Received: 2 August 2015 Revised: 11 January 2017 Accepted: 16 January 2017

DOI: 10.1002/gea.21626

RESEARCH ARTICLE

The earliest Panamanian pottery: Reconstructing production and distribution of Monagrillo ceramics through petrographic provenance analysis

Fumie Iizuka1,2,3

1School of Social Sciences, Humanities and Arts, University of California Merced, Merced, CA, Abstract USA Monagrillo pottery (ca. 4500-3200 14C yr B.P.)is the earliest in Panama and one of the first ceram- 2Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences, ics in the New World. It is found in two distinct site types: (1) shell-bearing middens of the north- Tokyo Metropolitan University, Hachioji-shi, eastern Azuero Peninsula and (2) rock shelters of the Pacific plains, foothils, and cordillera, and Tokyo, Japan the Caribbean slopes of central Panama. Here, I present a study that sources Monagrillo ceram- 3School of Anthropology, University of Arizona, ics using petrography to distinguish locally produced from transported wares. Results indicate Tucson, AZ, USA that ceramics were mainly produced in two zones: northeastern Azuero, and the Pacific slopes Correspondence Fumie Iizuka, School of Social Sciences, around Río Grande. Diachronic changes in ceramic sources were not observed. A number of ves- Humanities and Arts, University of California sels found in the Pacific plains rock shelters in the intermediate area were wares transported Merced, 5200 North Lake Road, Merced, CA from both production zones. Most ceramics from the Caribbean slopes were manufactured on the 95343, USA. Email: fi[email protected] Pacific slopes. As the first systematic pottery sourcing project conducted in Panama, this research provides the basis for future evaluations of degrees of sedentism, patterns of human mobility, and exchange, which can improve the knowledge of the context of ceramic origins in New World tropics.

KEYWORDS ceramics, Monagrillo, panama, petrography, provenance

1 INTRODUCTION organization under which ceramic technology is first developed needs to be understood on a regional basis. Ceramic sourcing (e.g., Bong, The advent of pottery and its impact on early societies continue to Matsumura, Yokoyama, & Nakai, 2010; Dunning et al., 2015; Eerkens, be a topic of considerable archaeological research. Early perceptions Neff, & Glascock, 2002; Gonzales, Arakawa, & Koenig, 2015; Mange associating the emergence of pottery, food production, and increased & Bezeczky, 2006; Pavia, Marsaglia, & Fitzpatrick, 2013; Šegvić et al., sedentism or village life as characteristics of the Neolithic period, 2012) is one effective way of assessing the nature of the adoption of based upon examples from North Africa, West Asia, and Europe pottery through the identification of production zones, the intensity of (Childe, [1936]1951), triggered numerous debates in world archaeol- production, and the extent of circulation. ogy (Gibbs & Jordan, 2013; Jordan, & Zvelebil, 2009; Price, 2000). In In central Panama during the Late Preceramic period (ca. 7000– the tropics of the New World, the study of the timing of pottery adop- 5000/4500 14C yr B.P.), people cultivated a variety of domesticated tion, technology, and use in relationship to the sedentarization pro- seed and root crops (Dickau, 2010; Perry et al., 2007; Piperno, Ranere, cess (e.g., degrees of reliance on cultigens, levels and types of seden- Holst, & Hansell, 2000), while they hunted, gathered plant food, fished, tism, and population densities) has been a major topic of investigation. and shellfish collected (Cooke, 2005; Cooke & Ranere, 1992a,1992b). In the lower Brazilian Amazon (ca. 7600-7100 yr B.P.; Oliver, 2008; However, the degree of residential mobility of these groups continues Roosevelt, 1995) and Caribbean Colombia (ca. 6000 yr B.P.; Oyuela- to be debated (Cooke, 2005; Cooke & Jiménez, 2004; Cooke & Ranere, Caycedo, & Bonzani, 2005), early ceramic producers are reported to 1992b; Huard, 2013; Iizuka, 2013; Peres, 2001), and two contrast- have been mainly foragers with relatively high degrees of sedentism, ing positions have emerged: (1) people moved seasonally between the and the early Valdivia of southwest coastal Ecuador was character- interior, where they farmed in the rainy season, and the coast, where ized by an agricultural village lifeway (Damp & Vargas, 1995; Pearsall, they engaged in fishing and shell-fish collecting in the dry season, dur- Chandler-Ezell, & Zeidler, 2004; Raymond, 2008; Zarrillo, Pearsall, ing the Late Preceramic (Norr, 1995) and the Early Ceramic (ca. 4500– Raymond, Tisdale, & Quon, 2008). The variability in mobility and social 3200 14C yr B.P.; e.g., Hansell, 1979; Piperno & Pearsall, 1998; Ranere,

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1992), or (2) farmers became increasingly sedentary in the interior and this time was on a sandbar that was periodically inundated, making the coastal lowlands by the Early Ceramic period (e.g., Griggs, 2005), it uninhabitable (Cooke, 1984, 1995; Cooke & Ranere, 1992a; Peres, engaging in exchange of locally available resources. 2001). By ca. 3700–2950 14C yr B.P., a lagoon formed at Monagrillo, The first ceramic ware of Panama, Monagrillo (ca. 4500–3200 14C resulting in intensified fishing and shellfish collection and possibly per- yr B.P.), is presently the earliest known from Central America and manent occupation of the site (Hansell, 1979; Peres, 2001; Ranere & among the earliest in the New World, especially to the north of north- Hansell, 1978; Willey & McGimsey, 1954). Hearths, postholes, and pits ern South America (e.g., Cook, 1998; Cooke, 1995, 2005; Hoopes, are known from this period (Ranere & Hansell, 1978). After this period, 1995; Iizuka, Cooke, Frame, & Vandiver, 2014; Oyuela-Caycedo, & the occupation declined due to the formation of alvina (salt flats). Bonzani, 2005; Sassaman, 1998). A sourcing study of Monagrillo pot- After a period of sporadic resource use at Zapotal, the occupation tery to identify production zones and circulation patterns, combined intensified between ca. 3500–2900 14C yr B.P. when the area became with contextual information, can help to illuminate the relationship an active delta of the Santa María River (Cooke & Ranere,1992a). The between the adoption of pottery, sedentism, mobility, and economy. occupation later declined due to coastal progradation (Peres, 2001, Here, I present a petrographic analysis of Monagrillo pottery to help p. 124). Monagrillo pottery is found throughout the entire sequence at evaluate provenance and infer distribution patterns. both shell-bearing middens. This research builds on the preliminary Monagrillo provenance At rock shelters on the Pacific and the Caribbean sides of the study by Iizuka et al. (2014) and draws on Iizuka (2013). As the first isthmus, including the Ladrones, Aguadulce, Carabalí, Corona, Los systematic pottery sourcing research in Panama, this study provides a Santanas, and Calaveras sites (Cooke, & Ranere, 1992b; Dickau, firm foundation for evaluating settlement systems and the economy of 2005), Monagrillo period occupations are found overlaying the people in central Panama when they adopted ceramic technology and Late Preceramic occupation (ca. 7000–4500 14C yr B.P.). Conti- also contributes to the debate on ceramic origins. nuity in Late Preceramic chipped and ground stone tools to the Early Ceramic, and macro and microbotanical remains of plant food between the two periods (e.g., Cooke & Ranere, 1992b; 2 BACKGROUND Dickau, 2010; Dickau, Ranere, & Cooke, 2007; Piperno et al., 2000) suggest that the Preceramic inhabitants may have adopted 2.1 Archaeological context pottery. Monagrillo pottery is found in central Panama in the area bounded by western El Valle, the mouth of Parita river in the northwestern Azuero 2.2 Pottery chronology and paste variability Peninsula, the western Santa María drainage basin, and the central Caribbean slopes (Fig. 1; e.g., Cooke, 1995, 2005). This is the only area There are two chronological schemes for the early ceramic sequence in Panama with ceramics dated to this time period. Fourteen sites con- in Panama. One scheme has two subperiods, the Early Ceramic A taining Monagrillo ware have been recorded in five distinct locations: and Early Ceramic B. The Early Ceramic A is the Monagrillo pot- (1) shell-bearing middens in the northwest coast of the Azuero Penin- tery complex (ca. 4500–3200 14C yr B.P.), and the Early Ceramic sula by Parita Bay: Monagrillo, He12, He18, La Mula-Sarigua, Zapotal, B(ca. 3200–2500 14C yr B.P.) consists of the pottery complex for- Ag66, and Ag88; (2) the Aguadulce rock shelter located in the Pacific merly called Sarigua, which Sánchez Herrera (2007) tentatively calls plains; (3) the Cueva de los Ladrones (hereafter, Ladrones), Cebollal, “Incised and Appliqué,” based on ceramics from Cebollal (e.g., Willey & and the Carabalí rock shelters of the Pacific foothills; (4) the Los San- McGimsey 1954; Stirling and Stirling 1987; Cooke, 1984; 1995, 2005; tanas and Río Cobre rock shelters of the Pacific Cordillera; and (5) Biese 1967; Griggs 2005; Iizuka et al., 2014; Isaza-Aizpurua 1993; the Calaveras rock shelter located on the Caribbean slopes (Bird & Mayo 2006; Peres, 2001; Sánchez Herrera 2007). The second scheme Cooke 1978; Cooke, 1984, 1995; Griggs, 2005; Hansell, 1988; Peres, is labeled Early Ceramic (ca. 4500–2500 14C yr B.P.; Cooke, 1995, 2001; Piperno et al., 2000; Ranere & Hansell 1978; Sánchez Herrera, 2005; Dickau, 2005; Sánchez Herrera, 2007), and toward the end of 2007; Valerio Lobo, 1985; Willey, & McGimsey, 1954). A Monagrillo- the Monagrillo period, additional vessel forms and decorations were like sherd with carbonized residue from the Vaca de Monte site, for- added to pottery produced with an unchanged paste recipe (Cooke, merly considered to have been associated with the Early Ceramic com- 1995). ponent, was radiocarbon dated by Iizuka in 2009. This sample yielded a Monagrillo vessels tend to have bowls with somewhat restricted date 432 ± 35 14C yr B.P.(AA83424), an age outside the Early Ceramic to unristricted mouths and have rounded bases without lugs or feet. range. Therefore, this site is not included among the sites associated Vessel lips are similar in thickness and are generally thinner when with Monagrillo pottery in this paper. compared to the body thickness. Decorations, including incisions, are Sites that contain Monagrillo pottery can be classified into two rare, and some vessels have red slips. Early Ceramic B vessels are major types: shell-bearing middens and rock shelters. The chronolog- not well understood; however, they have additional forms when com- ical relationship between the occupation of these types requires dis- pared to Monagrillo ware, including collared rims with globular bod- cussion. Studies at the Monagrillo and Zapotal shell-bearing middens ies and possibly, cylindrical chalices with everted rims. Decorations near the coast suggest that their occupational intensities were affected include incisions, stems, punctations, appliqués, and striations (Cooke, by sea-level changes. The earliest use at Monagrillo (ca. 4400–3700 1995; Iizuka, 2013; Iizuka et al., 2014; Sánchez Herrera, 2007; Willey 14C yr B.P.) was sporadic because the paleocoastline at the site at & McGimsey, 1954). IIZUKA 3

FIGURE 1 Geological map and legend of central Panama with map showing archaeological sites containing early pottery discussed in paper [Color figure can be viewed at wileyonlinelibrary.com] Note: The geological map was produced with the assistance of Natalia Hoyos and taken from the original map produced by del Giudice and Ricchi (1969). Small squares in white are locations of Monagrillo sites with associated site names used in Panamanian archaeology. The black line in the map divides the Azuero and Cordillera geological divisions. Letters A through H in black are archaeological sites that are studied and are coded for this project.

