Development and Testing of Self‒Powered Detectors for Nuclear Measurements in Fusion Reactors

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Development and Testing of Self‒Powered Detectors for Nuclear Measurements in Fusion Reactors Development and Testing of Self‒Powered Detectors for Nuclear Measurements in Fusion Reactors Zur Erlangung des akademischen Grades Doktor der Ingenieurwissenschaften (Dr.-Ing.) von der KIT-Fakultät für Maschinenbau des Karlsruher Instituts für Technologie (KIT) angenommene Dissertation von M.S.-M.Tech. Prasoon Raj Tag der mündlichen Prüfung: 25.07.2019 Hauptreferent: Prof. Dr.-Ing. Robert Stieglitz Korreferent: Prof. Dr. Thomas Müller Erklärung Hiermit erkläre ich, dass ich die vorliegende Arbeit selbständig angefertigt und keine anderen als die angegebenen Quellen und Hilfsmittel benutzt sowie die wörtlich und inhaltlich übernommenen Stellen als solche kenntlich gemacht und die Satzung des KIT zur Sicherung guter wissenschaftlicher Praxis in der jeweils gültigen Fassung beachtet habe. Karlsruhe, den 02.05.2019 Prasoon Raj ABSTRACT Robust technologies for radiation detection and measurement are quintessential for safe and reliable operation of a fusion power plant. Diverse detector-types sensitive to high-energy neutrons, photons, and various charged particles must be integrated into the reactor designs. The applied devices and electronics should sustain high fluxes of energetic particles, intense electromagnetic fields, and high temperatures. Therefore, the traditional detection technologies need to be adapted accordingly and novel methods and instruments should be developed. This thesis presents a comprehensive investigation of self-powered detectors (SPD), a class of common neutron and photon flux monitors used in fission reactors, for application in fusion reactors. An SPD is an electrical device with two conducting layers: emitter and collector, isolated with an intermediate ceramic layer. The emitter, the central element, preferentially interacts with the incident particles (neutrons and photons) leading to the release of electrons. Creation of small charges in such a process produces the direct current (DC) signal of the SPD, proportional to the incident particles’ fluxes. Due to the unique simplicity of an SPD’s engineering design, its high reliability, robustness, compactness and low-price, SPD is of high interest for use as an online detector in fusion reactors. However, SPDs are tailored for fission reactor radiation conditions, mainly the neutron and photon energies, which are significantly different from those in fusion systems. Also, the overall structure of a fusion reactor brings a number of new technical constraints on the SPDs. A detailed study of the nuclear performance of this detector type for fusion applications has not been performed earlier and is the subject matter of this work. Experimental and computational studies have been conducted to check the feasibility of implementing SPDs in the European test blanket modules (TBM) of the ITER reactor, and to pave an optimum path for development and testing of prototype SPDs for fusion reactors. Using the basic operating principles of the device, test SPDs have been chosen for their high responses to neutrons of energies up to 14 MeV and high-energy photons, as present in fusion reactors. A new, flat sandwich-like SPD with flexible design has been conceptualized and developed in this work. It allows testing of multiple material combinations and provides higher sensitivity under laboratory radiation sources. At first, detailed reference experiments have been done using a flat SPD and a commercial cylindrical SPD, both with vanadium emitters. Then, several other materials have been selected for comparative studies, as the nature of an SPD’s signal is known to depend on the layer-materials. Vanadium, silver and beryllium have been picked for the emitters, and niobium, graphite and Inconel-600 for collectors. Extensive irradiation tests under representative neutron and photon fields have been conducted for various test-SPDs. The scope of experiments gets limited as no available radiation source has wide-energy and intense fields like those in the TBMs. The utilized sources include the 14 MeV neutron generator of the Technical University of Dresden, the bremsstrahlung photon source of the ELBE accelerator at Helmholtz- Zentrum Dresden-Rossendorf and the TRIGA Mark-II fission reactor of Johannes i Gutenberg-University of Mainz. The signals of different detectors in different radiation fields have been compared and conclusions about their sensitivities, neutron-photon discrimination capabilities and susceptibilities to changes in the detector and/or the surroundings have been made. Through tests over wide ranges of particle flux intensities, the SPDs have been proven to produce good proportionality between signal and incident flux, as demanded for the reactor