravity space suit. SIMULATOR ASTRONAUT For space GLOVES operations protect the astronaut's hands.

LAYERS OF THE SPACE SUIT The types of cloth this suit is made of are specially designed to protect the astronaut's body.

HAND CONTROLS CLOTH WITH WATER For maneuvering the unit TRANSPORT TUBES

NYLON 1965 1969 1984 1994 The astronaut Neil Armstrong used Bruce McCandless wore Space shuttle Edward White used this space suit when this space suit when he astronauts COOLING LIQUID NEOPRENE this space suit to he performed his became the first person demonstrate a serves as thermal FOOT RESTRAINT helps support the astronaut. perform a space walk first historic space to carry out a space suit that is protection and THERMAL LAYER in the vicinity of the walk on the surface walk without being much more protection against AGAINST Gemini capsule. of the Moon. tethered to the shuttle. modern and reusable. meteorites. MICROMETEORITES 44 FLYING THROUGH SPACE SPACE EXPLORATION 45

Control from Earth The Big Screen An enormous screen dominates the Operations onitoring the astronauts' activity is done from operations centers. Control Center. It gives information on the location and orbital trajectory of a spacecraft in flight as well as In the United States, NASA is in charge of the manned missions other data. The screen is of vital importance for the M operators, because it allows for a rapid reading of from the Mission Control Center located in the Johnson Space information to take action efficiently and to prevent Center in Houston. The unmanned missions are supervised from the Jet accidents. Propulsion Laboratory in Los Angeles. Utilizing telemetry technology, which makes it possible to see technical aspects in real time, the flight controllers carry out their tasks in front of consoles equipped with computers. SCREEN 2 shows the hour location and path 24- days of spacecraft in TIME THAT THE Houston Space Center Floor Plan SCREEN 1 orbit. records the location CENTER IS OPERATING The center was used for the first time in 1964 for the Gemini 4 mission. The of the satellites and operations control room has an auditorium, a screen that projects the DURING MISSIONS other objects in locations of tracking stations on the Earth, and another screen showing the passage orbit. of satellites in orbit. Computers control all the components of the spacecraft.

ROW 1 EXHIBITION LIFTOFF MONITOR ROOM Also controls the trajectory and carries out course adjustments of the spacecraft. SERVICE AREA MCC ROW 3 ROW 2 FLIGHT DIRECTION MEDICAL SECTION The countdown before The second row checks liftoff is performed and the astronauts' health the flight plan made. and establishes communication with METEOROLOGICAL ROW 4 the crew. CENTER DIRECTORATE The lead authorities are located in the fourth row, from Space Shuttle SERVICE AREA SIMULATION CONTROL ROOM VISITOR'S ROOM where they ROOM With a gigantic contains 74 seats, and VISUALIZATION coordinate the crew's Control Center SUPPORT ROOMS screen to monitor it is located at the ROOM flight operations. It is smaller than the Houston Center. About 12 flights back of the room. SPACE air controllers work there every day, a number Console MAINTENANCE that may rise to 20 when a flight is ongoing. Each worker has a different job, with the IS CARRIED OUT The Operations Control Room consists of about a hundred consoles. first row being the lowest in the The consoles form desks with an area for more than one monitor. management hierarchy and the fourth They have drawers and counters for providing a working area. 365 row the highest. DAYS A YEAR FOLDING TABLE MONITOR For supporting To display data from spacecraft SPACECRAFT objects and books and other systems 1 COMMUNICATOR maintains contact PROTECTIVE with the astronauts. COVERING prevents damage to 2 FLIGHT SURGEON the console system. checks the medical condition of the crew. 1 2 REAR SLIDING 3 FLIGHT DIRECTOR DRAWER helps the director of 4 To keep information mission control. 3 and papers 4 MISSION DIRECTOR has the main responsibility for flight control. THE SPIRIT SATELLITE ORBITS 48-49 A HOME IN SPACE 56-57 Shown with its panels Permanent Exploration extended, Spirit is one of CUTTING-EDGE TECHNOLOGY 50-51 SPYING ON THE UNIVERSE 58-59 the robot explorers for studying Martian soil. SPACE PROBES 52-53 SPACE JUNK 60-61 MARTIAN ROBOTS 54-55

pace exploration brings Moreover, these flights contribute to the relatively hospitable surface. Among data—they found geologic evidence of scientific ideas to everyone's training of a new generation of the probes that NASA has sent to Mars ancient environmental conditions in attention. This is beneficial scientists. Mars has often been seen as a are two robots, Spirit and Opportunity, which there was water and in which life S because it stimulates our goal for space exploration, perhaps that scratched the surface of the Red could have been present. creativity and curiosity. because of its proximity to Earth and its Planet and sent back very interesting 48 PERMANENT EXPLORATION SPACE EXPLORATION 49

Frequency L BAND Used for the GPS system, cell Satellite Orbits Bands phones, and digital radio. Operates The satellites transmit in frequencies between 1.5 and 2.7 information in different GHz. This band has the least data- he space available for placing communications satellites is not unlimited. On the contrary, it is a transmission capacity. frequencies depending finite space that could become saturated with too many satellites. Desirable locations in on their function. K BAND GPS T geostationary orbits are already reaching this situation, chock-full of television and other Used for television and radio transmissions. KA BAND Transmits in a range communications satellites. The placement of these instruments cannot be arbitrary; errors of 1 or 2 Used for instruments in space IT RB between 12 and and for local multipoint O O degrees in position can generate interference with neighboring satellites. The positions are regulated LE IT 18 GHz. transmission. The frequency B R range varies between 18 and 31 O O T RBIT by the International Telecommunications Union. Geostationary satellites have the advantage of being in ME I O AL IN GHz. This band has the greatest B CLIN OR ATI a fixed position with respect to the Earth's surface. In contrast, satellites in low or medium orbit capacity for data transmission. O ON GE 55 require a sequence of terrestrial stations to maintain a communications link. . °

Different Types The quality of the information transmitted by the satellites depends on their position relative to the Earth. The geostationary orbit (GEO), which MEO ORBIT is the most commonly used orbit today, makes it possible to provide coverage to The altitude of satellites in a medium Earth the entire planet with only four satellites, whereas lower orbits need SPOT orbit (MEO) ranges from 20,500 miles constellations of satellites to get total coverage. This is the case for satellites in (33,000 km) up to the altitude of the LEO (low Earth orbit). In other cases, satellites in MEO (medium Earth geostationary satellites. They generally ° orbit) typically describe elliptical orbits. A GEO satellite is in a circular 8 describe an elliptical orbit. Because putting . 4 orbit, and if it orbits over the Equator, it always maintains the same them in orbit requires more energy than 6 LEO ORBIT N GLONASS position with respect to the Earth. O for a satellite in LEO, their cost is greater. I A low Earth orbit is between 125 and T EARTH'S A N 1,900 miles (200-3,000 km) above the 393 miles I (632 km) AXIS 23° L C Earth. LEO has been used for telephone N I communications satellites because of GEO L A T saturation. The orbits are circular and I B require less transmission power than R O other orbits. However, they require Earth- INTELSAT based centers to track the satellites. 11,800 miles (19,000 km)

22,400 miles (36,000 km) GALILEO IRIDIUM

HUBBLE ° 0 GEO ORBIT TELESCOPE 6 T

I N

The geostationary orbit (GEO) is the B IO

R T A

most common, particularly for television O IN

R L satellites. A satellite in a geostationary orbit C

A N L I orbits the Earth in 23 hours and 56 minutes. L

O A P T Because this equals the rotation of the Earth, BI the satellite remains stationary relative to the OR E QU Earth's surface. A satellite in GEO orbits AT OR 22,400 miles (36,000 km) above the Earth. IA L O RB A IT INNER VAN ALLEN BELT Its greatest concentration is about 1,860 miles ELLIPTIC ORBIT CIRCULAR ORBIT (3,000 km) above the surface of the Earth. APOGEE PERIGEE B The point farthest The point closest to The same distance from the Earth the Earth OUTER VAN ALLEN BELT Primarily between 9,300 and 12,400 miles (15,000 and 22,400 20,000 km) above the surface of the Earth ORBITS LEO MEO GEO miles Distance from 125-1,900 miles 1,900-22,400 miles 22,400 miles the Earth (200-3,000 km) (3,000-36,000 km) (36,000 km) (36,000 km) Satellite cost Low Medium High is the altitude necessary for the orbit of a satellite Type of network Complex Moderate Simple VAN ALLEN BELTS so that it will remain Regions of the Earth's magnetosphere where charged particles are Satellite life 10-15 years 10-15 years 3-7 years stationary with respect to concentrated and protons and electrons move in spirals. There are two Coverage Short Medium Continuous the Earth's surface. zones of concentrated particles, the inner and outer radiation belts. 50 PERMANENT EXPLORATION SPACE EXPLORATION 51

CHANDRA X-RAY OBSERVATORY Cutting-Edge Technology Launch July 23, 1999 Useful life Designed for five years n July 1999 the X-ray observatory known as Chandra was put into orbit. Since Range of energy 0.1 to 10 keV 33 feet Cost (10 m) then, it has provided important information about the universe and its phenomena. $1,500 million I Organization NASA Chandra can make X-ray observations of the heavens with an angular resolution of 0.5 seconds of an arc, 1,000 times greater than the first orbital X-ray telescope, TELESCOPE PORT the Einstein Observatory. This characteristic permits it to detect sources of SPACECRAFT 55,000 light that are 20 times more diffuse. The group in charge of constructing MODULE the X-ray telescope had to develop technologies for processes pounds that had never been used before. (25,000 kg) WEIGHT ON EARTH

Data Transmission Deep Space Network The satellite system provides the structure and the SOLAR PANEL This international network of NASA radio antennas provides equipment necessary for the telescope and the scientific support for interplanetary missions in orbit around the Earth instruments to operate. A propulsion system gradually puts the OBSERVATION and for radio astronomy observations. It consists of three complexes. spacecraft into its final orbit, which is elliptical and extends far The telescopic camera PHOTOGRAPHIC TRANSMISSION Each one contains at least four stations equipped with large from Earth. In order to control the critical temperature of its takes X-ray images and GRATINGS sends them to the Deep CAMERA OPTICAL parabolic antennas and ultrasensitive receivers. components, Chandra has a special system of radiators and 1. BANK thermostats. The temperature near the X-ray mirrors has to be Space Network for SCIENTIFIC processing. INSTRUMENT maintained at the proper temperature to keep the mirrors in MODULE focus. The electrical energy of the satellite comes from solar panels and is stored in three batteries. HIGH- RESOLUTION HOW IMAGES ARE CREATED CAMERA The information compiled by Chandra is transferred to tables and images with coordinates of the x- and y-axes.

HIGH-RESOLUTION Goldstone TABLE MIRROR complex in 1 contains the time, California, position, and the Spanish Australian USA complex complex energy collected by Four Hierarchical Chandra during its X-Rays observations. Hyperboloids SOLAR PANEL LOW-GAIN ANTENNA

THE ANTENNAS Each complex has a system of at least four antennas.

Ω Antenna with a Distance Traveled by the Signal diameter of 85 feet CHANDRA X-RAY DEEP SPACE NETWORK (26 m) CONTROL CENTER The network is used for It is responsible for operating the communicating with the Ω High-gain antenna 4. observatory and receiving the images. spacecraft and for with a diameter of 2. 110 feet (34 m) The operators are responsible for receiving information. preparing commands, determining the Ω Low-gain antenna altitude, and monitoring the condition with a diameter of Elevation and the safety of the satellite. 110 feet (34 m) Pad Every eight hours Counter- Waveguide Chandra contacts the Deep Space Network. Ω Antenna with a weight JET PROPULSION diameter of 230 feet LABORATORY (70 m) receives information 3. from the Deep Space Network and Electronic Mirror X-AXIS Y-AXIS processes it. Equipment 2 Data extending 3 Data extending horizontally on vertically on the the grid grid FIVE YEARS BELOW GROUND WAS TO BE THE LIFETIME OF THE MISSION, BUT IT WAS SURPASSED. 52 PERMANENT EXPLORATION SPACE EXPLORATION 53

APPROACHING SOLAR PANELS MARS On Mars The principal source of energy Space Probes for the probe is the Sun. The principal objective The spacecraft has two solar of the MRO is to find panels with a total surface FINAL ORBIT C indications of water on the area of 430 square feet rom the first spacecraft, such as Mariner of the mid-1960s, The craft attains (40 sq m). an almost circular Martian surface. This could They also move to the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter launched in 2005 for a orbit, which is the help explain the evolution of from left to right. best-suited for the planet. The equipment F obtaining data. Once deployed, close-up study of Mars, space probes have made major obtains high-resolution images they turn on contributions. Most of them have been solar-powered; they are of the surface and permits a this axis. the size of an automobile, and they travel to predetermined mineral analysis. The weather Orbit on Mars is mapped daily. locations using rockets for thrust. These unmanned machines OPENING THE BRAKING PANELS They begin to be 3,744 They open in B To reduce the deployed, opening THE NUMBER OF are equipped with cameras, sensors, spectrometers, and other orbit. size of its orbit, upward. CELLS IN EACH PANEL the spacecraft makes sophisticated instruments that allow them to study the Mars FOR CONVERTING use of atmospheric planets, moons, comets, and asteroids in detail. braking over the next SOLAR ENERGY INTO six months. ELECTRICITY Number of HIGH-GAIN PARABOLIC ANTENNA The panels are orbits: 500. INITIAL ORBIT has a data transmission almost closed. SHARAD A The first orbit capacity 10 times greater RADAR described by the than that of previous probe was an orbiters. enormous ellipse. Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter (MRO) Duration: 35 hours. The main objective of this orbiting probe is to look for traces of water on the surface of Mars. NASA launched the probe on Aug. 12, 2005; it reached Mars on March 10, 2006, after traveling 72 million miles (116 million km) in seven months. Its mission is scheduled to end in 2010, although if the probe remains in good condition, its life could be extended by SOLAR PANEL another five years. 8 feet (2.53 m)

SOLAR PANEL

Martian Orbit Earth Orbit Mars

Sun

Earth 18 feet (5.35 m)