Ladrones and Aguadulce rock shelters near Parita Bay had a high did not determine whether coarse, fresh, and angular mineral grains density of sherds, whereas rock shelters away from Parita Bay had also found in pottery were from sand or crushed intrusive rocks. lower densities (e.g., Cooke, 1995, mentions Río Cobre in particular, but also includes Carabalí, Los Santanas, and Corona. See also Valerio 2.3 Geological context Lobo, 1985). Previous studies have reported pottery from Aguadulce as being characterized as richer in fine quartz than that at Monagrillo Central Panamanian geology is characterized by great petrologic and or Ladrones. Ceramics from Monagrillo had more varied surface col- geochemical variation, and is a promising location for ceramic prove- ors and were harder than those from Ladrones due to postdepositional nance studies. There are two distinct zones (Fig. 1). The first geological modification at Ladrones (Cooke, 1995: 173). However, production region is the older Azuero Peninsula (here referred to as the Azuero). zones based on these criteria were not clearly identified. Iizuka et al.’s The Azuero projects southward into the Pacific Ocean from the isth- (2014) pilot study of 30 ceramic and six modern clayey soil samples mus. In general terms, Azuero geology consists of sequences of Eocene identified two paste inclusion types: one of granitic rock-based natu- to Oligocene (?) forearc sediments overlying the volcanic/plutonic ral inclusions from the Azuero Peninsula, and the other composed of Azuero Marginal complex (Buchs, Baumgartner, Baumgartner-Mora, extrusive igneous rocks found near all Monagrillo sites. The pilot study Flores, & Bandini, 2011, p. 32). The Azuero plutonic units have a 4 IIZUKA silicic to mafic composition, a volcanic unit that includes rocks with Mula-Sarigua (n = 3), Zapotal (n = 21), Aguadulce (n = 20), Carabalí phenocrysts of alkali-feldspar uncommon in the Cordillera, and sedi- (n = 2), Ladrones (n = 23), Cebollal (n = 26 of which n = 21 were mentary units that contain materials that are petrographically distinct assigned to Monagrillo and n = 5 were assigned to Incised and (e.g., siltstone and limestone). The second geological region, the Cen- Appliqué), and Calaveras (n = 20; Supplementary Text S1). Quality Thin tral Cordillera, here referred to as the Cordillera, is on the northern is- Sections of Tucson, Arizona, made 10 polished samples, and Spectrum thmus where a chain of volcanoes forms the central mountain range. Petrographics of Vancouver, Washington, made 127 polished samples. The stratigraphic units of El Valle and La Yeguada (Fig. 1) have a sim- Monagrillo sites are coded in the results section as follows: Monagrillo ilar geological history. Their middle Miocene to Quaternary volcanic as A, La Mula-Sarigua as B, Zapotal as C, Aguadulce as D, Carabalí as E, units overlie the regional basement (Hoernle et al., 2002 in Hidalgo, Ladrones as F, Cebollal as G, and Calaveras as H (Fig. 1). Vogel, Rooney, Currier, & Layer, 2011). The Cordilleran geological for- The major focus of this study is the Early Ceramic A period (ca. mations related to this study with volcanic geological units are as fol- 4500–3200 14C yr B.P.). Some samples from the Cebollal site include lows: The El Valle, La Yeguada, San Pedrito, and Cañazas Formations. not only Monagrillo ware from the Early Ceramic A period, but also The El Valle has evidence of a large-scale pyroclastic flow (the El Hato Incised and Appliqué sherds that are likely from the Early Ceramic B ignimbrite (∼>31.8 ka), covering nearly the entire southwestern side period (ca. 3200–2500 14C yr B.P.). Radiocarbon dates associated with of the El Valle volcano and its fan. This flow is reported to be from the ceramic samples are given in Table II. Ladrones has older radio- one of the largest Quaternary eruptions in Central America (Hidalgo, carbon dates for Monagrillo pottery than other sites. Cooke (1995) 2007; Hidalgo et al., 2011). The El Hato-derived ash and pumice frag- accepts TEM-119 and TEM-124 as potentially the earliest dates for ments continue to be deposited at the mouths of a series of small Monagrillo pottery at Ladrones with reservations, because the ceram- rivers that drain the El Valle fan (Hidalgo, 2007, p. 28). The El Valle ics were found in a basin-like feature that may have contained organic and La Yeguada contain volcanic rocks with phenocrysts (e.g., plagio- materials older than the pottery. The original radiocarbon and recali- clase, quartz, pyroxene, and amphibole). In terms of literature-based brated dates adopted in this paper include TEM-119, 5180 ± 100 14C differences in mineral presence, the El Valle has minor amounts of yr B.P., and TEM-124, 4250 ± 100 14C yr B.P. Cooke suggests that the sphene (e.g., Hidalgo et al., 2011) and the La Yeguada contains olivine, younger dates, TEM-120, TEM-121, and TEM-122, were taken from a apatite, and zircon (e.g., Defant, Richerson et al., 1991). The San Pedrito context below the levels where many Monagrillo ceramics were recov- and Cañazas Formations, which include porphyritic volcanic rocks, ered but the primary use of Monagrillo pottery may not be younger are similar to the La Yeguada in terms of phenocrysts types, but the than these dates (see also Table II). Given these possibilities, Cooke presence of quartz phenocryst has not been reported in literature (1984, 1995) suggests that the use of ceramics at Ladrones began by (e.g., Lissina, 2005). The detailed rock and mineral characteristics from about 5000 years ago. Ladrones dates are overlapping in ages with geological formations associated with this study are summarized in the younger dates available from Calaveras, on the Caribbean slopes, Table I. and the Pacific coastal shell-bearing midden sites. The Calaveras site The geological variability within the Azuero and between the has dates between 3200 ± 50 14C yr B.P. and 3410 ± 40 14CyrB.P. Azuero and the Cordillera is high enough that identifications of ceramic associated with the Early Ceramic A. In terms of shell-bearing mid- sources should be possible. The Monagrillo and La Mula-Sarigua sites dens, a sporadic occupation occurred at Monagrillo between ca. 2400 are located by the mouth of the Parita River, which brings sediments and 2000 B.C. or ca. 4400 and 3700 14C yr B.P. (Cooke, 1984, 1995; from the geological units of the interior Azuero to Parita Bay. The Peres, 2001), and ca. 4000-3500 14C yr B.P. at Zapotal (Peres, 2001). remaining sites (Zapotal, Aguadulce, Carabalí, Ladrones, Cebollal, and Major occupation with increased evidence of sedentism and intensi- Calaveras) and major rivers running near them are situated within the fied subsistence activities occurred at Monagrillo between ca. 2000 Central Cordilleran geological units, but Zapotal and Aguadulce are and 1500 B.C. (Cooke, 1995), or between ca. 3700 and 2950 14Cyr located in the alluvial unit along the Pacific coastal plain. B.P. (Peres, 2001), and between ca. 3500 and 2900 14CyrB.P.at Zapotal (Peres, 2001, pp. 122-123). These dates suggest that the major occupations of the sites were roughly contemporary, so the sourcing 3 MATERIALS AND METHODS research can be used to infer production and circulation patterns. The Aguadulce site on the Pacific plains has one radiocarbon date, 4250 14 Approximately 2800 Monagrillo sherds were analyzed visually, and ± 60 C yr B.P., for the Early Ceramic period. This site has com- using inclusion types, technology, and vessel body locations, the most pacted occupational layers, and further understanding of the chrono- variable pottery samples from each selected site for this study were logical association is based on the ceramic style. The Cebollal site in chosen for thin sectioning (n = 137, ∼ 5% of the total sherds visually the Pacific foothills had no radiocarbon dates, and reliable radiocar- studied). bon dates are not available for the La Mula-Sarigua site from the Early Ceramic A component; pottery from these sites is described within a relative chronology based on ceramic styles. Since radiocarbon sam- 3.1 Provenancing: Ceramics and raw materials ples have varied contexts (excavators, materials, recovery techniques, selected for thin sections years, laboratories, and environmental conditions), a detailed examina- Pottery samples were selected from varied elevations, site types and tion of radiocarbon contexts within the Early Ceramic period is needed uses, and availability of resources, including Monagrillo (n = 22), La but is beyond the scope of this paper. IIZUKA 5

TABLE I Summary of Azuero and Cordillera geology with emphasis on rock types and mineralogy

