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University of Southampton Research Repository ePrints Soton Copyright © and Moral Rights for this thesis are retained by the author and/or other copyright owners. A copy can be downloaded for personal non-commercial research or study, without prior permission or charge. This thesis cannot be reproduced or quoted extensively from without first obtaining permission in writing from the copyright holder/s. The content must not be changed in any way or sold commercially in any format or medium without the formal permission of the copyright holders. When referring to this work, full bibliographic details including the author, title, awarding institution and date of the thesis must be given e.g. AUTHOR (year of submission) "Full thesis title", University of Southampton, name of the University School or Department, PhD Thesis, pagination http://eprints.soton.ac.uk UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHAMPTON FACULTY OF LAW, ARTS & SOCIAL SCIENCES School of Humanities UNESCO’s World Heritage Sites as Landmarks of Identity in the Balkans. Global Perceptions –National/Local Reflections by Panagiota Pantzou Thesis for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy October 2009 UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHAMPTON ABSTRACT FACULTY OF LAW, ARTS AND SOCIAL SCIENCES SCHOOL OF HUMANITIES Doctor of Philosophy UNESCO’S WORLD HERITAGE SITES AS LANDMARKS OF IDENTITY IN THE BALKANS: GLOBAL PERCEPTIONS- NATIONAL/LOCAL REFLECTIONS by Panagiota Pantzou In light of globalisation, many theorists have foreseen the imminent end of both nationalism and cultural intimacy. Some scholars claim that the global forces are resulting in a growing homogenisation, whereas others suggest that identity formation will become increasingly fragmented. Nevertheless, presently nationalism appears to be a continued driving force and the role of cultural heritage in identity politics appears to be augmenting. By exploring the ideological and practical aspects of UNESCO’s World Heritage Convention through its materialisation: the World Heritage Sites (WHS), I address the interplay between the global, national and the local realms in an effort to examine the values of the remnants of the past, the ever-evolving character of national imagination and the transcending nature of local conceptions of the ‘self’ and the past. Despite UNESCO envisioning WHS as representative examples of ‘humanity’s shared past’, I argue that on both local and national level, WHS are imbued with several layers of meaning, operate as landmarks of diverse identities, and occasionally serve conflicting purposes. By integrating the local realm in the dialectic, the intention is to juxtapose local readings of identity and heritage with national narratives and global concepts, and investigate their discursive and practical (in)compatibility. Case studies explored in this study are drawn from the Balkans, a region that has become a centre of academic and public interest -particularly after the conflicts of the past two decades- in fuelling the burgeoning discussion on nationalism and politics of the past. The WHS of Butrint (Albania), Troy (Turkey) and Vergina (Greece) offer the raw material for a thorough analysis of archaeology’s role in the politics of identity in a global context. They allow an exploration from a national and local perspective by stressing the multiplicity of meanings and values of the past and the new apparatuses of imagination. WHS as Landmarks of Identity in the Balkans List of Contents Page number LIST OF CONTENTS I LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS V LIST OF TABLES IX AUTHOR’s DECLARATION X ACKNOWLEDGMENTS XI ABBREVIATIONS XIV Chapter 1: Introduction 1 Chapter 2: Politics of the Past-Politics of the Present 9 2.1 Socio-politics of Archaeology 9 2.2 Nationalism and Archaeology-Archaeology and Nationalism in a Nutshell 11 2.2.1 Mapping the Nation: Influential Theories on Nationalism 12 2.2.2 Archaeology and Nationalism in Postmodernity 13 2.2.3 An introduction to Borderland Nationalism: The Importance of Liminality and Marginality in the Making of the Nation 14 2.3 Politics of Identity in a Global Context 17 2.3.1 Globalisation: Nationalism, Homogenisation or Cultural Pluralism? 