SCIENTIFIC PHASE 5 The probe began the phase of analyzing the POWERFUL INSTRUMENT MCS CRISM MARS ARRIVAL Used together, HIRISE, CTX, and CRISM provide very observes the Spectrometer 4 In March 2006 MRO surface of Mars. It found good information on one particular area. Martian separates the visible light from the passed under Mars's indications of the presence of water. atmosphere. infrared of the images into 100 TRAJECTORY southern hemisphere. colors to identify different 3 CORRECTION The probe began to HIRISE High-resolution camera minerals, especially those indicating CRUISING FLIGHT Four maneuvers decelerate. Provides excellent views of very small objects. Gives MARCI the presence of water. 2 The probe traveled were carried details of geologic structures and substantially LAUNCH provides color for 1 Launched on Aug. 7.5 months before out to attain the improves on the resolution of the earlier missions. the images. 12, 2005, from arriving at Mars. right orbit. Cape Canaveral 72 million miles HIRISE MGS CTX Mars Reconnaissance Mars Global Context Camera (116 million km) provides panoramic views of large Orbiter Surveyor THE DISTANCE TRAVELED BY areas. Helps to provide a context for THE PROBE TO REACH MARS the high-resolution images taken by TECHNICAL SPECIFICATIONS HIRISE and CRISM. Weight with fuel 4,800 pounds (2,180 kg) Temperature rating Down to -390° F ANTICIPATED VOLUME OF DATA TRANSMISSION of the panels (-200° C) Type of image Launch rocket Atlas V-401 DS1 (Comets) 15 Gigabytes taken by the CTX, which helps put Mission duration five years (with possible extension) Odyssey (Mars) 1,012 Gigabytes into context an Cost image taken by $ 720 million (Mars) 1,759 Gigabytes 30 cm/pixel 150 cm/pixel HIRISE CRISM CTX MGS the HIRISE. Cassini (Saturn) 2,550 Gigabytes 2,270 pounds Magellan (Venus) 3,740 Gigabytes Detailed image (1,031 kg) WEIGHT ON EARTH MRO MGS Odyssey MRO (Mars) 34,816 Gigabytes taken by HIRISE 54 PERMANENT EXPLORATION SPACE EXPLORATION 55

HOW IT GOT TO MARS CAMERAS SOLAR PANELS The voyage to Mars lasted seven months. Two navigational receive the light from Once inside the Martian atmosphere, cameras and two OMNIDIRECTIONAL SHORTWAVE ANTENNA the Sun and transform Martian Robots panoramic cameras are parachutes were deployed to slow the descent. transmits the information gathered by the robot it into energy. The solar mounted on the mast. to the Control Center on Earth. battery can function Navigation Panoramic only with sunlight. pirit and Opportunity, the twin robots launched in Aeroshell (NAVCAM) (PANCAM) PANCAM ELECTRONIC INERTIAL June 2003 from Earth that landed on Martian Panoramic DECELERATION 45O MODULE MEASUREMENT UNIT Generates about 1 360O provides information on S The aeroshell kicks in at an (PANCAM) soil in January 2004, were designed to travel altitude of 80 miles (130 km) position relative to the x, 140 watts over the surface of the Red Planet. Both vehicles above the surface in UHF y, and z axes. every four hours 16O RADIO order to decelerate VERTICAL from 10,000 to are part of NASA's Mars Exploration Rovers 0O ANGLE OF MAST 1,000 miles per VISION mission. They have tools that allow them to hour (16,000 to -16O 1,600 km/h.) drill into rock and take samples of the soil Parachutes ANTENNA

to analyze their chemical composition. PARACHUTES -45O 2 At six miles (10 km) The robots are located on opposite above the surface, NAVCAM sides of the planet to explore two the parachutes open to reduce the speed uniquely different places. They of the descent. each use nine cameras. SOLAR PANELS Photograph of the surface taken by Spirit FALL 3 The entry module is separated from the shield that protected it 70,000 from the heat. images Entry FRONT STEREO Water and Life on Mars module Obtained by Spirit in CAMERA BATTERY its first two years The main purpose of the mission conceived by NASA was to find indications whether there had ever been water on Mars. In Spirit's first mission, it was thought that small quantities of water might 4 ROCKETS have seeped into the eroded rock fragments. At 33 to 50 feet (10-15 m) above the surface, two The rocky Martian soil, it is believed, could rockets are ignited to slow have been affected by the action of water. So the fall. Then the air bags far, there is no evidence of the existence of are inflated to surround and protect the module. living microorganisms. Between ultraviolet ARM radiation and the oxidative nature of the soil, FOLDED life on Mars is not currently possible. The X-BAND question that remains is whether life might RADIO have existed at some time in the past or even today deep inside the Martian subsoil, where ARM Descent conditions for life might be more favorable. Track and photograph EXTENDED rockets taken by Opportunity Abrasion Microscope AIR BAGS Tool 5 The module and the air bags separate themselves 80,000 MECHANICAL from the parachutes and images ARM X-ray 2 inches/second (5 cm/s) fall to the Martian soil. The most important Spectrometer Obtained by instruments for Maximum velocity of forward motion on level ground Opportunity in its first analysis are located TECHNICAL SPECIFICATIONS two years on Mars at the extreme end Mössbauer of the arm. Spectrometer Date of landing Spirit: Jan. 3, 2004 DESTINATION Opportunity: Jan. 24, 2004 Vectran 6 The air bags deflate. air bags Cost of the mission The “petals” that $ 820 million protect the ship open. Progress per day 330 feet (100 m) The vehicle exits. INSTRUMENTS 7 The robot unfolds its Stabilization Plutonium Each spacecraft carries solar panels, camera, MOTION AND 0.01 ounces (2.8 g) and antenna mast. Useful life More than two years PROPULSION The robot has six wheels. Each one has The propulsion an individual electric motor that allows system allows it it to make turns up to 360°, since both to overcome The protective shield the two front wheels and the two rear small obstacles. consists of three petals wheels can be steered. and a central base. Vectran OPERATIONAL CYCLES air bags The robot is programmed to function in cycles of 30 seconds. 5 feet (1.50 m) 384 pounds 0 10 20 30

(174 kg) ADVANCE OBSERVATION WEIGHT ON EARTH 56 PERMANENT EXPLORATION SPACE EXPLORATION 57

ROBOTIC ARM Located on top of the principal framework of the space station. A Home in Space The crew can use it for moving SOLAR PANELS objects and astronauts. Remote provide the energy for Manipulation o live in space for long periods, it is necessary to have an the space station. ATV Mobile Support System environment that compensates for the lack of oxygen. Space THERMAL T PANELS Shell Replaceable stations have systems that provide oxygen to the crew and filter control the out the exhaled carbon dioxide. Life in a space station allows ISS temperature. Hand astronomers to study the effect of a long-term stay in space. Space stations also have laboratories for

conducting scientific experiments. SUPPLIES AND WASTE The Russian spacecraft ATV docks with the ISS for unloading supplies and removing waste. REMOTE ARM JEM Laboratory EUROPEAN LABORATORY Space Giant The European agency The International Space Station (ISS) is the result of contributed to this ORBIT experimental module. the integration of NASA's Freedom and the Russian It carries out 16 orbits around the Space Agency's Mir 2 projects. Construction began in 1998, Laboratory Biological Zero-Gravity Biological Earth each day at Laboratory and the large illustration shows what the ISS will look like an altitude of 210 Experiments when it is finished in 2010. Various countries have to 285 miles (335 contributed modules for the station. Its habitable surface to 460 km). area is equal to that of two Boeing 747s.

INTERNATIONAL SPACE STATION (ISS) Habitable space 42,400 cubic feet (1,200 cu m) ZVEZDA MODULE The principal contribution Speed 17,200 mph (27,700 km/h) by the Russians to the Chest of Drawers LEONARDO Length 350 feet (108 m) station. It is the first habitable compartment. MODULE Panel surface area 43,000 square feet (4,000 sq m) It holds three to six Beds astronauts. Laboratories 6 Shower Hatch

Kitchen and MANUFACTURER 22 feet Dispensary USA. Russia Japan European Union (6.8 m) Zvezda Module 474,000 pounds ISS (215,000 kg) Arm WEIGHT ON EARTH HOW IT IS BUILT 350 feet (108 m) Module 1 ROBOT The floor and The robot arm grabs the roof have a the module that is to be docked. different color to make orientation easier. 290 feet The main illustration 17,200 miles 2 MODULE (88 m) Deployable depicts the space The arm holding the JOINING module that is ready 3 Solar Panels station in its final per hour The modules are to be docked with docked using their phase of (27,700 km/h) Zarya pressurized construction. The speed of the shuttle adapters. Connecting 41,912 pounds Commanding and the ISS in orbit Node Between MIR Communication SKYLAB (19,051 kg) Modules ISS WEIGHT ON EARTH Zone

STAGES OF CONSTRUCTION June 2007 November 1998 December 1998 July 2000 October 2000 November 2000 February 2001 Novembre 2002 September 2006 S3/S4 Truss Zarya Module Unity Module Zvezda Module Z1-Truss and Ku-Band Antenna P6 Truss Laboratory Destiny P1 Truss P3/P4 Truss and Solar Arrays and Solar Arrays First section put into orbit. Connecting passage between the The structural and functional center neutralize the static electricity Structural module that has Central section. This is where scientific The P1 truss was added opposite The second port truss segment The second starboard truss Provided energy in the first living and work area modules. of the ISS. Entirely built and placed generated in the ISS and allows radiators for dissipating the heat experiments in microgravity the S1 truss as part of the was added, and its solar panels segment was added, and its stages of ISS assembly. Contributed by the European Union. into orbit by the Russians. communication with the Earth. generated in the station environments are performed. integrated truss assembly. were unfolded. solar panels were unfolded. 58 PERMANENT EXPLORATION SPACE EXPLORATION 59

HOW IMAGES ARE IMAGES The Hubble can photograph a large variety of objects—from galaxies and clusters TRANSMITTED of galaxies to stars on the verge of exploding (such as Eta Carinae) and planetary Spying on the Universe nebulae (such as the Cat's Eye). HUBBLE 1 Instructions for the pace telescopes such as the Hubble are artificial satellites put into orbit for observing desired observation are uploaded to the different regions of the universe. Unlike telescopes on Earth, space telescopes are above telescope, which then S transmits the image or the Earth's atmosphere. Therefore, they avoid the effects of atmospheric turbulence, other observational data after the which degrades the quality of telescopic images. Moreover, observation the atmosphere prevents the observation of the is completed. stars and other objects in certain wavelengths STAR ETA SUPERNOVA CAT'S EYE (especially the infrared), which substantially CARINAE NEBULA

decreases what might be seen in the SHUTTER Because it is outside the atmosphere, Hubble photographs are sharper than During observations those taken by terrestrial telescopes. heavens. Space telescopes do not have to it opens to allow light to enter. TDRS SATELLITE contend with light pollution, which is a 2 Receives the data from problem for observatories near urban areas. Hubble and sends them to a receiving antenna at 3 EARTH SECONDARY MIRROR the White Sands Test From New Mexico, data are Other Telescopes Located inside the Facility in New Mexico. transmitted to the Goddard telescope tube. Light Space Flight Center in The Spitzer telescope, launched in reflects from the Greenbelt, Maryland, where August 2003, was designed to secondary mirror to the the information is analyzed. photograph very distant objects. It is The Hubble Space Telescope camera. expected to be deactivated in 2008. SOHO, developed jointly by NASA and ESA, shows HIGH-GAIN ANTENNA The Hubble was put into orbit on April 25, 1990, by NASA and ESA. It is an artificial satellite receives orders from the Earth in detail the interactions between the Sun whose instruments are directed toward outer space. The telescope can be remotely controlled and sends back as TV signals the and the Earth. Chandra, launched in 1999, by astronomers at different locations. The telescope's computers point the telescope in the desired photos that the Hubble takes. carries instruments that provide direction, and sensitive light detectors and cameras make the desired observations, in many cases information about the position and energy producing impressive vistas of the cosmos. In 1993, because of a fault in the primary mirror, a of celestial X-ray sources. corrective lens called COSTAR had to be installed to correct the focus of the telescope.

TECHNICAL SPECIFICATIONS Launch date April 25, 1990 Orbital altitude 370 miles (600 km) 24,250 Orbital period 97 minutes Type of telescope Ritchey-Chretien Reflector 46 feet pounds Organization SOLAR PANEL NASA and ESA (14 m) (11,000 kg) PRIMARY, OR Energy is provided by PRINCIPAL, MIRROR directional solar SPITZER Useful life 20 years (until 2010) WEIGHT ON EARTH is 8 feet (2.4 m) in antennas that convert observes the universe Launch cost $2 billion diameter; captures and in infrared. focuses the light. sunlight into electricity. Primary mirror diameter 8 feet (2.40 m) 14 feet (4.26 m)

HOW IT CAPTURES IMAGES KEY The Hubble uses a system of mirrors that receive the light and cause it to converge until it reaches a focus. COSTAR The optical device that Direction corrected the defective of the light EXTERNAL LAYER original mirror of the protects the telescope Hubble. The device was put Secondary Secondary from external damage. in place by space shuttle SOHO Mirror Mirror During repair missions, astronauts in 1993. Put into orbit in 1995, it the astronauts inspect it takes images of the Sun. to look for particles and A scientific debris to be removed. instrument where the image is formed Secondary Mirror

Primary Primary Primary Mirror Mirror Mirror WFPC WFPC WFPC CHANDRA SOLAR PANEL The only X-ray ADVANCED observatory INCOMING LIGHT LIGHT REFLECTION IMAGE FORMED (WF/PC) CAMERA 1 The light enters through an 2 The rays coming from the 3 The rays go through a hole Primary FOR aperture and is reflected in primary mirror go to the in the primary mirror and electronic camera SURVEYS the primary mirror. Then secondary mirror, which are then concentrated in the light converges toward reflects the light and returns the focal plane, where they a secondary mirror. it to the primary mirror. form an image. 60 PERMANENT EXPLORATION SPACE EXPLORATION 61

Space Junk What Can Be Done? ince the time that the first satellite (Sputnik) was launched One course of action would in 1957, near space has become overcrowded with a be to ensure that the junk is SAIL SPACE PROBE CABLE returned to Earth and not allowed The sail would be Impacts the satellite, A cable drags the S deployed when the large amount of debris. Satellite batteries that have to orbit around it. But the most changing its orbit satellite to lower exploded and parts of rockets and spacecraft still orbiting that has been done is to remove satellite has stopped and pushing it in a orbits, and the satellite remains from Earth orbit. functioning. Solar wind predetermined satellite disintegrates the Earth form a genuine cosmic garbage dump. These would push the satellite direction. when it enters the variously sized objects pose a danger to satellites out of its orbit. atmosphere. and spacecraft because of the damage that would be caused by a collision—the particles move at ORIGIN AND LOCATION 5% speeds of 19,000 to 43,000 miles per hour Ninety-five percent of the 21% Active objects in space around the Inactive Satellites Satellites (30,000 to 70,000 km/h). Earth are junk. NASA is studying 43% rockets that do not get into orbit 31% Satellite but fall to Earth to avoid Rockets Fragments generating more junk. and Rocket Space Junk Stages Any object launched from Earth that is no longer useful but is still orbiting the Earth is considered space junk. Rockets used only once can remain in orbit, as do pieces of spacecraft or apparatuses ejected intentionally so that they would not enter the wrong tons of junk in less than orbit. Space junk can even include lost objects. In 1965 1,200 miles (2,000 km) Most of it consists of satellites that no longer astronaut Edward White lost a glove, which kept 2,000 operate and burnt-out stages of rockets. orbiting the Earth for a month at 17,400 miles per hour (28,000 km/h). SIZE OF SPACE JUNK More than 11,000 objects and millions of tiny particles have been cataloged.