flux monitors. Measured currents lie in the range of 100 fA to 100 pA. A flat design has been shown to exhibit a higher response, with signals improved by around 100 times as compared to the traditional cylindrical SPDs. Compact flat SPDs have been deemed favourable for possible use in reactor fields. The high-energy bremsstrahlung photon responses have been found to be higher for all detectors when compared with their fast 14 MeV neutron responses. An SPD, preferably with high atomic number emitter, is thus, concluded as a good choice for high-accuracy photon measurements in TBMs. For neutron measurements, an SPD with suitable materials shall have relatively stronger neutron signal in TBMs than that in the pure 14 MeV field because the spectrum of neutrons in the TBM is much wider. So, SPDs for the neutron flux monitoring have also been established as valid options. To better understand the experiments and ultimately, for extrapolation to the real fusion reactor environment, a Monte-Carlo model for electrical sensitivity of an SPD has been developed and implemented. Questions regarding the discrimination of different signal forming processes are answered by scrutinizing various physical processes through the modelling. Computational studies of selected coaxial SPDs show that reliable signals, of the orders of nA to mA, can be produced by SPDs in the TBMs. A clear proportionality to the neutron or photon flux depending upon the choice of materials is expected from them. In the end, a set of parametric computational studies on the materials, dimensions and overall geometric designs of the SPD have been proposed to be conducted. Several constructional aspects have been identified and reported, to eliminate the secondary effects from different events of nuclear, mechanical and electrical nature in the detector and in its vicinity. ii ZUSAMMENFASSUNG Robuste Technologien zur Strahlungserkennung und -messung sind von zentraler Bedeutung für den sicheren und zuverlässigen Betrieb eines Fusionskraftwerks. Vielfältige Arten von Detektoren, die auf hochenergetische Neutronen, Photonen und verschiedene geladene Teilchen reagieren, müssen in das Design des Reaktors integriert werden. Die eingesetzten Geräte und die Elektronik sollten hohe Ströme aus energiereichen Teilchen, intensive elektromagnetische Felder und hohe Temperaturen aushalten. Die herkömmlichen Detektionstechnologien müssen entsprechend angepasst und neue Methoden und Instrumente entwickelt werden. Diese Doktorarbeit befasst sich mit einer umfassenden Untersuchung von Selbst Angetriebenen Detektoren (Self-Powered Detectors, SPD), einer gängigen Klasse zur Neutronen- und Photonenflussüberwachung in Kernreaktoren, welche in Fusionsreaktoren eingesetzt werden sollen. Ein SPD ist ein elektrisches Gerät mit zwei leitenden Schichten: Emitter und Kollektor, isoliert durch eine keramischen Zwischenschicht. Der Emitter ist das zentrale Element, welches bevorzugt mit den einfallenden Teilchen (Neutronen und Photonen) interagiert wodurch Elektronen freigesetzt werden. Die Erzeugung kleiner Ladungen in einem solchen Prozess führt zu einem Gleichstrom (DC) SPD-Signal, das proportional zu den einfallenden Teilchenflüssen ist. Aufgrund seiner einzigartig einfachen Konstruktion, seiner hohen Zuverlässigkeit, Robustheit, Kompaktheit und seines niedrigen Preises, ist der SPD von großem Interesse für den Einsatz als online Detektor in Fusionsreaktoren. Allerdings sind die SPDs auf die Strahlungsbedingungen im Kernspaltungsreaktor zugeschnitten, vor allem auf die Neutronen- und Photonenenergien, die sich deutlich von denen in Fusionsanlagen unterscheiden. Darüber hinaus bringt die Gesamtstruktur eines Fusionsreaktors eine Reihe neuer technischer Einschränkungen für SPDs mit sich. Eine detaillierte Untersuchung der nuklearen Leistungsfähigkeit dieses Detektortyps für Fusionsanwendungen wurde noch nie zuvor durchgeführt und ist Gegenstand dieser Arbeit. Im Rahmen der Entwicklung von kerntechnischen Instrumenten für die Europäischen Testblanketmodule (TBM) des ITER-Reaktors wurden experimentelle und rechnerische Studien durchgeführt, um die Machbarkeit der Implementierung von SPDs in Fusionsblankets zu prüfen und einen optimalen Weg für die Entwicklung und Erprobung von Prototypen von SPDs für Fusionsreaktoren zu ebnen. Es wurden Test-SPDs mit einer starken Reaktion auf Neutronen mit Energien bis zu 14 MeV und hochenergetischen Photonen, wie sie in Fusionsreaktoren vorhanden sind, gewählt. In dieser Arbeit wurde ein neues, flaches, sandwichartiges SPD mit flexiblem Design konzipiert und entwickelt. Dieses ermöglicht die Untersuchung mehrerer Materialkombinationen und bietet eine höhere Empfindlichkeit bei Strahlungsquellen unter Laborbedingungen. Für genaue Referenzexperimente wurden ein flacher SPD und eine kommerzielle zylindrische SPD-Einheit – beide mit V Emitter –
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