Azuero Geology Intrusive units Valle Riquito and Loma Montuoso Formations (∼68–71 Ma) range between silicic to mafic composition including quartz monozonites, granodiorites, granites, gabbros, and diorites with constituent minerals such as plagioclase, clinopyroxene, amphibole, biotite, titanomagnetite, quartz, and alkali-feldspar (Lissina, 2005, p. 60; Buchs et al., 2010, 2011). Large amphibole and zircon grains are often noted in differentiated intrusives (Buchs et al., 2011, p. 21) Sedimentary units Ocú and Tonosí Formations consist of limestones, including planktic foraminifera, some having interbedded tuffs, with detrital components including quartz, amphibole, pumice, and zoned feldspars (Buchs et al., 2011, p. 35; del Giudice, and Recchi, 1969 in Buchs et al., 2011, p. 35). Volcanic complex Playa Venado Formation includes basalt, andesite, trachybasalt, trachyandesite, and dacite lavas, typically having intergranular to porphyritic textures. Major phenocrysts are zoned plagioclase, alkali-feldspar, greenish clinopyroxene, amphibole, and quartz (Lissina, 2005, p. 60; Buchs et al., 2010, 2011). Buchs et al. (2010, 2011) report that the Playa Venado Formation also surrounds the intrusive unit, Valle Riquito Formation, at the mouth of the Parita River. Forearc sediments Pesé Formation, consists of turbidites and limestones (Buchs et al., 2011, p. 33; this is identified as Late Eocene or Early Miocene Forearc sediments of Tonosí Formation in Buchs et al., 2011). Tonosí Formation Tonosí Formation contains conglomerate, coarse sandstone, limestone, siltstone, shale, and calcarenite (e.g., turbidites; Krawinkel, Wozazek, Krawinkel, & Hellmann, 1999, p. 150; Buchs et al., 2011, p. 37). Sandstones can contain augite and diopsode (Krawinkel et al., 1999), and monocrystalline plagioclase can show oscillatory zoning (Krawinkel et al., 1999, p. 37). The detrital component includes basaltic fragments, chert, alkali-feldspar, clinopyroxene, hornblende, and opaque oxides. Cordillera geology–El Valle El Hato Ignimbrite El Hato ignimbrite (∼>31.8 ka) contains pumice fragments that contain phenocrysts of plagioclase (resorbed with or without complex zoning), amphibole, quartz, and oxides (Hidalgo, 2007; Hidalgo et al., 2011) Porphyritic andesites Porphyritic andesites (some with trachytic textures; major phenocrysts: plagioclase, clinopyroxene, orthopyroxene, titanomagnetite) with groundmass containing glass of Llano Tigre (5.2–10.2 Ma; Defant, Clark et al., 1991; Hidalgo et al., 2011). Most plagioclase phenocrysts display complex zoning and are embayed or resorbed, and have anhedral to euhedral shapes. Clinopyroxene and orthopyroxene are common (Defant, Clark et al., 1991, p. 316). Dacitic pyroclastic flows Domes (109 ± 7 ka) and Iguana (56 ± 14–85 ± 20 ka) units have porphyritic dacitic lava (major phenocrysts: amphibole and plagioclase; Hidalgo, 2007; Hidalgo et al., 2011). There is evidence of dacitic pyroclastic flows at the dacitic dome (Defant, Clark et al., 1991, p. 309). Dome unit dacites are crystalline and hypocrystalline, and are dominated by phenocrysts of (1) plagioclase with discontinuous zoning or with nucleation on resorbed quartz and amphiboles, or that contains amphiboles in cores, (2) amphiboles having orthopyroxene or ghost crystals in cores or with opaque rims, (3) quartz that can appear embayed, (4) biotite, (5) Fe-Ti oxides (titanomagnetite in Defant, Clark et al., 1991), and (6) sphene (Hidalgo, 2007; Hidalgo et al., 2011). There is also mineralogically similar Iguana unit in El Valle. Cordillera geology–La Yeguada Older porphyritic rocks The older group consists of (1) lavas and tuffs, ignimbrites, and breccias (∼10.53–14.70 Ma) intruded by basaltic and andesitic dikes (12.17 Ma), (2) rhyodacitic pyroclastic deposit, (3) rhyolitic pyroclastic flow (Ar/Ar: 11.26 Ma, K/Ar: 9.73 Ma), and (4) andesitic unit (7.15 Ma; Defant, Richerson et al., 1991, 1105). Major phenocrysts are plagioclase (including normal, reverse, oscillatory, and discontinuous zoning with embayed, resorbed, anhedral to euhedral shapes), pyroxene (embayed and resorbed, euhedral to subhedral, with lamellar twinning, and rarely, oscillatory zoning, mainly of augite and scantily of pigeonite composition), Fe-Ti oxides (ulvöspinel-magnetite [e.g., titanomagnetite] and few ilmenite-hematite, euhedral to subhedral, can appear within pyroxene), ± olivine, and ± orthopyroxene (bronzites or hypersthenes; Defant, Richerson et al., 1991, 1119–1225). Younger porphyritic rocks The younger group contains (1) dacitic domes (4.47 and 1.8 Ma) and (2) lava flow (Ar/Ar: 32,000 ± 15,000 ka; K/Ar: 0.52 Ma, < 0.1 Ma; Defant, Richerson et al., 1991; Knutsen, 2010). Phenocrysts are plagioclase, amphibole, Fe-Ti oxide, quartz, ± biotite, and minor apatite and zircon (Defant, Richerson et al., 1991, 1119). Cordillera geology–others Porphyritic volcanic rocks The San Pedrito (34–40 Ma) formation south of La Yeguada has basaltic, basaltic andesitc to andesitic lavas, tuffs, and conglomorates. Phonocrysts of plagioclase, olivine, and clinopyroxene can be found (Lissina, 2005, pp. 51, 60–61). The Cañazas Formation (Miocene) extending in areas south, east, and west of the La Yeguada volcanic complex has basaltic, basaltic andesites to andesitic lavas, dacites, and tuffs (Lissina, 2005, pp. 51, 61). Phenocrysts include plagioclase, clino-pyroxene, amphibole (with subordinate biotite), orthopyroxene, and titanomagnetite (Lissina, 2005, p. 61). Geological units and ages (Fig. 1) are based on del Giudice and Recchi (1969), unless otherwise noted.

A total of 85 raw material samples, including 29 clayey soils soil samples, used for technological studies, were made into fired and four sand samples from central Panama were gathered from briquettes (Iizuka, 2013). These samples were fired at 750°C(n = potential source areas and broadly representative of geological units 6), 800°C(n = 4), 900°C(n = 2), and 800°C or 900°C(n = 3) with a (TableIII, Fig. 2). Several clayey soil samples (n = 14) included materials soak time of 15 minutes (Table III). Among these samples, six fired at gathered and used currently by local potters (Table III). Fifteen clayey 750°C were embedded in blue epoxy and were made into polished 6 IIZUKA

TABLE II Radiocarbon ages of Early Ceramic period sites relevant to this project

Site Site Code Year of Excavation Context Laboratory No. Material 14CyrB.P. Cal.yrB.P.(2𝝈) Monagrillo A 1975 B2East, 20–30 cm SI-2838 Charcoal 3385 ± 75 3830–3460 Monagrillo A 1975 B2East, 50–60 cm SI-2839 Charcoal 3485 ± 100 4070–3483 Monagrillo A 1975 B2East, 95–100 cm SI-2840 Charcoal 3615 ± 80 4419–3702 Monagrillo A 1975 B2East, 164–169 cm TEM-208 Shell 4350 ± 165 5455–4448 Zapotal C 1987 C32 Ext Beta-20849 Shell 3850 ± 70 4496–4008 Zapotal C 1987 C35 Beta-21389 Shell 4010 ± 100 4825–4193 Zapotal C 1987 C2/3, Grey Zone Beta-20850 Shell 3520 ± 80 4065–3590 Zapotal C 1987 TP, Ext, L3 Beta-9574 Shell 3500 ± 80 3979–3577 Zapotal C 1987 C22 Beta-21388 Shell 3610 ± 70 4144–3716 Aguadulce D 1997 Zone B, 12–17 cm bs UCR-3418 Phytoliths 4250 ± 60 4966–4585 Carabalí E 1987 CP20, Lev 9 (40–45cm) Beta-19101 Charcoal 2920 ± 180 3557–2737 Ladrones F 1974 A0, Lev7/8, 71–76 cm TEM-122 Charcoal 3880 ± 80 4522-4085 Ladrones F 1974 A1, Lev2b, on rock TEM-124 Charcoal 4520 ± 100 5464-4868 Ladrones F 1974 A1, Lev3, 30–45 cm TEM-119 Shell 5180 ± 100 6208-5664 Ladrones F 1974 A2A, Lev 4 TEM-120 Shell 3770 ± 80 4411-3928 Ladrones F 1974 A2A, Lev 5 TEM-121 Shell 3860 ± 90 4520-3989 Calaveras H 1998 and 1999 Unit 1.47, feature 4, 55–60 cm Beta-131423 Carbonized wood 3200 ± 50 3561-3275 Calaveras H 1998 and 1999 Unit 1.45, feature 1, 70–80 cm Beta-131421 Carbonized wood 3210 ± 60 3577-3260 Calaveras H 1998 and 1999 Unit 1.59, feature 2, 40–45 cm Beta-131425 Carbonized wood 3300 ± 50 3677-3403 Calaveras H 1998 and 1999 Unit 2.01, 80–90 cm Beta-143855 Carbonized wood 3410 ± 40 3825-3566

Radiocarbon dates are from Richard Cooke (personal communication, 2006), Cooke (1984), Eldridge (1979), Laboratory of Archaeology, University of British Colombia, Ancient Maiz Map, Sample 379 (en.ancientmaize.com/micro_samples/379) Ancient Maize Map (en.ancientmaize.com/micro samples/379), Griggs (2005), Piperno et al., 2000, and Anthony Ranere (personal communication, 2012). Calibration was performed with OxCal 4.2 and IntCal13 calibration curve and provided at 2𝜎 standard error. Samples UCR-3418, TEM-120, and TEM-121 were not corrected for 𝛿13C fractionation and for TEM-120 and 121, reser- voir effects. TEM-120 and TEM-121 are likely ∼300-400 years older than their measured ages based on other shell dates from Panama. thin sections for a pilot study (Iizuka et al., 2014). The rest of the fired 4 RESULTS and unfired raw material samples (n = 27) were embedded in clear epoxy and were made into polished thin sections (sand samples were 4.1 Pottery petrography and provenance embedded in clear expoxy, in the optical laboratory at the School of All the pottery samples analyzed have lithic and mineral inclusions. Anthropology of the University of Arizona [SoA-UA]). Thin sections of Some samples have evidence of postdepositional alteration, containing raw material samples were produced at Quality Thin Sections. secondary calcite or gibbsite. Three pottery petrographic groups, Type 1, Type 2, and Type 3, are recognized based on inclusions that identify sources (see also Supplementary Table SI).

4.1.1 Pottery Type 1 3.2 Provenancing: Ceramic and raw material Type 1 pottery (n = 14) tends to have 30–40% inclusions, two to three petrographic study times higher proportion of mineral inclusions to rock fragments, and Polished thin sections of ceramics and raw materials were studied granitic fragments and single crystals of quartz and alkali-feldspars using a polarized light microscope, Nikon Eclipse 50i POL, at the as the primary inclusions, with subordinate plagioclase. There are Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute (STRI), and transmitted and minor amounts of amphibole, magnetite, and biotite. The granitic reflected polarized light microscopes, Olympus BX-51 and BH2, at inclusions sometimes contain accessory epidote and tourmaline; SoA-UA. Minerals and rock fragments were identified. The approx- myrmekitic intergrowths of quartz and feldspar are occasionally noted imate inclusion abundance percentage was estimated based on the (Tables IV and V). There are trace to minor amounts of weathered vol- visual examination of percentage of minerals in rock sections (Terry & canic rock inclusions, mainly felsic. There is no clear indication of inten- Chilingar, 1955). Pottery was classified into inclusion types and com- tionally added inclusions. Type 1 is found only at the Monagrillo site pared with results from the raw material petrographic thin section (n = 14). This type was found throughout the occupation of the site study. Detailed petrographic descriptions in this paper were derived (sample A183 of level 160–170 cm, studied visually [Iizuka, 2013], sam- from Iizuka (2013), with additional microscopic observations made for ple A179 of level 100–110 cm, studied in thin section, and sample A6 this paper. of level 0–10 cm, studied in thin section) of Block 2, the excavation unit. IIZUKA 7