LESS THAN 0.4 INCH (1 CM) Very small particles cause 30,000,000+ superficial damage.

FROM 0.4 TO 4 INCHES (1-10 CM) These particles can knock holes in satellites. 100,000+

MORE THAN 4 INCHES (10 CM) These objects can cause irreparable damage. These are the objects that are cataloged LOW EARTH and tracked from Earth. 11,000+ ORBIT 250 MILES (400 KM) The ISS and the Hubble telescope are in low Earth orbits.

OBJECTS IN SPACE MEDIUM EARTH BY COUNTRY ORBIT Since 1957, 25,000 objects TYPICALLY 400 TO 1,200 MILES (700 TO have been launched into 2,000 KM). low orbit. This is the orbit for telecommunications and environmental satellites. GEOSTATIONARY ORBIT 22,250 MILES HIGH ORBIT (35,800 KM) 62,000 MILES Many spy satellites, which 12,000 JUNK (100,000 KM) contribute to a significant Astronomical The approximate number of IN OPERATION U.S.S.R. United China France Japan India ESA Others part of the junk, are satellites operate at objects currently in orbit /C.I.S. States NUCLEAR SPILLS in this type of orbit. the highest altitudes. VALLES MARINERIS HUMAN TRACKS 64-65 TOWARD VENUS AND PLUTO 72-73 The grand canyon of Mars is one Visiting Other Worlds of the most impressive geologic MARS IN THE SIGHTS 66-67 CLOSER TO THE SUN 74-75 features of the entire solar system. It is some 2,400 miles JUPITER IN FOCUS 68-69 THE ROAD BEYOND 76-77 (4,000 km) long and up to 6.2 miles (10 km) deep. A VIEW OF SATURN 70-71

pace exploration has allowed us planet Earth and the need to care for it. spacecraft exploring or are on their way ever farther away has always been with access to worlds believed to The future of planetary exploration to explore other bodies of the solar us. Therefore, each one of our have been inaccessible, and it appears promising. The next few years system—Mars, Saturn, Jupiter, Venus, accomplishments constitutes another S has also helped the human race will see ever more interesting and even Pluto. The necessity of taking step forward in our knowledge of space to become conscious of the discoveries. Right now there are on large projects and traveling to sites for the sake of all humanity. 64 VISITING OTHER WORLDS SPACE EXPLORATION 65

Neptune Pluto Human Tracks Visited only by Voyager Officially it is no longer 2, which took considered a planet. Because of photographs in 1989 its small size, it has been called ncient astronomers saw faint points of light that seemed to move Uranus a dwarf planet since 2006. among the stars. These objects were called planets, and each one of In 1986 Voyager 2 A flew by Uranus and them was given the name of a god. In the 16th and 17th centuries, took photographs. scientists came to recognize that the planets were physical bodies that revolved around the Sun. However, it was only recently, in the late 20th century, that technological advances permitted the direct study and the magnificent close-up photographs of the planets in the solar system.

Saturn The Voyager and Cassini- Huygens missions have studied its rings in detail. TITAN The Huygens probe landed on the surface of Titan, the largest moon of Saturn.

It is believed to be The Planets a frozen volcano. Enlarged From the sightings by Galileo Titan, a moon area to the construction of space of Saturn stations capable of sheltering humans, interest in revealing the mysteries of the planets has never ceased. Detailed studies of the rings of Saturn, the patches of ice at the poles of Mars, the exploration of various comets and asteroids, Enlarged and the flybys of the great moons of the major area planets are among the most striking results of space exploration to date.

Jupiter Some probes flew by the planet The atmosphere The surface of and took photographs. Galileo is in red. the moon is in was in orbit for seven years, green and blue. carrying out the most in-depth studies of its larger moons. 350

SUCCESSFUL photographs MISSIONS 5 of Titan's atmosphere and surface were obtained by ESA.

Viking 2 Chryse Planitia Utopia Planitia Viking 1 Mons Pathfinder Isidis Mars, Olympus Planitia the Most Visited MARTIAN A Mars landing was the top In total, there Mariner Valley Opportunity Guszev SURFACE Spirit priority of the space have been 38 agencies. The Red Planet, missions to Mars, the one that most of which resembles Earth, might harbor or could have WERE harbored life, according to 16 SUCCESSFUL experts. This is the place where the most significant Mars missions landed.

The Moon The Sun

The obsession to carry out The Skylab space station obtained successful missions to the Moon Earth more than 150,000 images of the began with the programs of the Soviet The International Sun between 1974 and 1979. The space Union at the end of the 1950s in the Space Station (ISS) probe Ulysses has studied the Sun's context of the space race with the orbits the Earth with poles and the effects of its magnetic United States. It was President John F. astronauts onboard. field. Its mission continues. The Kennedy who in 1963 announced that They carry out astronomical observatory SOHO is the United States intended to put a various experiments. dedicated to studying the internal man on the Moon before the end of the Space telescopes such structure of the Sun and the origin of decade. In 1969, Apollo 11 landed on as the Hubble also solar-wind particles. SOHO discovered the Moon, beginning a series of orbit the Earth. 100 comets, including a number that successful manned missions. crashed into the Sun.

FACE OF THE MOON VISIBLE FROM Earth's THE EARTH Moon Enlarged area

17 Sea of Rains KEY 2 Sea of 15 Serenity 21 The most significant Sea of missions to land on 13 17 Crisis the Moon Ocean of 4 Storms Sea of Venus 9 Tranquility xx Apollo The most important Mercury 20 The Mariner 10 mission explored 3 6 Luna missions: 1 11 16 xx the planet, and Messenger will 12 14 Venera (Soviet Surveyor arrive there in 2011. 16 Sea of xx program), ESA's Sea of Fecundity Venus Express, and Sea of Nectar Mariner 10 was Clouds Magellan (NASA) able to photograph 21 MISSIONS 57 SUCCESSFUL LANDINGS LANDED ON percent of 7 ON THE MOON 12 VENUS. the planet. 66 VISITING OTHER WORLDS SPACE EXPLORATION 67

TECHNICAL SPECIFICATIONS Launch April 7, 2001 Earth Seen from Mars Mars in the Sights Arrived on Mars Oct. 24, 2001 Seen from Mars, the Earth is a magnificent blue star. Cost of the mission $332 million From there, one can see the linked motions of the here was a time when it was thought that Mars, our closest neighbor, harbored life. Earth and the Moon, as well as the combined phases of both. Weight 1,600 pounds (725 kg) This photograph was taken by the Mars Odyssey in April Perhaps for this reason it is the planet that has been most explored by various spacecraft Useful life 10 years 2006. Thanks to the spacecraft's infrared vision system, it THE BLUE PLANET A view of Earth from T was able to detect the temperatures on Earth, later from the decade of the 1960s onward, and it is therefore the one we know the best, apart Mars as recorded by from the Earth. Mariner 9 in 1971 and Vikings 1 and 2 in 1976 revealed the existence of valleys confirmed by Earth-based sensors. Mars Odyssey 7 feet and immense volcanic mountains. In 2001 the United States launched the Mars Odyssey (2.20 m) mission, which indicated that liquid water exists at great depths. Discovery The new observations of Mars made by the Odyssey suggest that the north pole HINGE has about one third more underground Mars Odyssey Mission MECHANISM ice than the south pole. Scientists also Named after , the probe was launched by NASA GRS believe that microbial life could have 2001: A Space Odyssey 8.5 feet (2.60 m) from Cape Canaveral on April 7, 2001. It entered into Martian orbit in Gamma-Ray developed on a planet other than Earth. October of the same year. The Mars Odyssey was designed for a number of Spectrometer functions, such as taking images in the visible and infrared spectrum, studying weighs 70 pounds (30 kg) HIGH-GAIN the chemical composition of the planet's surface, and investigating the and consumes 30 watts. It ANTENNA measures the abundance and existence of possible sources of heat. One of its purposes was also to find MARIE distribution of 20 chemical An experiment measuring Mars's traces of hydrogen and thus water on Mars. Finally, the Mars Odyssey was used elements on Mars. radiation environment in support tasks for other Mars missions, acting as a radio-signal repeater SOLAR between Earth and probes on the Martian surface. THERMAL SHIELD It weighs 7 pounds (3 kg) and consumes 7 PANELS watts. It is supposed to measure radiation DOOR produced by the Sun or other stars and celestial bodies that reach the orbit of Mars.

HEAD OF THE SUPPORT GAMMA-RAY SENSOR

NEUTRON SPECTROMETER

LAUNCH MARS ARRIVAL MONTHS APRIL 7, 2001 OCT. 24, 2001 The time it took The spacecraft Mars The spacecraft Mars VIDEOCAMERAS Mars Odyssey to Odyssey is launched toward Odyssey reaches the orbit reach its target of Mars and begins its 7 Mars atop a Delta 2 rocket. scientific studies. NEUTRON ENERGY DETECTOR

EARTH UHF ANTENNA THE SUN AT TIME OF ARRIVAL MARS MARS ODYSSEY AT TIME OF LAUNCH EARTH MARS

CURRENT LOCATION OF THE ODYSSEY SURFACE THEMIS It is orbiting Mars. It OF MARS Thermal Emission Imaging System MAY 2001 JUNE 2001 JULY 2001 SEPTEMBER 2001 discovered the existence of Unlike the Earth, basalt Weighing 2,000 pounds (911 kg) and consuming The spacecraft tests its The gamma-ray The probe activates its The probe begins to use ice, which was seen as a dunes are common on 14 watts, this camera operates in the infrared potential source of water for a spectrum. Its images allow conclusions to be cameras by sending an spectrometer's protective auxiliary engines to adjust the atmosphere to brake Mars. The surface is drawn about the composition of the surface image of the Earth at a hood is opened. The sensor its trajectory. The thrust its speed, shape its orbit, future manned mission to the flat and reminiscent based on the spectrum of the infrared image distance of 2 million miles begins to work. lasts 23 seconds. and begin its mission. Red Planet. of a desert. and on the recorded temperature. (3 million km). 68 VISITING OTHER WORLDS SPACE EXPLORATION 69 Jupiter in Focus

he fifth planet of the solar system was visited by ATMOSPHERIC Pioneer 1 and 2, Voyager 1 and 2, and PROBE Galileo DESCENT TO JUPITER Released when Galileo In spite of its mission being plagued by technical T arrived at Jupiter. It Cassini. However, the most significant problems, Galileo provided astronomers with a 1 was used to study the visitor was Galileo, launched by NASA on Oct. planet's atmosphere. huge amount of information during its 35 orbits Galileo released the atmospheric around Jupiter. The useful life of the probe, which cost probe, which descended into 18, 1989. Galileo consisted of an orbiter and an $1.5 billion, extended five years longer than planned. Jupiter's atmosphere. The probe atmospheric probe. After a long voyage, the LOW-GAIN The probe contributed to the discovery of 21 new was provided with a deceleration ANTENNA satellites around Jupiter. Galileo sent large amounts of and a descent module. atmospheric probe penetrated some 125 miles (200 data and 14,000 images to Earth. It found traces of km) into the atmosphere of Jupiter on Dec. 7, 1995, salt water on the surface of the moon Europa and evidence that it probably also exists on the moons transmitting data about the atmosphere's chemical Ganymede and Callisto. Likewise, it provided 2 composition and Jupiter's meteorological activity. The information about volcanic activity on the moon Io. It The deceleration module also showed an almost invisible ring around Jupiter included protective heat orbiter continued sending information until it crashed consisting of meteorite dust. From the moment it was shields and thermal control hardware for the into the gaseous giant on Sept. 21, 2003. launched until its disintegration, the spacecraft phases of the mission traveled almost 2.9 billion miles (4.6 billion km) with leading up to the entry barely 2,000 pounds (925 kg) of combustible fuel. into the atmosphere. More than 800 scientists worked on the project. DECELERATION MODULE Trajectory TECHNICAL SPECIFICATIONS Galileo was designed to study the atmosphere of Jupiter, its Date of arrival Dec. 7, 1995 ANTENNA satellites, and the magnetosphere of the planet. To get there, it BOOSTERS Cost of the mission $1.5 billion did not use a direct path but had to perform an assisted trajectory, PARACHUTES DESCENT passing by Venus on Feb. 10, 1990. Then it flew by the Earth twice and Useful life 14 years MODULE arrived at Jupiter on Dec. 7, 1995. The probe succeeded in sending SOLAR PANEL Weight without the probe 4,900 pounds (2,223 kg) information of unprecedented quality with a low-gain antenna about Organization NASA 3 the satellites of Jupiter, its moon Europa, and various examples of PARACHUTES volcanic activity in its moon Io. It also contributed to the discovery of 14 years A parachute 8 feet (2.5 21 new satellites around Jupiter. The mission was deactivated in 2003, m) in diameter was was the duration of the Galileo used to separate the and the vehicle was sent to crash into the planet. The purpose of this mission—from October 1989 to descent module from termination was to avoid future collision with its moon Europa that the deceleration module September 2003. 23 feet and to control the might have contaminated its ice; scientists believe that extraterrestrial LOW-GAIN (7 m) microscopic life may have evolved on Europa. ANTENNA velocity of the fall during the atmospheric descent phase. 4 LAUNCH EARTH FLYBYS ARRIVAL AT JUPITER The descent module carried 20 feet (6.2 m) six scientific instruments. OCT. 18, 1989 DECEMBER 1990/AUGUST 1992 DEC. 7, 1995 During its 57 minutes of Galileo was launched by NASA Galileo passes by the Earth on two occasions Galileo arrived at Jupiter and active life, the probe performed all the from the space shuttle Atlantis to get the necessary boost toward Jupiter. began the scientific studies that measurements and continued until 2003. It completed with Jupiter as its destination. MAGNETIC experiments that had been 35 orbits around the planet. SENSORS. ATMOSPHERE OF JUPITER planned by the scientists. Composed of 90 percent hydrogen and 10 percent helium. The colors of the atmospheric clouds depend on their chemical composition. The clouds spread with the violent Atmospheric Probe turbulence of the atmospheric winds. Once Galileo arrived at the planet Jupiter, it released a small probe that fell through the atmosphere. This descent probe carried scientific instruments and the subsystems required to keep them active and transmit the data to the orbiter for storage for later transmittal to Earth. During its 57 minutes of active life in the Jovian atmosphere, the descent provided a number of discoveries, including a surprising lack of water in the upper layers of the Jovian clouds. SURFACE OF IO EUROPA is one of the moons of Jupiter. It The areas in red consist of dirty is notable for its brilliant color, TECHNICAL SPECIFICATIONS ice formed by water mixed with which is caused by various sulfur Entry into the Dec. 7, 1995 rocky material that slowly compounds on its surface. Io is atmosphere 3 feet VENUS FLYBY IDA FLYBY GASPRA FLYBY seeped into the ice and once (0.86 m) 417,000 miles (671,000 km) Active life 57 minutes FEB. 10, 1990 AUG. 28, 1993 OCT. 29, 1991 there began to freeze. The from Jupiter and was discovered Weight 750 pounds (339 kg) Galileo transmitted Galileo came close to Galileo approached the “cracks” are caused by the by Galileo in 1610. data from Venus. the asteroid Ida. asteroid 951 Gaspra. breakup of the ice. Organization NASA 4 feet (1.25 m) 70 VISITING OTHER WORLDS SPACE EXPLORATION 71

