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Sand, Gravel and Crushed Rock Aggregates for Construction Purposes (Third Edition) Geological Society Engineering Geology Special Publications Series Editor J

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Sand, Gravel and Crushed Rock Aggregates for Construction Purposes (Third Edition) Geological Society Engineering Geology Special Publications Series Editor J Aggregates Sand, gravel and crushed rock aggregates for construction purposes (third edition) Geological Society Engineering Geology Special Publications Series Editor J. C. CRIPPS It is recommended that reference to this book should be made in the following way: SMITH, M. R. & COLHS, L. (eds) 2001. Aggregates: Sand, gravel and crushed rock aggregates for construction purposes. Geological Society, London, Engineering Geology Special Publications, 17. GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY ENGINEERING GEOLOGY SPECIAL PUBLICATION NO. 17 Aggregates Sand, gravel and crushed rock aggregates for construction purposes (third edition) PREVIOUS EDITION EDITED BY M. R. SMITH The Institute of Quarrying, Nottingham & L. COLLIS Sandberg, London (retired) THIRD EDITION REVISED BY P. G. FOOKES Consultant, Winchester J. LAY RMC Aggregates (UK) Limited, Bromsgrove I. SIMS STATS Limited, St. Albans M. R. SMITH The Institute of Quarrying, Nottingham G. WEST TRL, Crowthorne (retired) 2001 Published by The Geological Society London THE GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY The Geological Society of London was founded in 1807 and is the oldest geological society in the world. It received its Royal Charter in 1825 for the purpose of 'investigating the mineral structure of the Earth' and is now Britain's national society for geology. Both a learned society and a professional body, the Geological Society is recognized by the Department of Trade and Industry (DTI) as the chartering authority for geoscience, able to award Chartered Geologist status upon appropriately qualified Fellows. The Society has a membership of more than 9000, of whom about 1500 live outside the UK. Fellowship of the Society is open to persons holding a recognized honours degree in geology or a cognate subject, or not less than six years' relevant experience in geology or a cognate subject. A Fellow with a minimum of five years' relevant postgraduate experience in the practice of geology may apply for chartered status. Successful applicants are entitled to use the designatory post- nominal CGeol (Chartered Geologist). Fellows of the Society may use the letters FGS. Other grades of membership are available to members not yet qualifying for Fellowship. The Society has its own Publishing House based in Bath, UK. It produces the Society's international journals, books and maps, and is the European distributor for publications of the American Association of Petroleum Geologists (AAPG), the Society for Sedimentary Geology (SEPM) and the Geological Society of America (GSA). Members of the Society can buy books at considerable discounts. The Publishing House has an online bookshop (http://bookshop.geolsoc.org.uk) Further information on Society membership may be obtained from the Membership Services Manager, The Geological Society, Burlington House, Piccadilly, London WIV 0JU (E-mail: [email protected]: Tel: + 44 (0) 207 434 9944). The Society's Web Site can be found at http://www.geolsoc.org.uk/.The Society is a Registered Charity, number 210161. Published by The Geological Society from: Distributors The Geological Society Publishing House USA Unit 7 AAPG Bookstore Brassmill Enterprise Centre PO Box 979 Brassmill Lane Tulsa Bath OK 74101-0979 BAI 3JN USA UK (Orders: Tel. +1 918 584-2555 Fax +1 918 560-2652) (Orders: Tel. + 44 (0) 1225 445046 E-mail [email protected] Fax +44 (0)1225 442836) Australia Australian Mineral Foundation Bookshop Online bookshop: http://bookshop.geolsoc.org.uk 63 Conyngham Street Glenside The publishers make no representation, express or implied, with South Australia 5065 regard to the accuracy of the information contained in this book Australia and cannot accept any legal responsibility for any errors or (Orders: Tel. +61 88 379-0444 omissions that may be made. Fax +61 88 379-4634) E-mail [email protected] First edition published 1985 Second edition published 1993; reprinted 1998 India Third edition published 2001 Affiliated East-West Press PVT Ltd G-l/16 Ansari Road, Daryaganj, 9 The Geological Society of London 2001. All rights reserved. New Delhi 110 002 No reproduction, copy or transmission of this publication may India be made without written permission. No paragraph of this (Orders: Tel. +91 11 327-9113 publication may be reproduced, copied or transmitted save Fax +91 11 326-0538) with the provisions of the Copyright Licensing Agency, 90 E-mail affiliat@nda,vsnl.net.in Tottenham Court Road, London WIP 9HE. Users registered Japan with the Copyright Clearance Center, 27 Congress Street, Kanda Book Trading Co. Salem, MA01970, USA: the item-fee code for this publication is Cityhouse Tama 204 0305-8719/01/$15.00. Tsurumaki 1-3-10 Tama-shi British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data Tokyo 206-0034 A catalogue record for this book is available from the Japan British Library. (Orders: Tel. +81 (0)423 57-7650 Fax +81 (0)423 57-7651) ISBN 1-86239-079-7 ISSN 0305-8719 Cover photo: courtesy of Redland Aggregates Ltd Typeset and printed by Alden Press, Oxford, UK. Contents Foreword to the 3rd edition ................................. xv Preface ........................................... xvi Working Party Members .................................. xvii Acknowledgements ..................................... xviii Introduction ...................................... 