TABLE III Raw material provenience and material contexts

Firing Temperatures (°C) of Used by Samples Used Altitude Raw Mate- Depositional Clay Modern to Make Thin Collection_ID Easting Northing (m asl) Geological Unit rial/Lithotype Context Quality Potters Sections FIR0011 553116 867559 38 Ocú_Fm Clay B H I FIR0014 558786 881083 63 ValleRiquito_Fm Clay B G Yes I FIR0017 552309 882804 62 ValleRiquito_Fm Clay B H I FIR0024 551864 896852 19 RíoHato_Fm Clay B G I FIR0025 553462 891916 17 RíoHato_Fm Clay B G I FIR0038 519564 872929 208 Ocú_Fm Dacitic tuff A N/A I bedrock clay FIR0042 561233 885405 25 Pesé_Fm Clay B G I FIR0046 560440 885231 26 Pesé_Fm Clay B G 750 FIR0047 561223 885678 15 Pesé_Fm Clay B G 750 FIR0052 502069 917090 Cañazas_Fm Clay B G Yes 800 FIR0053 502186 917319 264 Cañazas_Fm Clay B, F G Yes 800 FIR0062 526352 925062 171 Cañazas_Fm Clay B G Yes I FIR0067 550705 886134 82 Pesé_Fm Clay A N/A Yes 800/900 FIR0068 550705 886212 68 Pesé_Fm Clay A H Yes 900 FIR0080 510019 938941 596 LaYeguada_Fm Clay B G Yes 800/900 FIR0081 510027 938857 557 LaYeguada_Fm Clay B G Yes 800/900 FIR0083 509900 938996 609 LaYeguada_Fm Clay B G Yes I FIR0085 510069 938827 554 LaYeguada_Fm Sand C N/A Yes 900 FIR0088 558358 946002 Cañazas_Fm Clay B G I FIR0097 556629 940570 RíoHato_Fm Clay B, F G 750 FIR0098 556653 940660 292 RíoHato_Fm Clay B, F G 750 FIR0102 555285 940940 268 Cañazas_Fm Clay B G 750 FIR0103 554460 940942 213 Cañazas_Fm Clay B G 750 FIR0119 597498 955393 708 ElValle_Fm Pyroclastic sand C, D N/A I on hill wall FIR0120 597782 955661 705 ElValle_Fm Sand F N/A I FIR0126 596881 954329 862 ElValle_Fm Sand C N/A I FIR0131 607493 942470 230 ElValle_Fm Clay B G Yes 800 FIR0133 607316 942564 232 ElValle_Fm Clay B G Yes 800 FIR0137 592945 946857 541 RíoHato_Fm Clay B G Yes I FIR0145 565827 941779 89 RíoHato_Fm Clay B, C G Yes I FIR0170 542160 966905 103 Tocúe_Fm Clay B N/A I FIR0178 542456 966782 156 Tocúe_Fm Clay B N/A I FIR0182 541547 967944 44 Tocúe_Fm Clay A N/A I

Raw material collection ID, UTM coordinates (zone 17N), altitude, geological units, raw material type, geological units (Fm indicates formation), methods of study, sediment provenience, modern potter use, and firing temperatures of clayey sediments used to make thin sections. A, bedrock (clayey sediment); B, top to subsurface (clayey sediment); C, away from rivers (rock/sand); D, outcrop (rock); E, major rivers; F, stream; G, good quality; H, not good quality; I, unfired.

Samples A170 (Fig. 3A) and A15 are representative of Type 1 pot- and angular tourmaline, fresh and angular zircon and epidote, rounded tery. In A170, major inclusions are granite (grain sizes of 0.2–0.8 and very weathered biotite, hematite, and weathered and angular mm) and single grains of rounded, fresh to weathered quartz in large tourmaline and lithic fragments of chert, rhyolite, volcanic glass, and amounts, which are likely to have been derived from granite. Minor trachyte. This sherd has volcanic rock fragments mixed in granitic rock- inclusions are fresh to weathered angular plagioclase. There are trace based paste inclusions. amounts of single minerals of alkali-feldspar (somewhat weathered In sample A15, most of the inclusions are single grains of and angular), fresh and angular amphibole and magnetite, weathered fresh quartz and lesser amounts of somewhat weathered possible 8 IIZUKA

and generally larger amounts of volcanic rocks (often porphyritic) com- pared to single mineral grains (derived from porphyritic volcanic rocks). Rock fragments also include plutonic rocks. More than one-third of the sherds contain trace to minor amounts of fresh to very weathered felsic to mafic plutonic rock fragments. Volcanic rocks have high vari- ability in composition, texture, and degree of weathering. The major types of single mineral grains derived from phenocrysts are quartz and plagioclase, with some sherds also having likely alkali-feldspar (sani- dine). Oscillatory zoning of feldspars is commonly noted. Minor to trace amounts of amphibole, magnetite, biotite, epidote, and volcanic quartz are present. A few sherds have trace amounts of pyroxene and zircon, and one sherd (A142a; Fig. 3E) has aragonite (shell). Type 2 samples commonly contain a few highly weathered felsic to mafic plutonic rock fragments. Mafic intrusive rocks are often heavily hematite-stained, and thus opaque (Tables IV and V). The identification of plutonic rock fragments required the use of reflected light microscopy on polished thin sections. Raw materials found in Type 2 pottery, containing varied rocks and minerals, appear to have been naturally or artificially mixed with raw materials in a fluvial or alluvial environment; hence the occur- rence of shell clasts. Representative examples of Type2 sherds include C13, C17, A142a, FIGURE 2 Geological map of central Panama with the Early Ceramic E1, and E2. C13 (Fig. 3B) from Zapotal has very poorly sorted inclusions period sites discussed in this paper and collection locations of raw with approximately 40–50% of lithics and minerals, of which the lithics materials made into thin sections [Color figure can be viewed at wiley- consist of about double the amount of minerals. Inclusions consist of onlinelibrary.com] a variety of igneous materials: a large amount of rounded and weath- Note: The legend for this map, adopted from del Giudice and Ricchi (1969), is the same as that in Figure 1. White squares with site names ered rhyolite (sometimes heavily hematite stained), minor amounts are sites with Early ceramics chosen for this study. Raw materials are of rounded and fresh dacite with phenocrysts of plagioclase, zoned in black dots and in lowercase letters: (a) FIR0011; (b) FIR0038; (c) feldspar, and amphibole, trace amounts of very weathered angular tuff, FIR0014; (d) FIR0067,0068; (e) FIR0017; (f) FIR0025; (g) FIR0046; fresh and rounded volcanic glass with bubbles, weathered and rounded (h) FIR0042, 0047; (i) FIR0024; (j) FIR0052, 0053; (k) FIR0062; andesite/basalt, very weathered and rounded intermediate to basic (l) FIR0080, 0081, 0083, 0085; (m) FIR0102, 0103; (n) FIR0097, 0098; (o) FIR0088; (p) FIR0145; (q) FIR0131, 0133; (r) FIR0137; (s) FIR0119, volcanic rock, weathered and angular trachyte, and very weathered 0120, 0126; (t) FIR0170, 0178; (u) FIR0182. and rounded microdiorite and diorite/gabbro. There are trace amounts of fresh and angular chert (polycrystalline material possibly of volcanic origin). Single minerals of phenocrysts include fresh and angular quartz alkali-feldspar. Relatively large amounts of granite fragments are also in moderate amounts, plagioclase, minor amounts of zoned plagioclase, found, which include quartz, alkali-feldspar, and lesser quantities of and trace amounts of amphibole, zircon, epidote, magnetite, and vol- plagioclase, and minor amounts of tourmaline and epidote. Minor canic quartz. Trace amounts of hematite are heavily weathered and amounts of weathered alkali-feldspar, fresh to weathered magnetite, biotite are moderately weathered. and trace amounts of single grains of weathered plagioclase, fresh to C17 from Zapotal has about 20–30% of lithics and minerals, with weathered amphibole, fresh and rounded epidote, fresh biotite, fresh the lithics comprising about four times the amount of minerals. They myrmekite, fresh zircon, and weathered tourmaline, and rock frag- include moderate amounts of very weathered intermediate to basic ments of rhyolite are also encountered. rounded volcanic rocks (hematite stained), minor amounts of fresh and The qualitative observation of angularities, the somewhat weath- rounded trachyte with or without phenocrysts of zoned plagioclase ered state of plagioclase and alkali-feldspar minerals, the even state of and amphibole, rounded and fresh dacite with plagioclase and quartz weathering of the same minerals within the paste, and a relatively even phenocrysts, very weathered rounded tuff, trace amounts of fresh and distribution of size ranges of quartz fragments do not provide evidence angular hypocrystalline rhyolite with or without phenocrysts, fresh of added inclusions. Inclusions of Type 1 pottery can occur naturally, and angular granodiorite, very weathered and rounded microgab- although it is possible that sand of this kind was intentionally added to bro/diorite, weathered and rounded intermediate to basic intrusive clayey soils containing granitic materials. rocks, very weathered and rounded andesite/basalt, fresh and angular spherulitic textured volcanic rocks, and fresh to weathered, rounded 4.1.2 Pottery Type 2 chert. There are also moderate amounts of fresh and angular quartz, Pottery Type 2 (n = 42) was found at Monagrillo (n = 6), La Mula- plagioclase, and zoned feldspar (including subhedral forms), and trace Sarigua (n = 3), Zapotal (n = 20), Aguadulce (n = 10), Carabalí (n = 2), amounts of fresh and angular biotite, amphibole, epidote, and zir- and Cebollal (n = 1). Type 2 pottery tends to have 20–50% inclusions con. Secondary calcite is found in vessel pores. An example of a very IIZUKA 9

TABLE IV Pottery petrography data summary by petrographic groups: approximate inclusion percentage ranges and median, approximate lithic and mineral percentage ranges and median within overall approximate inclusion percentage, and rock type variability