THE RINGS OF Cassini-Huygens Descent onto Titan A View of Saturn SATURN The information sent by Huygens and relayed by Cassini took 67 minutes to On Jan. 14, 2005, the six instruments of Huygens worked without travel from Saturn to the Earth. Although it could only see a small section of pause during the two-and-a-half-hour descent. They confirmed, for he longedΩfor return to Saturn was the result of a are a conglomerate of ice Titan, the apparatus was able to answer some key questions. For example, the probe example, that the gaseous blanket that surrounds Titan consists primarily particles and powdered did not find liquid, but it did find signs that the surface had a crust that was hard on rock orbiting the planet. of nitrogen and that its yellowish color is caused by the presence of scientific alliance between NASA and the European The rings are 4.5 billion top and soft underneath, which was flooded from time to time. Investigators said that complex hydrocarbons, which are formed when sunlight breaks down T Space Agency (ESA). On Oct. 15, 1997, after a number years old. Titan could have very infrequent precipitation, but when it occurred it could be atmospheric methane. The thermometer measured –400° F (–203° C) at abundant and cause flooding. Moreover, it appears that some of the conditions for life an altitude of 31 miles (50 km), which was the lowest temperature of years of development, the fruit of this collaboration lifted to arise exist on Titan, although it is too cold for life to have started. recorded during the entire mission. off toward this enormous gas giant. The mission of Cassini, the 1 mother ship, was the exploration of Saturn. It carried a smaller probe, TECHNICAL SPECIFICATIONS SEPARATION The Huygens probe Huygens, that was to land on Saturn's largest moon, Titan, and transmit Date of launch Oct. 15, 1997 separates from Cassini. images and sounds from the surface. The Huygens probe accomplished this Begins Saturn orbit July 1, 2004 22 feet Closest approach prodigious feat, demonstrating once again the capacity of humans to respond 11,800 miles (19,000 km) (6.7 m) to the challenge of frontiers. Weight 12,300 pounds (5,600 kg) 2 Organizations NASA and ESA DESCENT 13 feet lasted 150 minutes (4 m) and came within 790 miles (1,270 km) of the surface. Trajectory HIGH-GAIN 12,300 The trajectory of Cassini-Huygens was long and known as a gravity assist). Finally, and after almost seven ANTENNA complicated, because it included strategic flybys of Venus years, traveling some 2.2 billion miles (3.5 billion km), the pounds (1998 and 1999), Earth (1999), and Jupiter (2000). Each one of spacecraft arrived at its destination. It brought an end to the 3 long wait since the last visit of a probe to Saturn—the 1981 (5,600 kg) these encounters was used to increase the craft's velocity and FIRST to send the spacecraft in the appropriate direction (a maneuver flyby by Voyager 2. WEIGHT ON EARTH PARACHUTE helped decelerate the probe during VENUS 1 THE EARTH SATURN its fall. APRIL 1998 AUGUST 1999 JUNE 2004 Cassini flies by Venus Cassini flies by the Earth at an After seven years en route, Cassini arrives at at an altitude of 180 altitude of 730 miles (1,171 km). Saturn and enters into an orbit around it. miles (284 km). THE SURFACE 4 OF TITAN is obscured by a deep SECOND layer of clouds. It is PARACHUTE replaced the possible that many first. chemical compounds EXTENSION FOR THE similar to those that preceded life on Earth MAGNETOMETER exist in a frozen state LOW-GAIN at high altitudes. ANTENNA (1 OF 2) 5 THIRD PARACHUTE TRAJECTORY FOR SATURN AND TITAN replaced the Here is a drawing showing some of the 74 orbits planned for the mission. second.

Equatorial Upward Meeting between Rotation Huygens and Titan Trajectory VENUS 2 JUPITER 6 JUNE 1999 DECEMBER 2000 Cassini flies by Venus Cassini flies by Jupiter at DEPLOYS ITS at an altitude of 380 an altitude of 6,042,000 LANDING FEET Initial The probe prepares miles (600 km). miles (9,723,896 km). Titan's Orbit RADAR Orbit for touchdown. TECHNICAL SPECIFICATIONS: HUYGENS Saturn Date of release Dec. 25, 2004 Seen from the North Pole Occultation Weight 703 pounds (319 kg) Orbit Organizations NASA and ESA 7 Equatorial Date of landing Jan. 14, 2005 IMPACT ON Rotation THE SURFACE Spacecraft TELESCOPES Descent by parachute 2.5 hours The spacecraft Thruster strikes the (1 of 2) surface of Titan..

770 PLACEMENT PHOTO OF JUPITER AND IO 22 feet 8 The moon Io, the closest to the planet ANTENNA FOR THE GTR (RADIOISOTOPE OF HUYGENS (6.8 m) Jupiter, is composed of a rocky silicate pounds RADIO SUBSYSTEMS THERMOELECTRIC ON CASSINI LANDING material. The nucleus has a radius of 560 GENERATOR) The probe took miles (900 km) and may consist of iron. This AND THE PLASMA (350 kg) photographs and data is the photo taken by the Cassini probe. PROBES (1 OF 3) WEIGHT ON EARTH 9 feet from the surface of Titan. (2.7 m) 72 VISITING OTHER WORLDS SPACE EXPLORATION 73

SPECTROMETER 1 The Spacecraft TECHNICAL SPECIFICATIONS Toward Venus and Pluto will study the interaction of Launched Jan. 19, 2006 Pluto with the solar The central structure of New Horizons is an aluminum Flyby Pluto he New Horizons mission, launched by NASA in January 2006, is a wind to determine if cylinder that weighs 1,025 pounds (465 kg), of which 66 it possesses a pounds (30 kg) are accounted for by scientific instruments. All its Cost $650 million magnetosphere. voyage that will carry the spacecraft to the limits of the solar systems and devices have backups. The spacecraft carries a Weight 1,025 pounds (465 kg) T system and beyond. The most important goal of the voyage is to sophisticated guidance-and-control system for orientation. It has Organization NASA cameras to follow the stars and help find the right direction. visit Pluto, a dwarf planet (a designation made in 2006 by the These cameras have a star map International Astronomical Union). The ship flew past Jupiter to gain with 3,000 stars stored in their memory. Ten times enough speed to get to Pluto in the year 2015. It will have six months to each second, one of the make observations of Pluto, after which it will continue its voyage toward the cameras takes a wide-angle image of region of the solar system known as the Kuiper belt. space and 2.5 feet (0.70 m) compares it with the stored map.

7 feet (2.1 m) ANTENNA High-gain, 7 feet (2.2 m) in diameter, its purpose is to New Horizons Mission communicate with An unmanned space mission by NASA whose destination is to the Earth. explore Pluto and the Kuiper belt. The probe was launched from Cape Canaveral on Jan. 19, 2006. It flew past Jupiter in RADIOMETER February 2007 to take advantage of the planet's gravity and measures the increase its speed. It will arrive at Pluto on July 14, 2015. Finally, the atmospheric composition probe will fly by one or more objects in the Kuiper belt. The principal and temperature. objectives of the mission are to study the form and structure of Pluto and its satellite Charon, analyze the variability of the temperature on Pluto's surface, look for additional satellites around RADIOISOTOPE Pluto, and obtain high-resolution images. The power source for the GENERATOR LOW-GAIN 2015 spacecraft is a radioisotope thermoelectric generator. provides energy for ANTENNA propulsion of the spacecraft. The spacecraft New Auxiliary to the high-gain THRUSTERS antenna, which it can replace Horizons will arrive at The spacecraft carries in case of breakdown TELESCOPIC six thrusters to increase Pluto on July 14, 2015. its speed during flight. LAUNCH JUPITER FLYBY KUIPER FLYBY CAMERA will map Pluto and JAN. 19, 2006 FEBRUARY 2007 2016-20 gather high-quality The New Horizons probe is The probe flies by Jupiter to take The probe flies by one or geologic data. launched from Cape Canaveral advantage of the gravity of the more Kuiper belt objects. toward Jupiter, Pluto, and the planet on its journey toward Pluto. Kuiper belt. 6 feet TECHNICAL SPECIFICATIONS (1.8 m) The Venus Express Mission Launch Nov. 9, 2005 Venus is a little smaller than the Earth and has a dense Cost $260 million atmosphere. Because it is located at slightly more than Weight 2,700 pounds (1,240 kg) 5 feet 67 million miles (108 million km) from the Sun, it receives (1.5 m) almost twice the solar energy as the surface of the Earth. The Organization ESA Venus Express is the first mission of the European Space Agency to Venus. The scientific aims include studying in detail the atmosphere, the plasma medium, the surface of the SPECTROMETER 1 SPECTROMETER 2 SOLAR planet, and surface-atmosphere interactions. It was launched measures the atmospheric operates on PANELS ultraviolet rays.. from the Baikonur cosmodrome on Nov. 9, 2005. The mission temperature. capture the energy from will last two Venus days, some 500 terrestrial days. The the Sun that spacecraft entered into orbit on April 11, 2006. powers the mission. LAUNCH ARRIVAL AT VENUS Nov. 9, 2005 April 11, 2006 CAMERA MAGNETOMETER captures images in measures magnetic the ultraviolet. fields and their direction. STAY ON INTERSECTING THE ARRIVAL AT PLUTO VENUS ORBIT OF MARS HIGH-GAIN JULY 14, 2015 500 ANTENNA transmits data to APRIL 7, 2006 New Horizons flies by Pluto and its moon terrestrial Earth. The probe traverses Charon. It sends to Earth data about the days the Martian orbit. surface, the atmosphere, and the climate. 74 VISITING OTHER WORLDS SPACE EXPLORATION 75

Closer to the Sun GRM A device that studies he space probe Ulysses was launched from the space shuttle on Oct. 6, RADIAL ANTENNA the gamma rays DUST contains four devices for emitted by the Sun 1990. It completed its first orbit around the Sun in 1997 and since then An internal device to different experiments. T has carried out one of the most in-depth studies ever about our star. The study the energy composition of the VHM probe's orbits allow it to study the heliosphere at all latitudes, from the heliosphere's particles A device for studying and cosmic dust. the magnetic field of equator to the poles, in both the northern and southern hemispheres of the the heliosphere Sun. The joint NASA and ESA mission is the first to orbit around the poles of the Sun. It orbits the Sun at 10 miles per second (15.4 km/s). SWOOPS An instrument that URAP studies the ionic is used to composition of the measure the radio solar wind and the PASSES OVER THE 1 2 3 waves and plasma Solar Wind and the Earth SOLAR NORTH POLE particle material in the solar wind. Thanks to its intense nuclear activity the Sun expels a June-October 1995 Beginning of Beginning of the Beginning of million tons of particles per second into space. This September-December 2001 the first orbit: second orbit: the third orbit: November 2007-January 2008 particle flow forms a low-density plasma that extends the 1992 1998 2004 Sun's magnetic field and interacts with the Earth's magnetosphere. The area where the solar wind no longer has an effect is called the heliopause.

SHOCKWAVE The solar wind collides with the Earth's magnetic field.

SUN EARTH HI-SCALE Device designed to JUPITER measure the energy SOLAR Flies by the planet and uses it present in ions and WIND for a gravity assist electrons of the interplanetary medium PASSES OVER THE SOLAR SOUTH POLE June-November 1994 / September 2000 January 2001 / November 2006-April 2007 100 days HIGH-GAIN ANTENNA The antenna is used BANDS OF for communication MAGNETIC FIELD Generated by the bipolar FIRST ORBIT SECOND ORBIT with Earth stations. REACTION TANK characteristic of the Earth A tank of fuel used for correcting ORDER OF THE HELIOSPHERE HELIOSPHERE CHAOS the probe's orbit Ulysses completed its first solar orbit in The information obtained by the Ulysses probe in December 1997 after having passed over the the year 2000 showed a structural change in the north pole. The heliosphere's structure was seen solar wind during the period of maximum solar to be bimodal—that is, activity. Ulysses did not the solar winds were detect patterns in faster at greater which wind speed inclinations of the orbit corresponded with ANTENNA CABLE CONTROL 11 feet A device onboard the spacecraft to (beginning at 36°). inclination, and in (3.3 m) change the position of the antennas During the first orbit, general the solar wind there was relatively was slower and more little solar activity. variable. GOLD COVERING It serves as insulation to help THIRD ORBIT maintain the spacecraft's instruments at a temperature below ANTENNA CABLE CHANGES IN THE MAGNETIC FIELD 95° F (35° C) while the fuel is kept There is one on each side of After having survived the difficult at a temperature above 41° F (5° C). the spacecraft. They are pounding of the solar activity during THERMOELECTRIC deployed after liftoff. its second orbit, the Ulysses probe RADIOISOTOPE TECHNICAL SPECIFICATIONS: ULYSSES began a third orbit around the Sun's GENERATOR Launch date Oct. 6, 1990 provides electric energy poles in February 2007. Solar Weight when launched 815 pounds (370 kg) activity was expected to be at a for propelling the Weight of the instruments minimum, as it was in 1994, but the spacecraft in space. 1,200 pounds (550 kg) 10 miles Orbital inclination 80.2° with respect to the ecliptic poles of the magnetic field are reversed. (15.4 km) per second Organization NASA and ESA (joint mission) THE VELOCITY REACHED BY THE ULYSSES PROBE 76 VISITING OTHER WORLDS SPACE EXPLORATION 77 The Road Beyond he space probes Voyager 1 and 2 were launched by NASA to study the outer solar system. Voyager 1 was launched on SOLAR SENSOR T Sept. 5, 1977, and flew by Jupiter in 1979 and Saturn in Golden Record 1980. Voyager 2 lifted off on Aug. 20, 1977, then flew by Jupiter PIONEER 10 The Voyagers carried the recorded greetings and Saturn to reach Uranus in 1986 and Neptune in 1989. Voyager AND 11 of humanity in a golden, 12-inch record. Each In 1973 Pioneer 10 spacecraft had one, with information about life on 2 is the only probe that has visited both of these planets. Both became the first Earth, photographs, music of Mozart, Bach, and spacecraft to fly by Beethoven, greetings in more than 50 languages, probes have now become the furthest distant artificial Jupiter. It was followed and the brain waves of a woman (Ann Druyan, the by Pioneer 11, which instruments ever sent into space by humans. made a flyby of Jupiter wife of the now-deceased astronomer Carl Sagan, in 1974 and Saturn in who supervised this collection). If the message finds 1979. Pioneer 11 stopped anyone who can respond, it will be, in the words of working in 1995. Signals Sagan, “humanity's most important discovery.” were received from Pioneer 10 until 2003.