1.1. Background .................................... 1 1.2. Objectives ..................................... 2 1.2.1. First edition 1985 ............................. 2 1.2.2. Second edition 1993 (reprinted 1998) .................... 3 1.2.3. Third edition 2001 ............................. 4 1.3. Geographical factors ............................... 4 Reference 4 . Occurrences and associations of sources ......................... 5 2.1. Introduction ................................... 5 2.1.1. Rock and rock categories .......................... 5 2.1.2. Geological time scale and the rock sequence ................. 5 2.2. Aggregates from the igneous and metamorphic rocks ............. 7 2.2.1. Igneous rock ................................ 7 2.2.2. Metamorphic rock ............................. 10 2.3. Aggregates from the sedimentary rocks ....................... 11 2.3.1. Limestone ................................. 12 2.3.2. Sandstone ................................. 13 2.3.3. Other sedimentary rocks and natural waste materials ............. 14 2.4. Occurrence of sand and gravel, and of conglomerates ................ 14 2.4.1. Factors influencing the distribution of sand and gravel in Britain ....... 15 2.4.2. Fluvial deposits .............................. 16 2.4.2.1. River channel or alluvial deposits ................. 16 2.4.2.2. River terrace deposits ....................... 17 2.4.2.3. Alluvial fans ........................... 19 2.4.3. Glacial deposits .............................. 19 2.4.3.1. Moundy glaciofluvial deposits: eskers, kames and kame-terraces . 20 2.4.3.2. Terraced glaciofluvial deposits: outwash (sandar) and fans ...... 21 2.4.3.3. Periglacial phenomena and deposits ................. 23 2.4.3.4. Screes, block-fields and head deposits ............... 24 2.4.4. Coastal deposits .............................. 24 2.4.5. Marine deposits ............................... 26 2.4.6. Gravels in the solid formations ....................... 26 2.5. Aggregate materials in desert regions ........................ 27 2.6. Aggregate materials in tropical regions ....................... 29 2.7. The effects of alteration and weathering ...................... 30 2.7.1. Alteration ................................. 31 2.7.2. Weathering ................................ 31 2.8. The influence of geological structure ........................ 33 2.8.1. Rock structures and geological structures (primary and secondary structures) . 33 2.8.1.1. Depositional structures and rock textures (primary structures) in sedimentary rocks ......................... 33 2.8.1.2. Primary structures in igneous rocks ................ 34 vi CONTENTS 2.8.2. Secondary geological structures ....................... 35 2.8.2.1. Dip and strike ........................... 35 2.8.2.2. Folds ............................... 35 2.8.2.3. Faults and joints ......................... 36 References ....................................... 37 . Field investigation of deposits .............................. 41 3.1. Introduction ................................... 41 3.2. Desk study .................................... 41 3.2.1. Topographic maps ............................. 41 3.2.2. Geological maps .............................. 41 3.2.3. Aggregate resource maps .......................... 42 3.2.4. Derivative resource maps .......................... 43 3.2.5. Reports and small-scale maps ........................ 45 3.2.6. Geological, geophysical and aggregates maps covering UK offshore areas . 45 3.2.6.1. Sand and gravel resource appraisals ................ 47 3.2.7. Geoscience libraries in Britain ....................... 47 3.3. Field investigation ................................. 47 3.3.1. Satellite imagery .............................. 47 3.3.2. Aircraft remote sensing ........................... 49 3.3.3. Geophysics: airborne and ground geophysics ................ 49 3.3.3.1. Airborne methods ......................... 49 3.3.3.2. Ground methods ......................... 49 3.3.3.3. Marine geophysical methods .................... 53 3.4. Geological appraisal for aggregate assessment ................... 53 3.4.1. Geological Classification and stratigraphical position ............. 53 3.4.2. Field relations ............................... 54 3.4.3. Thickness of the deposit
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