Lithotype of Inclusions Total Inclusion Lithic Inclusion Mineral Petrographic (%) and Median (%) and Median Inclusion (%) Group (%) (%) and Median (%) Plutonic Volcanic Sedimentary Type 1 30–50 (37.5) 7–30 (10) 15–33 (25) Granite Polycrystalline quartz, rhyolite, tuff, volcanic glass, volcanic chert, trachyte Type 2 20–55 (40) 5–45 (20) 5–35 (15) Microgranite, Volcanic glass, rhyolite, trachyte, Sedimentary micro-mafic polycrystalline quartz, tuff, chert (?), intrusive, dacite, aggregate (biotite, sandstone/ micro- quartz, epidote), amphibole polycrystalline granodiorite, aggregate, andesite/basalt, quartz diorite, epidote feldspar aggregate, micro-diorite, volcanic chert, dacite, microgabbro, porphyritic basic volcanic, intermediate to spherulitic textured volcanic, felsic intrusive, porphyritic rhyolite granite, intermediate to mafic intrusive Type 3 15–50 (40) 1–22 (5) 8–48 (35) Rhyolite, andesite/basalt, tuff, intermediate to basic volcanic, epidote and quartz aggregate, dacite, spherulite aggregate, porphyritic volcanic, volcanic glass, volcanic chert

weathered intermediate to basic intrusive rock fragment is shown in abundant volcanic rock fragments, their phenocrysts, and trace to Figure 3F. minor amounts of igneous intrusive rocks. Sample A142a from the Monagrillo site has inclusions of 40–50% of lithics and minerals of which more than half consist of lithics. Rock frag- 4.1.3 Pottery Type 3 ments are igneous rocks: very high amounts of weathered and rounded Type 3 pottery (n = 73) generally has significantly larger mineral inclu- rhyolite (e.g., with phenocrysts of embayed quartz, plagioclase, and/or sions compared to lithic fragments. This type is found at Monagrillo (n magnetite, with or without hematite stain), minor amounts of rounded, = 2), Zapotal (n = 1), Aguadulce (n = 8), Ladrones (n = 19), Cebollal (n = weathered to very weathered tuff, trace amounts of heavily hematite- 24), and Calaveras (n = 19). Type 3 pottery tends to have 30–50% inclu- stained rounded trachyte with phenocrysts of iron oxide, plagioclase, sions and significantly higher proportion of single grains of phenocrysts and amphibole, felsic volcanic rock with spherulite, and fresh and derived from pyroclastics compared to rock fragments. Aplastic inclu- rounded polycrystalline quartz. Single grains of minerals include high sions in Type 3 vessels consist predominantly of fresh and angular sin- amounts of fresh and angular plagioclase and possible alkali-feldspar, gle grains of phenocrysts derived from pyroclastics. Volcanic rock frag- moderate amounts of fresh and angular quartz, minor amounts ments, ranging from felsic to basic composition but mainly felsic, also of zoned feldspar, trace amounts of fresh and angular shell (Fig. 3E), occur at much lower to moderately lower frequencies compared to amphibole (including euhedral forms), zircon, magnetite (including sub- single grains of phenocrysts. Single grains of phenocrysts are mainly hedral forms), and weathered epidote and rounded biotite. There are quartz and zoned feldspar, often identified as plagioclase. No clear igneous intermediate to basic volcanic rocks with very weathered tuff. indication of alkali-feldspar is detected from studies of 2V angles, but Two samples from Carabalí, E1 and E2, have mixed igneous rock- the great majority of grains are not in orientations suitable for mea- based inclusions, similar to other sherds classified as Type 2; however, surement of 2V. Some phenocrysts are embayed or rounded volcanic there are no diagnostic intrusive rock fragment inclusions of Type 2 quartz. There are minor amounts of single crystals of fresh and coarse that are present in many sherds from the Zapotal site. The sample size amphibole and trace amounts of magnetite and hematite. Trace miner- from Carabalí is too small to determine the source. als also include epidote, pyroxenes, zircon, and biotite (TablesIV and V). In terms of raw material sources and added inclusions, the com- Pyroclastic inclusions may have been added or naturally deposited. position of Type 2 sherds suggests three possibilities: (1) sand with Representative examples of Type 3 sherds include F701 and H19. mixed igneous materials was intentionally added by the producers F701 from Ladrones (Fig. 3C) has 40–50% lithic and mineral inclu- as inclusions into clayey soils that contained very weathered plu- sions, of which somewhat less than three fourths are single grain min- tonic rock fragments, (2) sand with mixed igneous materials was natu- erals derived from phenocrysts of pyroclastics. Major inclusions are rally deposited onto very weathered plutonic rock fragment—including fresh and angular quartz, plagioclase, and zoned feldspar (including clayey soils in the fluvial or alluvial context, or (3) potters gathered subhedral to euhedral forms); minor minerals are fresh and angular clayey soils containing mixed igneous sand with fresh to weathered amphibole and a trace amount of minerals composed of fresh and 10 IIZUKA 2.1 50, very < 20– ≥ 1 < 0.2–0.8 20, high: < 5 0.05–0.6 5– < ≥ 1– 1 < < 1 0.15–0.3 < 5, moderate: < 1– 0.02–0.7 ≥ 20 0.05–3 5 5 0.05–0.8 < < < 1, minor: 1– 1– 1– < < < < 1 0.03–0.5 < 0.03–1.7 50 0.08–2.2 50 5 0.2–0.7 0.01–0.5 < < < 1– 1– 1– ≥ < < 5 5 0.03–0.4 < < 1– 1– 1 0.02–0.25 < < < 0.04–1.1 0.03–0.9 50 20 0.03–0.75 < < 1– 1– 5 5 0.05–0.9 < < < < 1– 1 0.05–0.18 1– < < < 0.01–1.6 0.02–0.35 50 50 0.03–1.6 20 0.07–0.75 < ≥ < 1– 1– 1– ≥ < < 1 1 0.03–0.18 1 0.03–0.25 < < < 0.01–3 0.02–1 50 0.02–1.2 50 50 0.02–2.7 ≥ 50 0.02–0.8 5 5 0.02–1 ≥ ≥ < < < 1– 20– 5– 1– 1– 1– Quartz Plagioclase K-Feldspar Zoned Feldspar Amphibole Pyroxene ≥ ≥ ≥ Magnetite Zircon Biotite Epidote Tourmaline Myrmekite Aragonite/Shell < < < Pottery petrography data summary by petrographic groups: approximate pottery mineral abundance (Abund.: %) ranges (trace: 50) and size (mm) ranges ≥ Petrographic GroupType 1 Abund.Type 2 Size Abund. Size Abund. Size Abund. Size Abund. Size Abund. Size Type 3 Petrographic GroupType 1 Abund.Type 2 Size Abund. Size Abund. Size Abund. Size Abund. Size Abund. Size Abund. Size Type 3 TABLE V high: IIZUKA 11

FIGURE 3 Microscopic photos of minerals and rocks in ceramic thin sections [Color figure can be viewed at wileyonlinelibrary.com] Note: (A) A170, XPL, is granitic rock-based paste from Monagrillo; (B) C13, XPL, igneous sand-based inclusions in pottery from Zapotal; (C) F701, XPL, pyroclastic inclusions in pottery from Cueva de los Ladrones; (D) H19, XPL, pyroclastic inclusions in pottery from Calaveras; (E) A142a, XPL, aragonite (shell) inclusion in pottery from the Monagrillo site; (F) C17, reflected light, weathered intermediate to basic intrusive rock in pottery from Zapotal. angular zircon, magnetite (including embayed forms), and volcanic fresh and angular zoned plagioclase (including subhedral forms), and quartz (resorbed and circular forms). There are also trace amounts of trace amounts of weathered amphibole (including subhedral forms), very weathered hematite. Rock fragments include a moderate amount fresh and rounded volcanic quartz, and magnetite (including subhedral of rounded, very weathered dacite with phenocrysts of zoned pla- forms). Volcanic rocks include a moderate amount of weathered and gioclase, quartz, and amphibole, and weathered, rounded to angular rounded rhyolite (with trace amounts being heavily hematite stained), rhyolite with or without quartz phenocrysts, a minor amount of very fresh and angular polycrystalline quartz, and very weathered and angu- weathered and heavily hematite-stained, rounded to angular rhyolite lar tuff. There are also trace amounts of iron oxide or hydroxide. and weathered volcanic chert, rounded to angular, and weathered to Feldspar, volcanic rocks, and pottery pores have secondary gibbsite very weathered tuff, and a trace amount of weathered and rounded growth. andesite/basalt. It is not likely that potters added crushed rock to these sherds, as Sample H19 (Fig. 3D), from the Calaveras site, also has about 40– had been proposed in Iizuka et al. (2014). Instead, the angular shapes 50% of dense lithic and mineral inclusions, of which minerals com- and fresh state of coarse mineral grains suggest that these are inclu- pose a majority. Inclusions are single grains of phenocrysts derived sions from pyroclastics, which could have been gathered either from from pyroclastics. There are high amounts of fresh and angular the deposit and intentionally added by the potters as inclusions or quartz and weathered and angular plagioclase, minor amounts of could have been deposited naturally onto clayey soils. 12 IIZUKA 20, high: 0.2–0.3 < 5– ≥ 5 0.5–0.7 < 1 1– < ≥ 5, moderate: < 1– te lithic and mineral percentage ≥ 0.05–0.25 1, minor: < 0.1-0.3 5 5 0.03–0.5 < < trace: 1 0.15-0.4 1– 1– < < < 10.2 1 dacite, intermediate to basic volcanic rhyolite, volcanic chert, trachyte < < Polycrystalline quartz, intermediate to basic volcanic, 0.05–0.2 5 5 0.08–1.3 < < 1– 1– < ≥ basic intrusive, basic intrusive, microgranite Lithotype of Inclusion Granite, intermediate to 1 0.1-0.8 < 20 0.15–1.2 < 1– < 0.1–0.25 Mineral (%) and Median (%) Plutonic Volcanic 13–35 (22.5) 0.1–0.3 20 0.05–0.7 5 < < 1– 1– < < 50 0.1–1.3 5 Lithic (%) and Median (%) 5–20 (11) < < 5– 1– ≥ < 0.12–0.22 0.03–1.4 Inclusion (%) and Median (%) 25–40 (37.5) 5 0.1–0.15 < 50 50 0.03–1.6 < < 1– 10.2 1 Biotite Hematite Volcanic Quartz Epidote ≥ < < 50 0.05–1 1– 5– Quartz Plagioclase Zoned Feldspar Amphibole Magnetite K-Feldspar ≥ ≥ ≥ 50) and size (mm) ranges ≥ Clayey soil raw material petrography data summary by petrographic groups including approximate inclusion percentage ranges and median, approxima 50, very high: < Petrographic groupGranite Mixed igneous Abund. Size Abund. Size Abund. Size Abund. Size Petrographic GroupGranite Abund.Mixed igneous Size Abund. Size Abund. Size Abund. Size Abund. Size Abund. Size Petrographic Group GraniteMixed igneous Pyroclastics 20 (20) 10–50 (32.5) 10 (10) 3–40 (10)Pyroclastics 10 (10) 4–30 (16) Microgranite Intermediate to basic volcanic, quartz aggregate Rhyolite, tuff, porphyritic rhyolite, basic volcanic, Pyroclastics 20– TABLE VI ≥ ranges and median within overall approximate inclusion percentage, rock types variability, and approximate mineral abundance (abund.: %) ranges ( IIZUKA 13

FIGURE 4 Microscopic photos of raw materials, in thin sections, collected from central Panama [Color figure can be viewed at wileyonlineli- brary.com] Note: (A) FIR0014, XPL, granitic fragment in clay; (B) FIR0024, PPL, intermediate to basic intrusive rock fragment in clay; (C) FIR0024, reflected light, weathered intermediate to basic intrusive rock fragment in clay; coarse minerals (hematite-stained in PPL) are better observed with the reflected light microscope; (D) FIR0119, XPL, pyroclastic sand; (E) FIR0126, XPL, pyroclastic sand; (F) FIR0131, XPL, pyroclastic in clay.