THE FRONTIER OF THE SOLAR SYSTEM PARABOLIC ANTENNA WHAT THE RECORD IS LIKE BOW Voyager 2 A binary code Cartridge A representation of SHOCK Voyager 2 that defines the the waves produced speed for listening by the video signal Voyager 1 to the sounds HELIOSPHERE Binary code that marks the time SOLAR TRAJECTORY EARTH View of the record SYSTEM The Voyager probe passed by Jupiter in 1979 and by Saturn JUPITER in 1980. The Voyager 2 did Voyager 1 HELIOPAUSE SATURN Profile of the Scanner Limit zone between the same and arrived at cartridge trigger Uranus in 1986 and Neptune URANUS COMMUNICATION WITH THE EARTH the area of The high-gain antenna, 12 feet (3.7 m) in influence of the Sun in 1989. Both are still active. NEPTUNE INTERSTELLAR diameter, is located in the upper part of the Video and outer space image WIND central body.

If the disk is decoded, the The antenna first image must point in the will appear in exact direction. the circle. ANTENNA A sensor records the If the antenna is misdirected, the Looking for the Heliopause position of the Sun. information will not get to its destination. With Voyagers 1 and 2 leaving the Solar System, the project was renamed the Interstellar Voyager Mission. Both probes continue to study the magnetic This diagram Represents the defines the two stages of the fields they detect, looking for the heliopause—that is, the limit between the area of location of our Sun hydrogen atom the Sun's influence and interstellar space. Once that frontier has been passed, TECHNICAL SPECIFICATIONS: VOYAGER 1 AND 2 by using 14 the Voyagers will be able to measure waves that escape the solar magnetic 10,000 days directional lines. Launch date field, beginning with the so-called “bow shock,” a zone where the have passed since Voyager 1 was launched into 1977 solar wind diminishes abruptly because of the disappearance of space. During this time, it discovered 21 new Useful life 60 years the solar magnetic field. It is hoped that the Voyagers will satellites of the four planets studied; it proved that Weight 1,800 pounds (815 kg) 11 feet pounds continue to be active for at least 30 years. the rings of Saturn consist of particles of ice; it (3.35 m) Source of energy Plutonium discovered the rings of Neptune; and it determined (815 kg) Organization 1,800 NASA the character of the magnetic field of Uranus. 11 feet WEIGHT ON EARTH (3.35 m) MILESTONES OF THE VOYAGE 1977 1977 1986 1987 1989 1998 LAUNCHES PHOTO OF THE EARTH ENCOUNTER OBSERVATION COLOR PHOTO PASSES PIONEER 10 The space probes AND THE MOON WITH URANUS OF A SUPERNOVA OF NEPTUNE Pioneer 10, launched in Voyage 1 and 2 were On September 5, On January 24, Voyager Supernova 1987A Voyager 2 is the first 1973, was the farthest launched by NASA Voyager 1 sent 2 arrived at Uranus. It appeared in the space probe to spacecraft from Earth from Cape Canaveral. photographs of the sent photographs of the Large Magellanic observe Neptune. It until Feb. 17, 1998, when They then began a Earth and the Moon, planet to the Earth and Cloud. It was also photographed its Voyager 1, not launched long and successful demonstrating that sent data on its photographed with largest moon, Triton, until 1977 but traveling mission that continues it was working satellites, rings, and great clarity by the from close up. faster, passed Pioneer 10 today. perfectly. magnetic fields. space probe Voyager 2. in terms of distance. FROM SPACE TO HOME 80-81 FROM THE AIR 88-89 Applied Astronautics GLOBAL INTERCONNECTION 82-83 A DIFFERENT VACATION 90-91 GLOBAL SATELLITE NAVIGATION 84-85 ENVIRONMENTAL SATELLITES 86-87

SPACESHIPONE The first privately funded reusable spaceship in the world, it flew 10 times higher than the highest airplanes.

pace tourism is ready to take off, first private manned vehicle to reach million and was financed by one of the programs led to the development of and in the next decades it will near outer space and to remain outside founders of Microsoft. Some people are various technologies, including cordless become an adventure within the the atmosphere for three minutes. Then already making reservations to fly in the devices, implanted cardiac S reach of many pocketbooks. In it made a problem-free landing in the craft and experience microgravity. It defibrillators, and digital imaging, to 2004 SpaceShipOne became the California desert. The project cost $20 bears mentioning that manned space mention just a few. 80 APPLIED ASTRONAUTICS SPACE EXPLORATION 81

Air Purifiers PHASE 1 PHASE 2 PHASE 3 1 The purifier takes 2 A filter processes 3 The purifier returns From Space to Home in contaminated Air purifiers are designed the contaminated the pure air to the to reduce the air with allergens. air. environment. pace has been a laboratory for investigating and developing new concentration of bacteria in the technologies and methods, the applications of which have found home and are beneficial for S people suffering from allergies or a place in daily life. Various devices, foods, clothes, materials, and asthma. Air purifiers are portable utensils have been tested in space under extreme conditions and have and can be carried from one become useful in improving our lives. Scientists say that the room to another. technological innovations of the next 50 years will change society in CONTAMINATED AIR PURE AIR such a way that a change in overall thinking will be necessary to assimilate them. POLYCARBONATE SPACECRAFT PROTECTION Compacted To withstand the effects of extreme temperatures and polycarbonate used in the collisions of meteorites, the spacecraft is Intelligent Clothing layers has high protected by various layers that are bonded together resistance to impact. It with adhesive silicon. The exterior is made of Clothing with computers and other transform something to wear into intelligent, replaces glass and is also aluminum. Next is a fabric that is resistant to very technological capabilities incorporated into biometric clothing that responds to surrounding used in eyeglasses. high temperatures, followed by a fabric to insulate them has passed from the fiction of futurist movies to environmental conditions and to the wearer's vital against low temperatures. a reality that is getting closer and closer. New clothing signs. Thanks to the new types of cloth, scientists are has been designed to demonstrate how electronics can already talking about garments to prevent diseases. HIGH-TEMPERATURE LOW-TEMPERATURE KEVLAR FABRIC FABRIC To protect against the To protect against A synthetic polyamide, harmful effect of the Sun. extremely low used in especially temperatures MAMAGOOSE protective clothing, such as bulletproof vests, Mamagoose pajamas are used to monitor SILICON equipment for extreme ADHESIVE infants when they are at home sleeping. sports, and blankets. These pajamas have five sensors on the chest and stomach. Three of them monitor the heartbeat and the other two ALUMINUM the respiration. The pajamas detect and protects the spacecraft warn of possible sudden infant death from meteorite impact. syndrome. The system is similar to the one SENSORS ON: used to continuously monitor the vital THE CHEST signs of the astronauts in space. THE STOMACH

SILICONE A polymer made of silicon. Used as a Domestic Uses lubricants and adhesives and for waterproofing, ice-cube trays, and Frequent space travel has brought the application of new medical applications. technologies to the home environment. Such is the case with microwave ovens and dehydrated food. It is only recently that they became part of the daily routine of the family in the home.

TEFLON

The common name of quality is its impermeability, polytetrafluoroethylene. The maintaining its qualities in special quality of this humid environments. Its best- VELCRO material is that it is almost known property is inert—that is, it does not antisticking. It is used as a A system for rapidly react with other chemical coating material on rockets FOOD MICROWAVE OVENS joining and substances except under very and airplanes and, in the BARCODE separating two special conditions. Another home, on frying pans. The explorers dry their food and Became popular in the United parts that was provides information via a keep it in a cool place. The menu States in the 1970s. They allow created by George combination of parallel includes dried fruit, smoked rapid cooking or reheating of de Mestral in 1941 vertical lines that differ in turkey, flour tortillas, soy-milk food thanks to the application thickness and spacing. cheese, walnuts, and peanuts. of electromagnetic waves. Business and industry use a special scanner to read them. 82 APPLIED ASTRONAUTICS

FIXED SENDING AND Global Interconnection SOLAR PANELS RECEIVING ANTENNA can target specific places on the take the light from the Sun Earth. and transform it into ommunications using satellites have made it possible to connect places that are very electrical energy. far from one another and to bring information to very remote regions. The satellites C are primarily in geosynchronous orbits—that is, the satellite orbits in the same time it TRANSPONDER takes the Earth to rotate. This motion allows for more effective transmission systems, This is the heart of the satellite. It corrects for because the satellite is stationary with respect to the Earth's surface. There is a virtual fleet atmosphere-produced MOVEMENT ON THREE AXES distortions of the radio To correct its position, the satellite of geosynchronous satellites dedicated to various goals: meteorology, research, navigation, signals. turns in three directions: an axis military uses, and, obviously, telecommunications. perpendicular to its orbit and the horizontal and vertical axes.

PITCH Connections Communication can be established between any example, involves sending a signal to a two points on Earth. The signals sent and terrestrial station, which retransmits the REFLECTOR Direction to captures signals received between terrestrial and satellite antennas are signal to a satellite. The satellite then the Earth Velocity retransmits the signal so that it can be and retransmits in the radio-wave spectrum, and they range from them directly. Vector telephone conversations and television to computer received by an antenna in the United States ROLL data. A call from Europe to the United States, for for transmission to its final destination. YAW

Orbit DOWNWARD LINK REFLECTOR CONSTELLATION OF The satellite IRIDIUM SATELLITES retransmits signals to Iridium is a satellite-based, other points: a mobile telephone system in low downward Earth orbit. It consists of 66 connection is made. satellites that follow a polar orbit. UPWARD LINK The satellite captures TELEPHONE signals that come from COMMUNICATIONS the Earth. An upward are possible between an airplane connection is made. and land by means of satellites.

Terrestrial Stations These stations are buildings that house the antennas and all the necessary equipment on land for sending and receiving satellite signals. The buildings can be large structures, and the antennas can act as receivers and transmitters of thousands of streams of information. In other cases, they are small TELEVISION BROADCAST buildings equipped for TRANSMITTING ANTENNA CONNECTIONS The terrestrial antenna communications but designed make it possible to transmit receives information from the news or other events via TELEPHONY CONNECTION to operate on board the satellite and retransmits satellites that capture the A terrestrial antenna ships or airplanes. it. This is the key for every signals and distribute them receives signals and kind of telecommunication. to different geographic transmits them to a center that resends to them in the locations. CENTER/ corresponding format. OPERATOR Area of Maximum Power

NATIONAL TRANSMISSION GRID Fixed structure on Earth that communicates with the antenna 1 and receives information

Low-Power Boundaries

SATELLITE FOOTPRINT PUBLIC NETWORK PRIVATE NETWORK PRIVATE MOBILE UNIT Transmitted radio waves TV LAND LINE MOBILE TELEPHONES For telephone Groups of private Private clients Used for covering news cover a defined area when The signal arrives The voice signal goes can receive voice and communication corporations, such who pay for or events that occur in they arrive at Earth. The area from the center via from the center to the images depending on between two points as TV networks satellite access different locations is known as a footprint. the antenna. desired location. the signal sent. 84 APPLIED ASTRONAUTICS SPACE EXPLORATION 85

Galileo System ORBIT Global Satellite Navigation ABOUT 55° The European Galileo project (which placed to the equatorial its first experimental satellite into orbit in plane he Global Positioning System (GPS), developed by the U.S. Department of Defense, makes it 10 feet (3 m) late 2005) is a satellite navigation system that will possible to determine the position of a person, a vehicle, or a ship anywhere in the world. The GPS be based on a constellation of 30 satellites (27 operational and 3 spares) in three medium Earth Equatorial T TECHNICAL SPECIFICATIONS: Plane system, which uses a constellation of two dozen Navstar satellites, became fully operational in GALILEO SATELLITE orbits in different planes to ensure global coverage. As with the GPS navigation system, it will permit a 1995. Although it began as a military initiative, the GPS system was soon extended to commercial First launched 2006 variety of applications in addition to navigation, applications, which now include handheld navigation systems. A new development is the proposed Orbital altitude 14,300 miles such as the management of taxi fleets in large cities (23,000 km) GALILEO ORBIT European Galileo satellite navigation system, which resembles the GPS system but would use a and the ability to locate stolen automobiles or other The orbit of the satellites Orbital period constellation of 30 satellites. The European system is projected to become operational by 2013. 14 hours property. The Galileo project arose in part to gain ensures sufficient coverage Organization European Union independence from the GPS system, which could be for calculating precise interrupted or modified to be less accurate if positions on the Earth. Final number in orbit 30 (27 active) deemed necessary by the U.S. government. PHASE 1 PHASE 2 Operation The first satellite sends its coordinates. Using the coordinates of a second 1 The navigation receiver captures a 2 satellite, the receiver can determine VELOCITY OF Based on the electromagnetic waves signal, which indicates at what the user's location as being THE WAVES 186,000 sent by the satellite, the receivers can distance the satellite is located and SATELLITE B PHASE 3 anywhere along the intersection of SATELLITE A Combining three satellites SATELLITE A defines a sphere of possible locations. miles per second convert signals received into position, velocity, the two spheres. 3 allows a common point to be and estimated time, because the distance is the ELECTROMAG- determined to indicate the (300,000 km/s) product of the velocity and the time. Four exact position of the navigator. NETIC WAVES SATELLITE C satellites are required to calculate the exact are sent by the satellite, position. The first three form an area of triple and from them the PHASE 4 With a fourth satellite, errors in intersection, while the fourth functions as a receiver determines its location. The waves travel 4 the determined position checking mechanism. If the area swept out by at 186,000 miles per introduced by inaccuracies in the the fourth satellite does not coincide with the second (300,000 km/s). receiver's clock can be corrected. intersection determined by the other three, the position must be corrected. SATELLITE A SATELLITE B SATELLITE A

SATELLITE D SATELLITE C SATELLITE B

COVERAGE AREA

THE RECEIVER has all the controls necessary to specify the location of a certain point. These indicate to the 30 observer all the desired coordinates. SATELLITES ARE PLANNED FOR THE GALILEO SYSTEM

INDICATOR RECEIVING For latitude, LOCATION altitude, and longitude CONTROL For navigating through the displayed map 86 APPLIED ASTRONAUTICS SPACE EXPLORATION 87

RELIEF PHOTOGRAPHY HRG Environmental Satellites can simultaneously An optical photograph whatever lies in instrument of high front or behind its lens. geometric resolution When stereoscopic pairs pot 1 was put into orbit in 1986 with the sponsorship of the French Space Agency (CNES). It was are used, the image can be SOLAR PANELS the first satellite of what is today a constellation of satellites that can take photographs of different seen in three dimensions. One points ahead S and the other places on the Earth at very high resolution. Spot 5 can scan the Earth from three different angles, backward from the vertical axis of the which makes it possible to construct three-dimensional images. Today Spot 5 is a commercial satellite par satellite excellence, contracted by a variety of firms for close-up images. For example, agricultural firms request very close-up images of land under cultivation, and petroleum companies can request images for oil and gas exploration. Landsat, another satellite for monitoring the environment, was launched in 1999 and offers images of lower resolution.