4.1.4 Other pottery of very weathered intrusive rock fragments. There is also a Type 3 like sherd (D26) from Aguadulce containing single grains of fresh phe- In addition to pottery Types 1, 2, and 3, a total of eight sherds have pet- nocrysts from pyroclastics, but with a trace amount of fresh, possible rographically ambiguous signatures. F55 and F714 found at Ladrones K-feldspar, an indicator of Azuero origin. Cebollal has a sherd (G257) could be either Type 2 or 3. Unlike typical Type 3 sherds such as those with high amounts of very weathered granodioritic rock fragments, from Ladrones with predominantly single grains of pyroclastic-derived minor amounts of very weathered felsic volcanic rocks, and weath- phenocrysts, F55 and F714 have a proportion of porphyritic volcanic ered single mineral grains. This pottery is likely from the Azuero but rock fragments close to the proportion of single grains of phenocrysts. has unusually weathered characteristics. This sherd also is an Incised Nevertheless, unlike Type 2, these sherds do not contain intrusive and Appliqué style from the Early Ceramic B period. Ladrones has one rocks. Additionally, D11, from the Aguadulce site, with signatures of sherd (F335) full of weathered tuff and rhyolite heavily stained with Type 2 and 3 vessels, has a plutonic rock fragment (microgranite), hematite. This sherd, not classified as Type 1, 2, or 3, has no indica- mixed-igneous sand, and single grains of phenocrysts likely from pyro- tion of added inclusions. Pottery not classified into three types also clastics. The proportion of minerals to lithics was high, similar to Type has either added inclusions or the inclusions were derived from natural 3. The Ladrones (n = 1, F343) and Calaveras (n = 1, H2) sites also have deposits with identified materials. pyroclastic-derived single grains of phenocrysts and trace amounts 14 IIZUKA

In summary, major characteristics that distinguish pottery types FIR0047 was gathered from the Pesé Formation, in the sedimentary are that (1) Type 1 has predominantly granitic rock fragments and unit by the mouth of Parita River right by the Valle Riquito Formation single minerals derived from granitic materials; (2) Type 2 has mixed and the surrounding volcanic unit of the Azuero Arc. igneous sand with porphyritic volcanic rock fragments, single grains of Ten raw material samples have phenocryst-containing pyroclastics, phenocrysts derived from porphyritic volcanic rocks, and often, minor similar to Type 3 pottery (Tables VI and VII). These samples were amounts of weathered plutonic rock fragments; (3) Type 3 has pyro- gathered from the El Valle and La Yeguada, and nearby sedimentary clastic materials dominated by single grains of phenocrysts; and (4) units. These samples are FIR0119, FIR0126, FIR0131, FIR0081, other samples such as those having ambiguous signatures that can be FIR0083, FIR0085, FIR0120, FIR0133, FIR0137, and FIR0145. classified as either Type 2 or 3, those with mixed signatures of both FIR0085, FIR0119, FIR0120, and FIR0126 are sand samples and Type 2 and 3, or one sample having only weathered volcanic rock frag- others are clayey soils. For example, a sand sample, FIR0119 (Fig. 4D) ments. has about 1:1 ratio of volcanic rocks and minerals. Major inclusions are porphyritic fragments of high amounts of rounded and fresh to weathered (with fresh phenocrysts) dacite, moderate amounts of 4.2 Raw material petrography weathered and rounded rhyolite, and minor amounts of fresh and Based on the analysis of 29 petrographic thin sections of raw clayey rounded tuff. Minerals are single grains of phenocryst derived from soils and four thin sections of sand samples from nine geological forma- pyroclastics, a high amount of plagioclase including subhedral forms tions (Figs. 1 and 2), 15 samples match the inclusion types drawn from and zoned plagioclase including subhedral to euhedral forms, minor pottery petrography (see also Supplementary Table SI). amounts of fresh and angular quartz, fresh and rounded volcanic A clayey soil sample FIR0014 (Figs. 2 and 4A) is similar to Type 1 quartz, and fresh and angular hornblende, including euhedral forms, pottery (Table VI). This sample was gathered at the Valle Riquito For- and trace amounts of fresh and angular magnetite and epidote, and mation, a plutonic unit. The sample has approximately 20% of poorly weathered and rounded biotite. sorted fragments of lithics and minerals, of which about half consisted In a sand sample, FIR0126 (Fig. 4E), the rock to mineral ratio is about of lithics. This sample includes a moderate amount of granitic (or gran- 1:1. Rock fragments have high amounts of porphyritic hypocrystalline odioritic) fragments and single minerals that derived from granite (or and rounded, very weathered rhyolite, and trace amounts of weath- granodiorite). There are large amounts of fresh and angular, coarse ered rounded porphyritic andesite and tuff. Minerals are single grains quartz, and very weathered and rounded iron oxide fragments. There of phenocrysts derived from pyroclastics. There are high amounts of are minor amounts of fresh to weathered, angular, and coarse feldspar fresh and angular-zoned plagioclase that include subhedral and euhe- grains and very weathered and angular biotite, and trace amounts of dral forms, a moderate amount of fresh and angular plagioclase and weathered to very weathered angular magnetite. There are also trace quartz (including subhedral forms), and a minor amount of fresh and amounts of very weathered intermediate to basic and angular volcanic angular amphibole including euhedral forms, and a trace amount of rocks. FIR0014 does not contain tourmaline and epidote, often associ- rounded and weathered magnetite. ated with granitic inclusions in pottery Type 1. Clayey soil sample FIR0131 (Fig. 4F) has about 40% coarse frag- Clayey soil samples of FIR0024, FIR0017, FIR0025, and FIR0047 ments as inclusions with an approximate ratio of 1:3 lithics to min- have mixed igneous sand-based inclusions containing weathered intru- erals, with minerals derived from pyroclastics. Lithic inclusions are as sive rocks or alkali-feldspar. These samples are similar to Type 2 pot- follows: a moderate amount of rounded and fresh to weathered rhyo- tery (Table VI). For example, FIR0024 has about 20–30% of poorly lite, minor amounts of very weathered and hematite stained interme- sorted fragments of lithics and minerals composed of approximately diate to basic volcanic rocks, and trace amounts of very weathered and the same proportions. This sample is composed of a large amount of rounded tuff. Minerals include moderate amounts of fresh and angu- very weathered rhyolite (hematite stained, holohyalline, and hypocrys- lar plagioclase, zoned feldspar with subhedral forms, quartz, and minor talline); moderate amounts of very weathered intermediate to basic, amounts of fresh to weathered, angular amphibole, fresh and angular rounded volcanic rock fragments; trace amounts of very weath- magnetite including embayed forms, weathered to very weathered and ered rounded tuff; a minor amount of iron oxide/hydroxide; and a rounded iron oxide/hydroxide, and trace amounts of fresh and rounded trace amount of weathered microgranite. Minerals include moderate volcanic quartz, and very weathered hematite. amounts of fresh and angular quartz; minor amounts of weathered and angular magnetite; trace amounts of fresh, angular, and euhedral zoned plagioclase; and fresh, angular and sand-sized alkali-feldspar, and fresh and angular epidote. A very weathered and hematite-stained 5 DISCUSSION intermediate to basic plutonic rock fragment in this sample is shown in Figure 4B and C; it is easier to identify highly weathered coarse min- Analytical results suggest that there are three main ceramic inclusion eral fragments with the reflected light microscope (Fig. 4C) rather than types, and some pottery that cannot be classified into these types. All under the plain polarized light (Fig. 4B). of these samples, classified and unclassified, have major inclusions con- FIR0024 and FIR0025 were gathered at the Río Hato Formation, a sisting of different igneous fragments, as do the sampled raw materials. sedimentary unit of the lowland Santa María River. FIR0017 was col- These results provide an opportunity to correlate pottery types to local lected from the Valle Riquito Formation, an igneous intrusive unit, and geology and discern possible locations of ceramic production. IIZUKA 15

5.1 Overall source evaluation Arc (see Buchs et al., 2010) are naturally available. This is likely due to the longshore current running in a south-to-north direction on the Pottery Type 1 (n = 14) is found only at the Monagrillo site (Supplemen- northeast coast of the Azuero or on the southwestern Parita Bay (while tary Table SII). Type 1 ceramics are petrographically similar to clayey the northern Parita Bay has westerly longshore current; Clary, Hansell, soil sample, FIR0014, with granite fragments. The sample FIR0014 is Ranere, & Buggey, 1984, p. 59). The majority of the sherds derived from obtained from the location current potters from the ceramic producing the Zapotal site (20 of 21 studied) are Type 2 pottery (Supplementary town, La Arena, procure clays (Table III). This sample is well-suited for Table SII). Clayey soils containing plutonic rocks must have been avail- ceramic production. FIR0014 is gathered at the Valle Riquito Forma- able in situ, at and near Zapotal. tion, where plutonic rocks of different compositions are found (Fig. 2). The plutonic rock fragments found in the Valle Riquito Formation The geological unit is near the Monagrillo site. The Valle Riquito For- are varied in composition (e.g., granite, granodiorite, weathered inter- mation is likely to be the source for pottery Type 1. mediate to mafic intrusive rock, gabbro/diorite; Buchs et al., 2011). Plu- The geological literature also supports the provenance inference. tonic units of Azuero are surrounded by the extrusive lava flows of Intrusive units of the Azuero Peninsula, the L. Montuoso Formation basalt, trachybasalt, and dacite (Buchs et al., 2011). The variability of and the Valle Riquito Formation, are reported to contain plutonic rocks rock types and their textures and variability in mineral species are high of ranged composition such as gabbro, diorite, quartz monzonite, gran- in the Type 2 paste, compared to Type 1 or 3 (Tables IV and V), match- odiorites, and granite. These rocks tend to contain large amphibole and ing literature descriptions. Also, contrary to the geological map by del zircon grains. Granite fragments have minerals including quartz, alkali- Giudice and Recchi (1969), with a very small plutonic outcrop of the feldspar, plagioclase, clinopyroxene, amphibole, biotite, and titanomag- S. Cristobal Formation, in the more recent geological literature, plu- netite (Buchs, Arculus, Baumgartner, Baumartner-Mora, & Ulianov, tonic rocks are not reported in that area. The S. Cristobal Formation 2010, 2011; Lissina, 2005, p. 60). Thus, the source for pottery Type 1 may have little impact on the transported sediment at the mouth of the is the granitic clayey soils gathered from the intrusive geological unit, Santa María. the Valle Riquito Formation, right by the Monagrillo site. The soils also For all of these reasons, it is likely that the ultimate source of Type contain trace amounts of volcanic rocks from a nearby unit (e.g., Buchs 2 pottery inclusions comes from the Valle Riquito Formation that are et al., 2010, 2011, Table I). Pottery Type 1 is also found throughout found in clays from coastal sediments located from the mouth of the the occupational context of Block 2 at the Monagrillo site, indicating Parita river north to the mouth of the Santa María River. The Mona- a long-term use of the same source. grillo site also has a common occurrence (6 of 20 studied) of Type 2 Despite the identification of the granitic source, the exact prove- pottery and the limited number of sherds (n = 3) studied from La Mula- nance within the granitic clayey soil context is yet to be known since Sarigua are also Type 2. Type 2 is most likely produced with materials the trace amount of tourmaline and epidote, or myrmekitic fragments at Zapotal or an Azuero coastal location near Zapotal (n = 20). How- are not encountered in the clayey soil sample, FIR0014. FIR0014 has ever, similar raw materials can also be available near Monagrillo and La an inclusion density of approximately 20%, less than the range of pot- Mula-Sarigua. tery Type 1. More clayey soil samples containing granitic inclusions The Aguadulce site is close to the Santa María River but not situated need to be gathered from the Valle Riquito Formation for further on it, and that location does not receive transported coastal sediment understanding. from the igneous intrusive unit of the Valle Riquito Formation. This Porphyritic volcanic rocks that are found in Type 2 pottery (n = site containing Type 2 pottery, therefore, is not the production zone of 43; Supplementary Table SII) include mafic to intermediate, angular, Type 2. and fresh rocks that may indicate sediment transported short dis- With regards to chronology, Pottery Type 2 appeared at the Mon- tances. Fresh and angular single grains of plagioclase phenocrysts and agrillo site in the upper third of the excavated levels of Block 2 only fresh phenocrysts of volcanic glass found in sherds that are suscepti- after 3615 ± 80 14C yr B.P. The appearance of Pottery Type 2 is thus ble to quick weathering may also have been transported from a close contemporary with the sporadic occupation at the Zapotal site. At location. Raw material samples similar to inclusions in pottery Type 2 the Zapotal and Aguadulce sites, no obvious diachronic change of this (although pottery inclusions tend to be fresher) are from the northeast type (or change in excavation levels containing Monagrillo materials) coast of Azuero. FIR0017 is gathered from the Valle Riquito Formation, is observed. Carabalí and La Mula-Sarigua sites require a larger sam- a plutonic unit, FIR0025 is obtained from the Río Hato Formation, a pling. Cebollal is the only site that I analyzed for both periods, the Early sedimentary unit of the lowland Santa María (Fig. 2), and FIR0047 is Ceramic A (Monagrillo) and B (Incised and Appliqué). A sherd with the from the Pesé Formation, a sedimentary unit. FIR0024 is from the Río Early Ceramic A style is Type 2. Another sherd with the Early Ceramic Hato Formation. These raw material samples have sand with a mixed- B style is also of the Azuero origin, but it is not a typical Type 2 ves- igneous content and include heavily weathered intrusive rock frag- sel. Diachronic change of Type 2 vessels at the Cebollal site therefore ments. The raw material sample FIR0024 includes felsic to mafic vol- requires further study. canic rocks, microgranite, fresh and angular alkali-feldspar phenocryst, Pottery Type 3 (n = 73; Supplementary Table SII) has single grains and fresh and angular euhedral zoned plagioclase. This sample has typ- of phenocrysts derived from pyroclastics. Many raw materials gath- ical inclusions found in Type 2 pottery. This suggests that at the mouth ered from the La Yeguada and El Valle formations have single grains of the Santa María, sediments with intrusive rocks, volcanic rocks, and of pyroclastic-derived phenocrysts similar to materials found in the single grains of fresh phenocrysts from a volcanic unit of the Azuero pottery. They are likely the source materials. Raw materials FIR0081, 16 IIZUKA

TABLE VII Sand raw material petrography data summary by petrographic groups including approximate lithic and mineral percentage range and median, rock types variability, and approximate mineral abundance (Abund.: %) ranges (trace: <1, minor: ≥1–<5, moderate: ≥5–<20, high: ≥20–<50, very high: ≥50) and size (mm) ranges

Petrographic Lithic (%) and Mineral (%) and Litho Type Group Median (%) Median (%) Volcanic Pyroclastics 50–80 (55) 20—50 (45) Rhyolite, tuff, dacite, polycrystalline quartz, porphyritic andesite, porphyritic intermediate to basic volcanic, volcanic chert Quartz Plagioclase Zoned Feldspar Amphibole Pyroxene Magnetite Petrographic Group Abund. Size Abund. Size Abund. Size Abund. Size Abund. Size Abund. Size Pyroclastics ≥1–<20 0.3–2.3 ≥1–<50 0.2–1.6 ≥5– <50 0.3–2.5 ≥1–<5 0.05–1.2 <1– <5 0.05–0.8 Petrographic group K-feldspar? Biotite Hematite Volcanic quartz Abund. Size Abund. Size Abund. Size Abund. Size Pyroclastics <1 0.3–0.7 <1 0.3–0.6 ≥1–<5 0.2–1.6 ≥1–<5 0.5–1.7

FIR0083, and FIR0085 were gathered at the La Yeguada unit and andesites with some trachytic textures are found, with phenocrysts of FIR0119, FIR0120, FIR0126, FIR0131, FIR0133, and FIR0137 (Fig. 2) plagioclase, clinopyroxene, orthopyroxene, and titanomagnetite were from the El Valle or the fan of the El Valle. For example, FIR0126, (Defant, Clark et al., 1991; Hidalgo et al., 2011). Plagioclase phe- a sand sample from the El Valle unit, has porphyritic andesite, tuff, and nocrysts commonly having zoning are reported to be resorbed or rhyolite and phenocryst-derived single mineral grains including pla- embayed and have anhedral to euhedral forms (Defant, Clark et al., gioclase, subheral and euhedral zoned plagioclase, subhedral quartz, 1991, p. 316). There is also porphyritic dacitic lava with amphibole and and euhedral amphibole. Pottery Type 3 is made of pyroclastic-derived plagioclase including dacites that are crystalline and hypocrystalline materials. The majority of the thin-sectioned sherds from the Ladrones and can contain phenocrysts of zoned plagioclase, embayed quartz, (19 of 23 studied) and Cebollal (24 of 26 studied) sites are Type 3 pot- biotite, Fe-Ti oxides, and sphene (Defant, Clark et al., 1991; Hidalgo, tery with inclusions composed mostly of single grains of phenocrysts. A 2007; Hidalgo et al., 2011). The fan of the El Valle has wide deposits majority of sherds available at Ladrones and Cebollal are Type 3. They from the pyroclastic flow of the El Hato dacitic ignimbrite unit toward are situated in the Grande River drainage and are near the fan of the the Pacific coast containing pumice fragments with phenocrysts El Valle. Type 3 pottery, therefore, is likely to have been produced from of zoned and resorbed plagioclase, amphibole, quartz, and oxides raw materials that are available near the Ladrones and Cebollal sites. (Hidalgo, 2007). Single grains of phenocrysts found in Type 3 sherds The Ladrones site, situated on the southeast facing slope not far have, for example, euhedral and subhedral zoned plagioclase, sub- below the crest of a hill, Cerro Guacamayo, however, has raw materials hedral plagioclase, rounded and embayed volcanic quartz, subhedral that do not have pyroclastic-derived single grains of phenocrysts at the quartz, subhedral, euhedral, and embayed magnetite, and euhedral site and in the surrounding path toward the town of La Pintada in the amphibole. These characteristics match phenocrysts reported from lower elevation (m: FIR0102-FIR0103, n: FIR0097-FIR0098; Fig. 2). the El Valle and La Yeguada volcanic complexes although the possible This same situation pertained at the Cebollal site (o: FIR0088). One detailed differences between these complexes (e.g., absence and possibility is that the sampling was not done near pyroclastic materi- presence of descriptions of sphene, olivine, and zircon in literature) are als. Potters at Ladrones and Cebollal might also have gathered mate- not reflected in Type 3. Therefore, pyroclastic-derived single grains rials and produced pottery closer to the area of Penonomé, at a lower of phenocrysts in Type 3 pottery can be said to have come from these elevation, where clayey soils containing pyroclastic materials are avail- Pacific Cordilleran pyroclastic materials with phenocrysts. able and where a current pottery producer gathers raw materials (Sup- The Grande River, whose drainage includes Ladrones and Cebol- plementary Table SI). The Calaveras site is also relatively close to the lal, runs through the Tocué Formation, La Yeguada Formation, Cañazas outcrops of the La Yeguada pyroclastics, but it is on the other side of Formation, and Río Hato Formation (Fig. 1). The drainage is also the Cordillera. Raw materials collected at and near the Calaveras site adjacent to the El Valle Formation and the El Encanto Formation. do not have pyroclastic-derived single grains of phenocrysts. The El Encanto Formation, composed of dacite/rhyodacite, ignimbrite, The geological literature also supports the inferences of the Type subintrusive, tuff, and lava, also includes pyroclastic materials and 3 pottery sources and production zones. In the La Yeguada unit, phenocrysts. The El Valle Formation is described as having dacite, rhyodacitic pyroclastic deposit, rhyolitic pyroclastic flow, andesitic breccia, plug, ignimbritic flow, pumice, fine tuff, andesite/basalt, tuff, rocks, dacite, and lava flow are found. Phenocrysts contained zoned and fine-grained subintrusive rocks, whereas the La Yeguada For- plagioclase and pyroxene with plagioclase including anhedral to euhe- mation, mapped more extensively than described in the geologi- dral shapes and pyroxene having embayed, resorbed, and subhedral to cal literature (Defant, Richerson et al., 1991; Knutsen, 2010), con- euhedral shapes. There are also Fe-Ti oxides, olivine, quartz, amphibole, sists of dacite, ignimbrite, and tuff. In addition, the Tocué Formation biotite, apatite, and zircon (Defant, Richerson et al., 1991, Table I). is explained as composed of andesite/basalt, lava, breccia, tuff, and The geological literature suggests that in the El Valle, porphyritic plug and the Cañazas Formation consisted of lava and tuff (Fig. 1). IIZUKA 17