Spot 5 Capabilities The development of the Spot satellite constellation has made it possible to commercialize photographic monitoring of environmentally linked phenomena. THREE-SATELLITE Using its scanning system, a Spot satellite can observe the same site every two or CONSTELLATION three days. Each satellite carries two cameras, which can provide side-by-side The work is done in an integrated manner so that it is coverage for a track 73 miles (60 km) wide at ground level. Used in combination, the possible to obtain a daily picture cameras can obtain a resolution as fine as 8 feet (2.5 m), or they can be aimed at of any point on the globe. different angles to produce stereoscopic images. The cameras can be used to produce black-and-white images or multispectral images that combine more than one wavelength of light. Depending on the area, Spot Image, the company that markets Spot images, can guarantee pictures without cloud cover. This is particularly valuable for applications that require images without clouds, fog, mist, or sandstorms. HIGH STEREOSCOPIC RESOLUTION makes it possible to TECHNICAL SPECIFICATIONS obtain two images VEGETATION Launch date May 4, 2002 simultaneously. Instrument for Orbital altitude 520 miles (832 km) U.S. Satellite terrestrial PHASE 2 observation PHASE 1 2 Ninety seconds Orbital period 100 minutes Landsat 7 was launched by NASA in 10 feet 1 One camera later, it takes (3.1 m) April 1999. It orbits the Earth at an Maximum resolution 8 feet (2.5 m) points images with the altitude of 440 miles (705 km). It takes only forward. rear camera. Organization CNES 99 minutes to make one complete orbit of the 19 feet Earth and 16 days to photograph the entire (5.7 m) surface of the planet. It can obtain images How These with a resolution as fine as 50 feet (15 m). MARCH FEBRUARY Photographs Are Taken JANUARY From Toulouse, France, depending on the meteorological forecast, the Spot Image programming teams make plans for the satellites to take images over the next 24 hours to obtain the photographs that are on order. Acquiring two photos simultaneously makes for better pictures and facilitates an automatic configuration DECEMBER 20º 20º process for comparing two images.

CONFIGURATION PROCESS

LANDSAT 7 produces multispectral images of the Earth that are used to monitor changes in climate and the environment. 73 MILES (117 KM) NOVEMBER is the maximum width covered by the images (using two cameras). OCTOBER SEPTEMBER IMAGE 1 IMAGE 2

HELIOSYNCHRONOUS ORBIT 37 MILES In order to compare the observations of a given point taken on (60 KM) is the maximum different days, the images must be taken in similar lighting length of the 95% area covered by conditions. For this reason, the satellites are in heliosynchronous orbit, which means the plane of of the surface of the the images. the orbit maintains a fixed angle with the Sun. As Earth can be observed a result, each satellite has a view of the entire on any day by one of surface of the Earth over a 26-day period. the three satellites. 88 APPLIED ASTRONAUTICS SPACE EXPLORATION 89

From the Air 1,400 square hotographs taken by Spot 5 can show the (3,600 sq km) miles geography of any region of the world in P different scales, from images of 8 feet The maximum surface area attainable by SEA OF Spot 5 photos. It can do so both on local (2.5 m) on Earth to fringe areas 37 miles (60 GALILEE scales (for which finer resolution is used) Syria km) wide. Spot 5's high-definition capacity Haifa and on regional scales. makes in-depth close-ups possible; it can target very specific places, from areas of vegetation to harbors, oceans, geographic Nazareth borders, and forest-fire zones. Here Israel and its border regions—with Syria, Lebanon, and Egypt—together with the Dead Sea THE DEAD SEA AS TAKEN BY LANDSAT 7 and the Golan Heights were photographed The North American satellite took this photograph by the satellite, offering a panoramic of the Dead Sea in February 1975. The image combines optical and infrared techniques (in this image with significant detail. wavelength range, water is seen as black). The Dead Sea is in the center, between Israel (on the left) and Jordan (on the right). North is up. The West Bank Its desert characteristics are observable in the color photograph taken ISRAEL by Spot 5. JORDAN RIVER JORDAN Latitude 32.98º The Dead Sea is the lowest Longitude 35.57º body of water in the world, 1,300 feet (400 m) below Tel Aviv The surface of sea level. Its water The the desert evaporates rapidly in the vegetation Surface area 8,500 square miles (21,946 sq km) appears brown. desert climate, leaving is seen in Population 6,116,533 (2003) behind dissolved minerals. green. Population density 755 per square mile (302/sq km) Capital Jerusalem THE JUDEAN DESERT The image shows Currency Shekel different elevations and Jerusalem terrain with significant detail. The region of Sodom, 1,270 feet (387 m) below Israel sea level, is the lowest place on the planet.

A E S N Gaza A E SEA DEAD N A R R E IT ED M

Image Resolution Technological developments have permitted increased resolution of what is called the Satellite Size of the pixel Image image capture of geographic space. The maximum Spot 1 to 3 32 feet (10 m) Color and B&W definition possible is 8 feet (2.5 m) on the Earth's surface. In some cases it is better to use 66 feet (20 m) Color resolutions of 16, 32, and 66 feet (5, 10, and 20 m). Spot 4 16 feet (5 m) Color and B&W The pictures provided by Spot can cover an areas 32 feet (10 m) Color as much as 37 miles (60 km) wide and can be used Spot 5 8 feet (2.5 m) Color or B&W for checking harvests, evaluating natural 16 feet (5 m) Color or B&W catastrophes, and checking demographic growth. 32 feet (10 m) Color or B&W

Jordan 3-D images Spot 5's scanning method makes it possible to construct images (primarily topographical relief) in three dimensions 8 feet (2.5 m) is the finest resolution attainable by the Spot 5 satellite and is capable of showing the details of a ship in a port.

Egypt 0 miles 6 (km) (10) 90 APPLIED ASTRONAUTICS SPACE EXPLORATION 91

TECHNICAL SPECIFICATIONS: SPACESHIPONE A Different Vacation Date of launch June 2004 Maximum altitude about 62 miles (100 km) 16 feet erhaps a few years from now traveling to (5 m) First pilot Mike Melvill the edge of space will be another option for a Enterprise Private 49 feet P vacation. Right now various private enterprises already (15 m) have plans to offer this type of recreation. In April 2001 an DENNIS TITO American businessman, Dennis Tito, made a successful trip to the International Space Station. The first commercial space traveler, he paid $20 million for an eight-day stay. One year later, the Australian Mark Shuttleworth did the same. Then came the formation of SpaceShipOne, which has the potential of allowing thousands of tourists to travel to space at moderate cost.

WEIGHT OF THE SPACESHIP

Altitude in km (miles) MAXIMUM ALTITUDE 115 feet 8,100 pounds The spacecraft reaches 100 (62) (35 m) an altitude of 62 miles (100 km) before falling (3,670 kg) back into the atmosphere. The The Cockpit (56) members of the crew 270 feet (82 m) THE CREW 90 experience microgravity Equipped with advanced for six minutes. BOOSTER technology that permits Equipped with pressurized suits. The crew TECHNICAL SPECIFICATIONS: Solid hybrid rocket engine the pilot to maneuver the is trained for the flight and sits at the rear WHITE KNIGHT ENGINE spacecraft safely. It has 16 of the craft. THRUSTERS 80 (50) Launch date FRAME allow the craft to circular glass panes for a June 2004 With liquid ascend or descend panoramic view of space and the Maximum altitude 9.5 miles (15.24 km) fuel during the flight. Earth below. A central stick and First pilot Mike Melvill rudder pedals are the principal Enterprise 70 (45) Private controls the pilot uses when it is time for the spacecraft to fly. CIRCULAR PANES ALTITUDE RUDDER PEDALS THE ENGINE There are 16 glass panes DIRECTOR They are used for fires for 80 seconds, that provide structural Used for reentry banking to prevent and the craft reaches integrity to the fuselage. into the atmosphere side-to-side motion 60 (37) a velocity of 2,225 The Voyage miles per hour Suborbital flights are less expensive than orbital flights. RUDDERS (3,580 k/h). Activated The voyage typically lasts about two hours at a maximum electronically, they velocity of 2,225 miles per hour (3,580 km/h) and a maximum lend more strength EXHIBITOR 50 (31) altitude of approximately 60 miles (100 km). The stay in outer to spaceflight. shows the position of the craft with respect to the space lasts only a few minutes, during which time the traveler AILERONS can see the beautiful profile of the Earth and experience the Used for Earth, the route to its LIFTOFF controlling the destination, and the After one hour of effects of microgravity. Such flights might become available to airplane's compression of the flight—and at an paying passengers. 40 (25) altitude air on the wings. altitude of 9.5 miles REENTRY (15.24 km)—the The pilot configures launching aircraft the descent. White Knight releases 30 (19) SpaceShipOne. MOVEMENT CENTRAL $200,000 OF THE NOSE CONTROL From side to side STICK ANTICIPATED COST OF around the It controls the THE SUBORBITAL FLIGHT center of gravity craft's pitch.

FEATHERING The wings pivot 4 days ENGINE upward to The engine is OF TRAINING allow for safe started with GLIDING reentry. push-buttons SpaceShipOne descends and burns fuel LANDING toward the ground. The White Knight for 65 seconds. returns for a landing. 2 hours REGULATOR FLIGHT DURATION checks for deviations from the trajectory. 92 GLOSSARY SPACE EXPLORATION 93 Glossary

Antenna use digital signals that are typically Helmet the lock. If they did not use the lock, all the air take advantage of the microgravity in orbit. represented by electric signals formed by a from the spacecraft would escape. Some such experiments concern creating new Parachute Dish or mast for receiving or sending radio series of high or low voltage levels. Digital A space-suit helmet is made of strong plastic. types of materials; others involve studying the A device made of a strong textile that opens signals. electronic equipment represents continually The helmet contains a valve to let in oxygen Lunar Vehicle effects of microgravity on plants or other up in the shape of a huge umbrella, used to varying (analog) information as a series of and remove carbon dioxide. The helmet is living things. slow the fall of astronauts or rockets. Applications Satellite discrete values. airtight and contains communication gear, such Battery-powered vehicle used to drive over the as a microphone and headphones. lunar surface. Mission Control Payload Type of unmanned satellite for commercial use Docking Adapter and for scientists who study the Earth. Infrared Radiation Manned Maneuvering Unit Facility of a space agency for monitoring and Materials or scientific instruments transported Application satellites can be broadly classified The part of the spacecraft designed to join controlling a spaceflight. into space by a manned or unmanned as communications, environmental, or with another spacecraft when they are docked Light with wavelengths somewhat longer than Apparatus that astronauts formerly used to spacecraft that are not part of the launch navigational. together. those of red light in the visible spectrum. It is perform work, such as capturing satellites and NASA vehicle itself. invisible to the human eye. Infrared light can be testing new equipment, outside the spacecraft. Artificial Intelligence Docking Port readily used for transmitting information It consisted of a framework with small National Aeronautics and Space between two devices that are in close proximity directional thrusters. Administration, the U.S. organization in charge Pressure Suit In general, the capacity of a machine to act A door that can be opened between two to each other without their having to be of space exploration. Its headquarters are in An airtight, inflatable suit designed to protect like an intelligent being. docked spacecraft so that the members of the connected by cables. Infrared radiation requires Mariner Washington, D.C. NASA was created in 1958 the body from low pressure at high altitude or crew can move from one to the other. less energy to produce than visible light and does by President Dwight D. Eisenhower. in space. A space suit is a type of pressure suit. Astronaut not interfere with light. A series of U.S. space probes for the study of Energy Matrix the interior planets of the solar system Navigation Systems Propulsion System Person sent into space. To be able to perform Image Spectrometer (Mercury, Venus, Mars). None was designed to tasks in space, astronauts wear pressurized Also known as the solar matrix, it provides land on a planet. In spite of the relative Traditional systems of spacecraft navigation The most common propulsion system used for suits. The training program is difficult and electric energy to the ionic motor of the Image spectrometer is a type of camera that limitations of these missions compared to later tracked the spacecraft from the ground and rockets is chemical, driven by combustion. A exhaustive. spacecraft. They are less expensive than solar records a digital image in two or more specific probes, they contributed important planetary depended on human controllers there. In chemical rocket engine carries both a fuel and panels and also more resistant to space wavelengths, such as infrared and ultraviolet. information that was used for later, more modern autonomous navigation systems, the an oxidizer, which together take up most of Astronautics radiation. The images can then be evaluated to obtain complex missions, such as the Viking. path of the spacecraft is calculated and the volume of the rocket. The fuel burns when information about materials, such as the corrected using images of the asteroids and it is combined with the oxidizer, and the Science that studies the design, construction, Environmental Satellites composition of rocks in an image of the Earth's Mars Pathfinder stars taken by an onboard camera system, then escaping gases produce the propulsion. Other and function of spacecraft and the problems surface. combining the information with the navigation types of rocket propulsion systems include the related to interplanetary space navigation. It Satellites that gather environmental U.S. space probe that successfully landed on system. ion (electric) system in which electrically also refers to related technologies. information about the Earth, such as images of Laser Mars on July 4, 1997, in the area called Ares accelerated ions are discharged from the the storms in the atmosphere, ocean Vallis. Operations Center engine to produce thrust. Booster Rocket temperatures and currents, and snow and ice Device that produces coherent light—that is, cover. Images of the Earth's surface in light composed of a single wavelength and in Messages from the Earth The operations center of mission control that Rocket that is attached to a primary rocket to different wavelengths can help evaluate the phase with each other. Lasers can be built from monitors spaceflights using telemetry Radar increase thrust at liftoff. composition of rocks and the health of crops a variety of substances (such as ruby and Space probes on missions that carry them technology, which allows technical aspects to A system that emits radio waves and detects and other vegetation. certain gases), which are then stimulated beyond the solar system have carried be monitored in real time. any echoes of those same waves. Given that Console electrically to produce a laser beam. Laser messages from the Earth to possible radio waves travel at the velocity of light, the ESA beams can have many uses. Intense beams can extraterrestrials who might find them. Discs Opportunity times involved can be very brief. Among the Instrument panel with controls and displays. cut materials with great precision. Laser light is and plates have been used to record uses of radar are measuring distances, planet The space shuttle contains a command console European Space Agency. It was established on also used for transmitting digital information, information about the Earth and its life-forms The second of two NASA rovers that landed cartography, and the study of meteorology. A in the flight deck. May 31, 1975, with its principal headquarters because it can be readily generated in very short with maps, images, and sounds. on the surface of Mars in 2004. type of radar called Doppler radar can be used in Paris. pulses. to determine the speed of moving objects that Depressurized Microelectronics Orbital Perturbations reflect the radio waves. Fuel Life-Support System To remove or lose the air pressure within an Miniaturized semiconductor electronic circuits There are many subtle effects that perturb the enclosed area. For example, air locks are Substance that burns to provide energy. Some Equipment that provides air, water, and heat have revolutionized spacecraft systems from orbits of Earth satellites. Some of the factors Reaction Control System depressurized when astronauts in space suits types of rocket fuel are liquid; other types are so that the astronauts can live in space. control and navigation to communications. are the asymmetry of the Earth's orbit, solar The propulsion system used to change the prepare to exit the lock and leave the solid or rubbery. Rocket fuel burns with an and lunar effects, atmospheric influences, and position of a spacecraft. spacecraft. oxidizer, producing gases that are expelled Lock Microgravity pressure from solar radiation. through the nozzles to provide thrust. Rockets Reentry Digital Signal carry their own oxidizer so that they burn fuel Chamber of the spacecraft with an interior The condition in which objects experience no Oxidizer and provide propulsion in outer space, where door connecting the cabin to another, outside or virtually no gravitational effects. It is The portion of spaceflight in which the spacecraft A signal that provides information numerically, there is no air. door that opens into space. The members of associated with weightlessness. Many Chemical agent (normally a gas) that is burned enters the atmosphere to return to Earth. As the such as a series of on-off values. Computers the crew typically put their space suits on in experiments conducted by astronauts in space together with the fuel to fire the rocket engine. spacecraft passes through the atmosphere, the 94 GLOSSARY SPACE EXPLORATION 95

friction between the air molecules and the pressure and harmful radiation, and it also cosmic radiation, meteorites, and the density spacecraft causes intense heating. Therefore, the Scientific Satellites Space Junk provides the oxygen necessary for breathing. and temperature of the Earth's upper Vostok surface of the spacecraft is protected by a These compile information and carry out exact Any artificial object orbiting the Earth in space atmosphere for 21 days. Sputnik 2 was the first Soviet space program that put a total of six thermal shield constructed of plastic, metal, and studies of the Sun, other stars, the Earth, and that has no purpose. It includes such materials to lift a living being, the dog Laika, into space. cosmonauts into orbit around the Earth ceramics. Some materials are designed to Space Tourism the space environment. Such satellites can as big rocket fragments and small particles of between April 1961 and June 1963. The first vaporize, dissipating the heat without harming gather data that cannot be obtained on the paint. Space junk has been accumulating since Recreational space travel, which first came astronaut to orbit the Earth—at an altitude of the spacecraft or its crew. Suborbital Flights surface of the Earth because of the Earth's the beginning of space exploration. about as a project launched in August 1999 195 miles (315 km)—was Yury Gagarin, the atmosphere. between the Space Adventures enterprise of Flight designed to reach space but not achieve only crew member of the Vostok 1. Rescue Ball the United States and a Russian entity. In April orbit. A typical suborbital flight lasts about two Space Missions 2001 the American businessman Dennis Tito hours and reaches a speed of 2,220 miles per The rescue ball was designed to help crew Sensor Voyager 1 and 2 Space missions are organized by a number of paid $20 million for a trip to the International hour (3,580 km/h) and an altitude of about 62 members without pressurized suits escape. It is Device commonly used in scientific and other space-exploration agencies, including NASA, Space Station as the first space tourist. miles (100 km). The time spent in space lasts The space probes Voyager 1 and 2 were sent by made of space suit material and has an oxygen types of instruments aboard spacecraft for the European Space Agency, and the Russian only a few minutes. NASA to study the outer solar system. Voyager supply so that an astronaut could escape safely gathering data and information. Space Agency. Spacecraft can be manned or 1 was launched in 1977, passed Jupiter in 1979, to another ship. Space Underwear unmanned. Voyages are planned years in Telescope and passed Saturn in 1980. Voyager 2 was also Solar Panel advance. International teams construct Before astronauts put on a space suit, they put launched in 1977; it passed by Jupiter and Robotic Manipulation rockets, satellites, and probes that carry out on an apparatus for collecting urine that has a Instrument for magnifying the image of distant Saturn to reach Uranus in 1986 and Neptune in System Panel covered with solar cells. The cells collect specific tasks, such as visiting a planet or tube going to a receptacle. Women wear short objects. Astronomical telescopes are used for 1989. Both probes are heading out of the solar sunlight and convert it into electricity, which constructing the International Space Station. pants, which absorb the urine and conduct it to observing the stars, planets, and other celestial system and have provided data about the far Robotic arm installed in the space shuttle, used can be used to operate the equipment within a Some spacecraft are part of a series, such as the receptacle. They also wear underclothes bodies. The term is used to refer to instruments reaches of the solar system. for tasks such as unloading the space shuttle's spacecraft. the Apollo lunar mission. equipped with tubes of water to cool the that magnify an optical image or an image payload bay. astronaut. produced by other types of electromagnetic X-rays Soyuz Space Probe radiation, such as radio waves. The Hubble Robotics Spacelab Space Telescope is an orbiting telescope that In November 1895 William Roentgen, when Series of both manned and unmanned Soviet Unmanned spacecraft sent to gather can make observations free from the distorting studying the production of electron beams Technology that designs machines capable of and Russian spacecraft. The Soyuz replaced the information from planets and other bodies of Spacelab was the space station designed to fit effects of the atmosphere. known as cathode rays, became aware of a independently carrying out a number of tasks Vostok in the mid-1970s. The Russians use new the solar system. Some probes are limited to within the payload bay of the space shuttle. The mysterious type of radiation that had not been and adapting their actions to the requirements versions of the Soyuz for launchings to the flying close to a planet. At a preset distance, the Spacelab project was begun with a 1973 Thermal Insulator observed before, and he called it X-rays. of the moment. International Space Station. The original Soyuz instruments are activated to record data. When agreement between the United States and the Astronomy has been strongly influenced by series of spacecraft was developed between the probe leaves the planet behind, the nations belonging to the ESA. The first flight Material that conducts heat poorly. It is used to Roentgen's discovery in spite of the fact that X- Rocket 1967 and 1981 and was used for 41 launches. instruments are deactivated. Many probes have occurred in November 1983. The Spacelab was protect the walls of a rocket from the high rays coming from celestial objects cannot These capsules were replaced by the more been sent to land on the surface of a body of lifted into space for the last time in November temperatures produced by burning fuel and to penetrate the Earth's atmosphere. Reaction engine that carries its own fuel and a modern Soyuz-T, launched 15 times between the solar system. Such probes have been used 1997, when the development of the protect the skin of a spacecraft from the heat source of oxygen so that it can function in space 1980 and 1986. The most recent generation is to land on the Moon, Venus, Mars, and Saturn's International Space Station began. produced by air friction during reentry into the as well as in the atmosphere. It is driven by the Soyuz-TM, the first of which was launched moon Titan. atmosphere. gases that exit from nozzles. Launch vehicles in 1986. Spirit consist of various rocket stages and can make Space Shuttle Training use of booster rockets. A rocket produces the Space Blanket One of two robots—the other being kinetic energy necessary to send objects (such The first spacecraft capable of returning to the Opportunity—that was launched in 2003 from The astronaut training program takes several as manned spacecraft, artificial satellites, and Layer of powdered metal on a plastic film Earth on its own and being reused on multiple Earth and that landed on Mars in 2004. They months. Regardless of educational background, space probes) into space. The most common applied as spacecraft insulation or to reflect missions. Today the U.S. fleet has three shuttles: carefully explored the surface of the planet. trainees must study mathematics, meteorology, type of rockets are chemical rockets, which may radio signals. Blankets made of this material Discovery, Atlantis, and Endeavour. The Both vehicles are part of the NASA Mars astronomy, physics, and space navigation. They use liquid or solid fuels and oxidizers. retain 80 percent of the body's heat. Challenger and Columbia were both destroyed Exploration Rovers mission. They have tools regularly work in flight simulators and receive in accidents (in 1986 and 2003, respectively). that allow them to gather rocks and take soil training in the use of the spacecraft computers Satellite Space Exploration samples to be analyzed for chemical and other equipment. Space Station composition. The robots are located on opposite Object that orbits a much larger object. The era of space exploration began in 1957 with sides of the Red Planet so that they can Viking Artificial satellites do not carry a crew. They the launching of the first artificial satellite. From A base designed to orbit the Earth for a long photographically study very different places. orbit the Earth and carry out such functions as that time, many astronauts and robot craft have period of time. Crew members can live and NASA sent the Viking 1 and Viking 2 probes to the transmission of telephone calls or left the Earth to explore space. Twelve work in the space station for several months. Sputnik Mars in 1975. Both probes landed on the planet information about meteorology. astronauts have even landed on the Moon. and carried out observations from its surface. Space probes equipped with automatic Space Suit Satellite that inaugurated the age of space instruments have visited many bodies of the exploration. Sputnik 1, launched in 1957, was an solar system, including comets and asteroids as A suit that allows the wearer to survive in aluminum sphere 23 inches (58 cm) in diameter. well as the planets and their moons. space. It protects against too much or too little Its instrumentation sent back information about 96 INDEX SPACE EXPLORATION 97 Index

Cavendish, Henry, 10 food, life in space, 41 rocket launching, 33 A B Challenger (space shuttle), 36 E French Guiana, launching base, 14 See also microgravity Chandra X-ray observatory, 50-51, 59 French Space Agency (CNES), 86 Grissom, Virgil, 18 barcode, chemical propellant, Eagle frequency band, Guggenheim Aeronautics: Jet Propulsion accident: See space accident technological developments, 81 33 (Apollo 11 lunar module), 20, 21 49 See bath, chimpanzee, Earth, fuel Laboratory air purifier, technological developments, 81 life in space, 41 use in space exploration, 17, 18 65 Belka Clementine gyroscope, Aldrin, Edwin, 19, 21 (dog), 16 (spacecraft), 23 Cassini flyby, 70 external tanks, 37, 39 rocket launches, 34 bone, clothing solar energy Alouette 1 (satellite), 15 calcium loss in microgravity, 40 heliopause, 75, 76 solar energy: See booster rocket alpha particle spectrometer, 23 Kevlar, 81 solar wind effect, 75 types, 32, 33 Ames Research Center (NASA), 12 launch operation, 32, 35 technological developments, 80 view from Mars, 67 animal retrieval system, 39 COBE (satellite), 24, 25 Egypt, Spot 3 photography, 89 H Cold War, Einstein Observatory, chimpanzee, 17, 18 Saturn V, 19, 20 influence on space programs, 18, 65 50 Collins, Michael, Endeavor Haise, Fred, dogs, 10, 11, 16 Vostok program, 17 21 (space shuttle), 31 G 22 rocket Columbia Energia Ham Mercury missions, 18 See also (Apollo command module), 20, 21 (rocket), 33 (chimpanzee), 17, 18 bow shock, Columbia energy source Gagarin, Yury, Hayabusa apogee, 48 solar system, 76 (space shuttle), 9, 24, 36 6-7, 16, 17 (probe), 15 Bumper commercial space flight, solar energy Galileo health Apollo 8, 19 (rocket stage), 11 90-91 solar energy: See (probe), 9, 10 Buran Apollo 11, 9, 19, 20-21 (space shuttle), 33 Ariane 5, 33 solid-fuel rocket, 32, 37 data collection, 69 impact of space travel, 40 Bykovsky, Valery, SpaceShipOne launch, 13 17 SpaceShipOne: See types, 32, 33 Jupiter, 64 muscle wasting, 28 communications satellite engine, heliopause, modules, 20, 21 space shuttle, 37 orbit, 49 75, 76 environmental satellite, heliosphere, Apollo 13, 22, 23 orbital types, 48-49 86-87 technical specification, 69 74, 75 Equator, heliosynchronous orbit, Apollo 17, 22 transmission mechanism, 82-83 launch site selection, 30, 31 trajectory, 68 86 conventional navigation, Eta Carinae Galileo satellite navigation system, high orbit satellite, Apollo 600 (spacecraft), 22 C 8 (star), 59 84-85 objects in space, 61 Cooper, Gordon, Europa HIRISE high-resolution camera, Apollo program, 19, 22-23, 65 18 (moon of Jupiter), 68 orbit, 49 53 calcium, cosmic background radiation, European Launcher Development gamma ray spectrometer (GRS), Houston Apollo-Soyuz test project, 22, 23 loss in microgravity, 40 map, 24-25 23 (Texas, United States), Johnson Space California Institute of Technology: Jet cosmonaut: astronaut Organization, Ariane 5 (rocket), 32, 33 See See 14 Mars Odyssey equipment, 66 Center, 44 Propulsion Laboratory COSTAR European Space Agency (ESA), Gemini 1 Hubble space telescope, launch sequence, 35 (optical device), Hubble space 14-15 (spacecraft), 17 25, 58-59 camera equipment Cassini-Huygens Gemini 3 stages, 34 telescope, 58, 59 Huygens probe, 71: See also (spacecraft), 18 orbit, 49, 61 CTX context camera, mission Gemini 6 Ariane rocket, development, 14 Mars Exploration Rovers, 54-55 53 (spacecraft), 18 repairs, 29, 58, 59 Gemini 7 Huygens mission, Armstrong, Neil, 19, 21 Mars Odyssey, 66, 67 International Space Station, 56, 57 (spacecraft), 18 64, 70, 71 Gemini 8 Cassini-Huygens mission space suit, 42 Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter, 53 Smart 1 spacecraft, 23 (spacecraft), 9 See also Gemini 10 hybrid rocket, artificial satellite: See satellite New Horizons mission, 73 Venus Express mission, 73 (spacecraft), 18 32 asteroid space telescopes, 59: See also Hubble space D European Space Research Organization, 14 geostationary orbit (GEO orbit), 48, 82 hygiene, in space travel, 41 telescope European Union Galileo probe flyby, 68 objects in space, 61 data transmission German Association for Spaceflight, Itokawa landing mission, 15 Spot satellites, 86 Galileo satellite navigation system, 84-85 11 Canada, Germany astronaut (cosmonaut), 42-43 International Space Station, 15, 57 Chandra X-ray observatory, 50-51 International Space Station, 56, 57 Canadian Space Agency (CSA), exercise, Apollo program, 20-21, 22-23 14, 15 Hubble space telescope, 59 life in space, 41 astronautic pioneers, 10 I Canaveral, Cape Explorer 1 first in space, 16 (Florida, United States), Mars Exploration Rovers mission, 55 (satellite), 11, 16 V2 rockets, 33 Global Positioning System (GPS), image resolution, life in orbit, 28-29, 40-41 Kennedy Space Center, 13 space probes, 52 84-85 89 Canberra Dead Sea, inner Van Allen belt, Mercury program, 18 (Australia), deep space Landsat 7 photography, 88-89 orbit, 49 49 Deep Space Network, Glonass insulation: thermal insulation Mir station, 15 communications complex, 12 12, 51 (satellite), 49 See Cassini Delta IV M Goddard, Robert Hutchings, Intelsat Moon landing, 5, 20-21 (spacecraft), 29 (rocket), 35 F 10, 33 (satellite), 48 Cassini-Huygens mission Discovery Goddard Institute for Special Research, International Space Station (ISS), Vostok program, 17 (space shuttle), 36-37, 38 12 56-57 dog, fairing GOES Atlas (rocket), 18 Saturn, 64 use in space exploration, 10, 11, 16 (rocket covering), 34 (satellite), 9 commercial space travel, 90-91 Dryden Research Center flight simulator, gravitational assistance, Australia, deep space center, 12 technical specifications, 71 (NASA), 12 42 29, 70 country contributions, 15, 56, 57 dwarf planet: Pluto gravity (gravitation), automatic navigational system, 8-9 trajectory, 70 See Hubble space telescope repair, 29 28-29 first module, 25 Cat's Eye nebula, 59 floating launch platform, 31 gravity boost for spacecraft, 25, 70 orbit, 61, 65 98 INDEX SPACE EXPLORATION 99