Some volcanic constituents in the sedimentary unit of the Río Hato Pottery Type 2 is found from the beginning to the end of the occu- Formation have already been described. These and volcanic rocks from pation at Zapotal. Similar to the Type 1 pottery at the Monagrillo site, the La Yeguada and El Valle Formations can be the source materials of the Type 2 pottery at Zapotal perhaps was, initially, produced using small proportions of igneous extrusive rock fragments found in Type sediments available on the coast between the mouth of the Parita 3. Most pottery from Ladrones and Cebollal is Type 3, and these sites River north to the mouth of the Santa María River, but at an area near are near the volcanic units such as the El Valle and La Yeguada; there- Zapotal. During the intensive occupation at Zapotal, the production fore, the geological map also supports the inference that these sites are area remained the same, or raw materials were brought to the site for located near the raw material sources of Type 3. pottery manufacture. Although limited in number and requiring fur- Sherds of this type were found at and below the lower half of lev- ther studies, Type 2 sherds from La Mula-Sarigua located at the mouth els of Block 2 at the Monagrillo site, dating older than 3385 ± 75 14C of the Parita River were likely to have been transported from the pro- yr B.P. At the Zapotal site, they were found at levels dated older than duction zone or from Zapotal. Half of the sherds from the Aguadulce 4010 ± 100 14C yr B.P., toward the bottom levels of the excavation. site are Type 2 pottery. The pottery-containing levels at Aguadulce are Aguadulce, Ladrones, and Calaveras showed no obvious diachronic dated at least to 4250 ± 60 14C yr B.P. (see Table II), roughly contem- change (or change in excavation levels containing Monagrillo materi- porary with or somewhat earlier than the earliest occupation at the als). Type 3 pottery was found throughout the occupation of the Early Zapotal site (Supplementary Table SII). Aguadulce was not the produc- Ceramic A (Monagrillo) period. The Cebollal site also had Type 3 ves- tion zone of Type 2 pottery. Pottery produced at the coastal production sels during both Early Ceramic A and B periods. zone was being transported to the Aguadulce site as early as 4250 ± Sherds that are not classified into pottery Type 1, 2, or 3 have inclu- 60 14C yr B.P. One sherd of Type 2 pottery, associated with the Mon- sion types that can be either Type 2 or 3, possible mixture of Type 2 and agrillo period, is found at the Cebollal site. Another sherd, from the 3, or having igneous inclusions but not having any particular type char- Incised and Appliqué period (likely Early Ceramic B), has the petro- acteristics. These sherds require chemical analyses for further classifi- graphic signatures of the Azuero coast with intrusive rock fragments; cations. however, it is not a typical Type 2. Therefore, I suggest that during the To summarize, Pottery Type 1, with mostly granitic rock-based Early Ceramic A, Type 2 pottery very occasionally circulated from the inclusions found only at the Monagrillo site, was likely procured from coastal area to the Cebollal site. Although no intrusive rocks are found, the nearby igneous intrusive units. Pottery Type 2, with the mixed the Carabalí site has sherds that are identified as mixed igneous sand- igneous sand-based inclusions with intrusive rocks, porphyritic vol- based inclusions of Type 2, which are possibly transported from the canic rocks, and single grains of their phenocrysts, was probably pro- Azuero coastal production zone. Because only two sherds have been duced with materials available at the mouth of the Santa María River studied from the Carabalií site, a larger sample and chemical analysis or between the Santa María River and the mouth of the Parita River. will be needed to determine the provenance and circulation from the The majority of sherds deposited at the Zapotal site, at the mouth of Azuero to Carabalí. the Santa María River, are Pottery Type 2. Pottery Type 3, very rich Type 3 pottery is inferred to have been produced near the Ladrones in single grains of phenocrysts, was possibly derived from pyroclastics, and Cebollal sites, in the Pacific foothills and toward the plains sur- and its likely provenance is the El Valle and La Yeguada unit derived rounding the Grande River drainage, where raw materials with abun- pyroclastic deposits available relatively close by from the Ladrones and dant pyroclastic-derived single grains of phenocrysts have been col- Cebollal sites in the Grande drainage and/or additional materials from lected and identified in this study. About half of the sherds Aguadulce the El Encanto unit appearing in the geological map. The majority of the site, and miniscule numbers from the Monagrillo and Zapotal sites sherds from these sites were produced from these materials. are Type 3. Since these sites are all far from the pyroclastic-derived materials identified in the raw materials from El Valle, it is suggested that Type 3 vessels were transported from the production zones near 6 CONCLUSIONS Ladrones and Cebollal, surrounding the Grande River drainage. No change in this distribution pattern is observed at Aguadulce in the Petrographic analysis of archaeological ceramics and geological mate- stratigraphic contexts containing Monagrillo sherds. However, Type 3 rials in central Panama resulted in the identification of three pottery pottery is found at the lower and the mid-level at the Monagrillo site, types and suggest patterns of ceramic production and circulation. Pot- originating during the period of sparse occupation and extending to tery Type 1 is found from the lower to the upper excavation levels at the the intensive site occupation at the Monagrillo (older than 3385 ± 75 Monagrillo site. During the earliest occupation of that site (ca. 4400- 14C yr B.P.) site and a lower level of the occupation (older than 4010 3700 14C yr B.P.),when it was situated at the paleocoastline, raw mate- ± 100 14C yr B.P.) at the Zapotal site (Supplementary Table SI). This rial was procured locally from the Valle Riquito Formation, prepared, may mean that circulation of Type 3 to both the Zapotal and Mon- and transported to the Monagrillo site. However, during the period of agrillo sites occurred during the earlier rather than the later period intensive occupation at the Monagrillo site, people who continued to of the midden occupation. Almost all of the sherds examined from use the same raw material source for Type 1 may have produced ves- the site Calaveras, on the Caribbean slopes, are pottery Type 3. Mon- sels in situ or also produced vessels at the Monagrillo site by transport- agrillo pottery at Calaveras is dated toward the end of the Mona- ing the raw materials. People consumed Type 1 pottery locally and did grillo/Early Ceramic A period. Type 3 pottery at Calaveras is not only not circulate it to any other sites studied in this project. similar to those at the Ladrones and Cebollal sites in terms of the 18 IIZUKA provenance, but it is also similar technologically, in containing very pattern can also be expected at other inland rock shelters (e.g., minor amounts of volcanic rock fragments and having abundant sin- Ladrones also has aquatic resources from the coast). On the contrary, gle grains of phenocrysts derived from pyroclastics. Calaveras vessels vessels of clear Azuero origins were rare at the Pacific foothills rock were likely to have been transported from the Type 3 production zone shelter sites. In addition, vessels themselves were not likely the objects on the Pacific slopes. The trans-cordilleran pottery circulation, pat- of exchange at Aguadulce by the occupants of the Pacific foothills and terns observed from the Calaveras sherds, remained the same during the Azuero coast because both areas produced mainly utilitarian ves- the occupation. sels similar in vessel rim and lip forms, and were not frequently trans- What do these results imply with respect to mobility, economic ported back to the other production zones. With regards to the Calav- exchange, and subsistence? Monagrillo pottery from the coastal shell- eras site on the Caribbean slopes, even though occupants may have bearing midden sites was mainly made using raw materials available mainly been sedentary farmers based on artifact similarities to sites on from the Azuero coast. Pottery found at Ladrones and Cebollal sites the Pacific side, transportation of utilitarian vessels from the produc- on the Pacific foothills was made in that zone. This suggests Azuero tion locations on the Pacific slopes was perhaps less costly (e.g., pro- coastal sites and the Pacific slope producers were likely living in local ducers and main consumers lived on the Pacific foothills near Parita sedentary communities, farming in the rainy season and producing Bay and the Caribbean slopes do not have a pronounced dry season) pottery in situ during the dry season, which is appropriate for dry- than making pottery in situ during this time. At Calaveras also, the pot- ing fuel, firing ceramics, and drying clays after vessel forming. This tery transportation from the Pacific slope has been dated relatively pattern of sedentism at production zones appeared earlier on the late in the Monagrillo sequence (e.g., by 3410 ± 40 14C yr B.P.). Sam- Pacific slopes as noted in the earliest radiocarbon dates associated ples studied from Carabalí site few are limited in number. Tentatively, I with pottery at Ladrones. In the coastal production zones, seden- suggest that this site may have obtained vessels from the Azuero coast tism existed at least from the beginning of the shell-bearing midden or from the area such as Aguadulce, where coastal vessels were being use. At the time, pottery producing people who lived along the coast, transported. likely near Parita and Santa Maria rivers close to midden locations, The identification of ceramic production locations and exchange but inland from the shorelines, visited and procured resources at the patterns provides an important framework for evaluating the Early uninhabitable shell-bearing midden locations. Therefore, these find- Ceramic period economy in Panama. Further geochemical studies ings do not support the hypothesis of the dry season transhumance and an analysis of diagenesis are needed for a more precise evalua- of inland farmers, such as from the Pacific foothills to shell-bearing tion of degrees of sedentism, absence and presence of seasonal res- middens. idential mobility, patterns and reasons for occasional mobility, and Type 1 pottery, only found at Monagrillo, did not circulate else- exchange. The interdisciplinary petrography-based sourcing study pre- where. However, this may not mean that there was a separate pot- sented here represents an important step toward better understand- tery producing social group, based in the Parita River basin, even at ing ceramic origins and behavioral change in the New World. the beginning (ca. 2400–2000 B.C. or ca. 4400–3700 14C yr B.P.). There is evidence of pottery (Type 3) circulation from the Pacific foothills, with pottery style and technology not giving noticeable ACKNOWLEDGMENTS indications of distinct behavioral and social boundaries between the I sincerely thank David Killick, my dissertation committee, and geol- two production zones at this early date. Later, both Type 1 and 2 ogists at STRI (Camilo Montes, Nikki Strong, Agustín Cardona, and vessels are found in the same contexts, suggesting that the people Rory McFadden) and Panama (Stewart Redwood) for guidance in pet- who engaged in the same activities in situ were using both types rographic studies. Richard Cooke at STRI, Michael Schiffer and Mark (although Type 2 vessels may have circulated from the mouth of the Aldenderfer, my dissertation co-chairs, and Pamela Vandiver, my com- Santa María River). The La Mula-Sarigua site also had Type 2 ves- mittee, provided significant advice on this research. Carlos Jaramillo sels used in the Parita River basin, without the adoption of Type 1, provided access to geological equipments at STRI. Diego Ramírez, Sara although samples analyzed were limited from that site for further Moron, Cesar Silva, Natalia Hoyos, Aureliano Valencia, Fernando Bus- insights. tamante, Adam Berrey, and Lesley Frame gave field and/or laboratory Additionally, at least after the beginning of the production of Type assistance. Richard Cooke, Anthony Ranere, John Griggs, and Julia 2 vessels on the coast, people on the coast and the Pacific foothills Mayo allowed the use of the samples they have excavated and pro- likely transported pottery, containing locally available resources, to vided contextual information. Richard Cooke provided access to the Aguadulce. Exchange at Aguadulce is inferred because the site has pot- collections stored at STRI. I also thank the anonymous reviewers for tery from the Pacific slope production zone near Ladrones and Cebol- useful comments; I reorganized the content of my paper reflecting lal, ca. 40 km away, and also contains sherds from the coastal produc- their comments. The co-editors were also helpful and their comments tion zone, at least ca. 9 km away. Although the evidence of marine significantly improved the content of my paper. I received funding shell and fishbones found at the Aguadulce site (e.g., Cooke, 1995) from a Predoctoral Fellowship and Visiting Student Award from the does not deny the possibility that Aguadulce occupants were season- Smithsonian Institution; Sigma Xi Grant-in-Aid of Research, the Claude ally mobile visiting the coast, the inference of exchange is more likely Albritton Jr. Award of the Geological Society of America; National based on this pottery research results. If Aguadulce rock shelter occu- Science Foundation Integrative Graduate Education and Research pants visited and transported back local vessels from the coast, this Traineeship, David Killick; Riecker Grants, the Emil Haury Education IIZUKA 19

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