International Telecommunications Union, 48 Mariner 4 (probe), 18 Luna missions, 16, 18 radio equipment, satellite coverage, 8 Interstellar Voyager Mission, 76 L Mariner 10 (probe), 65 See also specific entries at Apollo P radioactive propellant, 33 See also Voyager 1; Voyager 2 Mars Mössbauer spectrometer, 55 Redstone (rocket), 18 Io muscle wasting, 28 relief photography, (moon of Jupiter), 69, 70 L band frequency, 49 current conditions, 54 parabolic flight, 29 87 ion propellant, need for exercise, 40 rescue sphere, 33 Lagrange L2 (astronomy), 25 earth view, 67 Pathfinder (probe), 25, 65 43 Iridium Mars robot, (satellite), 49, 83 Laika (dog), 10, 11, 16 exploratory missions, 4, 65: See also perigee, 48 Mars exploration, 54-55 Israel, Exploration Rovers mission rocket, Spot 5 photography, 88 landing, space shuttle, 39 photography 32-33 Itokawa (asteroid), Hayabusa landing mission, 15 Landsat 7 (satellite), 86 ice, 67 environmental, 86-87 Ariane family, 14 photography, 88 orbit versus Earth orbit, 66 N Landsat 7, 88 early use, 10 Langley Research Center (NASA), 12 Pathfinder probe, 25 Neptune, 77 fuel source, 32, 33 National Aeronautics and Space launch (rocket), 30-31 radiation measurement, 67 Spot 3, 89 guidance system, 34 Administration (NASA), 12-13 sequence, 34-35 space probes, 52-53 physical health: See health launch sequence, 34-35 Mars Express; Mars Explorer 1 design, 11 J space shuttle, 37 spacecraft: See physical training, life in space, 43 Mercury mission, 18, 19 Odyssey founding, 16 time window, 35 Pioneer missions objects in space, 61 Japanese Space Agency (JAXA), operations centers, 44-45 14, 15 Leonov, Aleksey, 16, 17, 23 surface, 46-47, 67 new satellites discovered, 76 propellants, 33 radio antenna: See Deep Space Network Hayabusa mission, 15 Lewis Research Center (NASA), 12 Valles Marineris, 62-63 Voyager 1 passing, 77 Soyuz, 15 Jet Propulsion Laboratory Mars Exploration Rovers mission, See also space programs by name (California Institute liquid-fuel rocket, 32, 33 54-55 Planck mission, age of the universe, 15 two-stage rocket, 11 Mars Express navigational system booster rocket of Technology) Lovell, James, 22, 23 (spacecraft), 4, 8-9 planet See also Mars Odyssey automatic, 8-9 Romania, data processing, 50 low Earth orbit (LEO orbit), 48 (spacecraft), 4, 66-67 Earth, 65, 75, 76 astronautic pioneers, 10 Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter (MRO), conventional, 8 Russia Deep Space Network, 12 objects in space, 61 52-53 Jupiter, 64-65 Marshall Space Flight Center solar energy, 8 Explorer 1 design, 11 Luna 1 (spacecraft), 16 (NASA), 12 Mars, 4, 25, 62-63, 64, 65, 67 astronautic pioneers, 10 Jordan, McCandless, Bruce, Navstar satellite, 84 Spot 3 photography, 89 Luna 3 (spacecraft), 16 42 Mercury, 65 first astronaut, 6-7, 16 Judean Desert, medium Earth orbit (MEO orbit), See also Global Positioning System Spot 5 photography, 88 Luna 9 (spacecraft), 18 48, 49 Neptune, 64, 77 International Space Station, 56, 57 Jupiter, nebula, Cat's Eye, 59 64-65 Luna 10 (spacecraft), 18 objects in space, 61 Saturn, 4, 24, 64, 70, 71, Mir space station, 9, 14, 15, 24 Melvill, Mike, Neptune, 64 atmosphere, 69 lunar landing: See Moon exploration 90, 91 Uranus, 64, 76 objects in space, 60 Mercury Voyager mission, 76, 77 Cassini flyby, 70 Lunar Prospector, 23 (planet), 65 Venus, 65, 70, 73 Sputnik program, 10-11, 16 Mercury program, New Horizons mission, 4, 72-73 Europa, 68 Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter (LRO), 23 17, 18-19 See also Pluto Vostok program: See individual entries at Newton's third law of physics, 28 Vostok Galileo flight, 68-69 Lunar Rover, 22-23 animals in flight, 18 planetary system, 64-65 Mestral, George de, Nimbus (satellite), 9 Russian Space Agency (RKA), Io, 69, 70 Lyndon B. Johnson Control Center (NASA), 12 80 See also specific name, for example Mars 14, 15 Michoud Assembly Center New Horizons flyby, 72 floor plan, 44 (NASA), 12 Pluto, 64 microgravity, Pioneer flyby, 76 28-29 exploratory mission, 4 Voyager flyby, 24, 76 calcium loss, 40 New Horizons mission, 72-73 need for exercise, 41 O polycarbonate, technological developments, 81 S suborbital flight, 90 private space flight: See commercial space M Oberth, Hermann, microwave oven, technological developments, 80 10 flight satellite Mir space station, Opportunity (robot), 54-55 K Madrid (Spain), deep space communications 9, 14, 15, 24 propellant, 33 Canadian launch, 15 mission control, landing, 65 complex, 12 NASA centers, 44-45 communications satellite: See K band frequency, moon Mars exploration, 25, 47 communications satellite 49 magnetometer, 23 Ka band frequency, Moon exploration orbital maneuvering control system, 39 49 Mamagoose pajamas, infant monitoring, 80 Earth's satellite: See coverage area, 8 Kennedy, President John Fitzgerald, outer Van Allen belt, 49 18, 65 manned maneuvering unit (MMU), 29, 42, 43 Europa, 68 R environmental photography, 86 Kennedy Space Center oxygen, life in space, 56 (NASA), 12-13 manned spacecraft, 9 Io, 69, 70 frequency bands, 49 Kevlar, Global technological developments, 81 map Titan, 64 Radarsat (rocket), 15 Global Positioning System: See Komarov, Vladimir, Moon exploration Positioning System 19 cosmic background radiation, 24, 25 (Earth's satellite) radiation, cosmic background, 24-25 Kourou (French Guiana), 14, 31 Earth, 86-87 Apollo missions, 19, 20-21, 22-23 radio antenna network: See Deep Space Iridium system, 49, 83 Kuiper belt, New Horizons flyby mission, 72-73 Mariner (probe), 9 landing, 6-7, 20-21 Network objects in space, 60-61 100 INDEX SPACE EXPLORATION 101

orbital types, 48-49, 61 Columbia, 9 star training (space travel), 42 von Braun, Wernher, 10, 11 types, 9 control center, 45 Cat's Eye Nebula, 59 manned maneuvering unit, 43 Voshkod 1, 17 X-Z See also specific name, for example Landsat 7 crew cabin, 40 Eta Carinae, 59 microgravity, 29 Voshkod 2, 17 satellite images, Tsiolkovsky, Konstantin, Vostok 1 88-89 Discovery, 36-37, 38 61 Cygni, 10 10 (spacecraft), 6, 9, 16-17 X-ray observatory, Chandra, 50-51, 59 Saturn two-stage rocket, Vostok 5 docking at International Space Station, 57 supernova, 59 11 (spacecraft), 17, 33 X-ray spectrometer, 55 Vostok 6 exploratory mission, 4 launch comparison, 35 Supernova 1987A, 77 (spacecraft), 16, 17 Yeager, Chuck, 11 Strelka Vostok program, rings, 70 launching site facilities, 30-31 (dog), 16 16-17 Young, John, 18 Sun, Voyager 1, Titan, 64, 70, 71 travel phases, 38-39 65 24, 76 zero gravity: See microgravity space station Voyager missions, 24, 64, 76 Chandra X-ray observatory, 59 technical specifications, 77 Zvezda Module, International Space Station, Saturn V Voyager 2, (rocket), 19, 20, 33, 35 International Space Station: See heliosphere, 74 U 24, 76 56 Schmitt, Harrison, 22, 23 International Space Station heliosynchronous orbit, 86 photography, 64, 77 Shepard, Alan, 17, 18 Mir space station, 9, 14, 15, 24 Ulysses probe, 74-75 Ulysses (probe), 74-75 technical specifications, 77 silicone, technological developments, 81 Skylab, 9, 24 supernova, 59 study of the Sun, 65 V2 rocket, 33 61 Cygni (star), 10 types, 9 Supernova 1987A, 77 United States of America, 18 sky map, Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy space suit, 42-43 Surveyor 1 (spacecraft), 18, 65 astronautic pioneers, 10 Probe project, 25 space telescope, 25, 58-59 Swigert, John, 22 International Space Station, 56, 57 Skylab (space station), 9, 24 See also Hubble space telescope Syria, Spot 5 photography, 88 Kennedy Space Center: See Kennedy Space study of the Sun, 65 SpaceShipOne, 78-79, 90-91 Center W sleep, life in space, 41 spacewalk, 9 moon landing, 6-7: See also individual entries Smart 1 (spacecraft), 23 Armstrong, Neil, 42 at Apollo Wallops Flight Facility (NASA), 12 SOHO telescope, 59 clothing, 41, 42-43, 80-81 objects in space, 60 water study of the Sun, 65 first, 16, 17 T shuttle fleet, 36: See also individual names, Europa, 68 Sojourner (exploration vehicle), 9 Leonov, Aleksey, 16, 17 for example, Discovery health, 41 solar energy McCandless, Bruce, 42-43 TDRS satellite, 59 See also National Aeronautics and Space Mars, 52, 54, 66, 67 Hubble space telescope, 59 training, 43 technology, domestic applications of space Administration Moon, 23 Mars Exploration Rovers mission, 55 White, Edward, 42 exploration, 80-81 unmanned spacecraft, 9 weightlessness Mars Express, 8 Spain, deep space centers, 12 Teflon (polytetrafluoroethylene), technological Uranus, 64 exercise, 41 Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter, 53 spectrometer developments, 81 Voyager mission, 76 human body, 36, 40 Mir space station, 15 alpha particle spectrometer, 23 telephone, communication satellites, 83 USSR: See Russia microgravity, 28, 29 space probes, 52 CRISM spectrometer, 53 telescope movement, 36 solar wind, 74, 75 gamma ray spectrometer, 23 Hubble space telescope, 25, 29, 58-59, 61 West Bank, Spot 5 photography, 88 solid-fuel rocket, 19, 32, 35 Mars Exploration Rovers equipment, 55 SOHO telescope, 59, 65 White, Edward, 42 space shuttle, 37 Mars Odyssey equipment, 66 Spitzer telescope, 59 White Knight (launching aircraft), 90 sound barrier, first breaking, 11 Mössbauer spectrometer, 55 television, 82 V White Sands Test Center (NASA), 12 Soviet Union: See Russia Spirit (robot), 46-47, 54-55 Tereshkova, Valentina, 16, 17 Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe Soyuz 1, 19 landing, 65 THEMIS (thermal emission imaging Valles Marineris (Mars), 62-63 (WMAP), 24-25 Soyuz rocket, 15 Mars exploration, 25 system), 67 van Allen belt, 11, 49 sky map, 25 Apollo joint mission, 22, 23 Spitzer telescope, 59 thermal insulation, 32, 33 Vecran air bag, 54 women, in space: See Tereshkova, Valentina space accident, 19, 36 Spot 1 (satellite), 86 material, 81 vehicle assembly building, NASA, 30 work, schedule in space, 41 space junk, 60-61 Spot 5 (satellite), 86, 87 space shuttle, 37 Velcro, technological developments, 80 space probe, 52-53 Israel border region, 88 Titan (moon of Saturn), 64, 70 Venus See also specific names, for example 3-D images, 89 surface, 71 Cassini flyby, 70 Voyager 1 Sputnik 1 (satellite), 10-11 Tito, Dennis, 90 missions, 65, 73 space program, planning, 9 Sputnik 2 (satellite), 11, 16 toilet, life in space, 41 Venus Express mission, 65, 73 space shuttle, 26, 36-37 tourism, space, 78, 90-91 Viking (probe), 9, 24, 65