18 2.3.2 Archaeology in a Changing World 20 2.4 Conclusions 21 Chapter 3: On Value 23 3.1 Defining Value 23 3.1.1 The Value Debate in Economic Anthropology 23 3.1.2 Archaeological Heritage Management and the Value Debate 26 3.2 Theorising Value 27 3.3 A Processual and Dynamic Value Approach 30 3.4 Conclusions 34 i WHS as Landmarks of Identity in the Balkans Chapter 4: Fieldwork in Postmodernity 36 4.1 Towards a Multi-sited Methodology 37 4.2 Methodological Tools 40 4.3 The Chronicle of Doing Fieldwork 41 Chapter 5: UNESCO, World Heritage and the Politicisation of the Past 44 5.1 UNESCO’s Biography and the 1972 Paris Convention 45 5.1.1 Mapping UNESCO 45 5.1.2 Mapping the World Heritage Convention 46 5.2 International Organisations and the Politicisation of Culture 49 UNESCO as a Site of Meaning Making 50 5.3 Of Outstanding Universal Value or National Significance? The Values of World Heritage 54 5.3.1 Interpretive Values 56 5.3.2 Use Values 58 5.3.3 Political/Symbolic and Aesthetic Values 69 5.4 Conclusions 75 Chapter 6: Mapping the Balkans-The Balkan Matrix 77 6.1 Follow the Discussion: The Semiology of the Balkans 78 6.1.1 The Nebulous Balkans 80 6.1.2 Balkan Occidentalism- “Imagined Balkans” 82 6.2 Follow the History 84 6.2.1 The Ottoman Past and the Yearning for Nationhood and Statehood 84 6.2.2 The National Uprisings and the Molding of National Identities 86 Mapping Balkan Nationalisms 87 The Making of the Balkan nations and the Uses of the Past 89 6.4 Conclusions: Balkan Identities 92 Chapter 7: Marginal Locations, Marginal Sites and Liminal Identities: The Case of the WHS of Butrint 94 7.1 Butrint’s Biography 94 7.2 Borders, Marginality and the Eternal Life of Butrint 99 ii WHS as Landmarks of Identity in the Balkans 7.3 Italian Politics and the Search for Aeneas (1924-1944) 101 7.4 The Quest for the Illyrian “Ethnos” (1944-1991) 105 7.4.1 The Illyrian Thesis 107 7.4.2 Butrint’s Illyrian Identity 110 7.5 The Eternal Life of Butrint (1991 to the Present) 113 7.5.1 The Impact of the World Heritage Designation 116 7.5.2 A Microcosm of Mediterranean History and Albanian Politics 122 7.5.3 National Perceptions and the WH status of Butrint 126 7.5.4 Academic Readings of Burtint’s Value 128 7.6 Significance Over “Insignificance”: Education and the Idiosyncratic Value(s) of Butrint 131 7.6.1 Butrint’s Marginal Significance and Idiosyncratic Value 132 7.6.2 Butrint’s Ambiguous Significance 137 7.6.3 Butrint’s Liminal Significance 139 7.7 Epirus-Chameria and the Case of Liminal Butrint 141 7.7.1 Contested Epirus 144 The Albanian Thesis on Epirus and Chameria 146 The Greek Thesis on Epirus 147 7.7.2 Liminal Butrint in Liminal Epirus 151 7.8 A Microcosm of Balkan History: Butrint and the Locals 157 7.8.1 Mapping the Environs of Butrint 158 7.8.2 The Real Butrint: Local Reflections 164 7.9 Conclusions 174 Chapter 8: WHS in a Balkan context: Vergina and Troy 178 8.1 Vergina’s Biography 178 8.1.1 Vergina: A landmark of “Macedonian” Identity 182 Vergina’s Symbolic Value in the Macedonian Conflict 185 FYROM’s New Past 187 The “Vergina Dispute” 190 8.1.2 Vergina’s Outstanding Universal Value 191 Post-Designation Management and the Importance of the Royal Tombs 194 Vergina’s WH Designation and the State Rhetoric 199 8.1.3 Idiosyncratic Readings of Vergina’s Past 201 iii WHS as Landmarks of Identity in the Balkans 8.1.4 Conclusions 204 8.2 The Eternal Troy 206 8.2.1 Troy’s Biography: The Passage to Eternal Life 206 8.2.2 Culture as the Foundation of the Turkish Republic 210 8.2.3 Troy Revisited. The World Heritage Designation 214 8.2.4 The WHS of Troy: Anatolian Bastion, Cradle of European Civilisation or a Greek Site? 222 8.2.5 Conclusions 228 Chapter 9: Reflections on Nation-states, Local Communities and the World Heritage Convention in a Global context 231 LIST OF REFERENCES 242 APPENDICES 297 Appendix 1 Methodological Tools 298 Appendix 2 Questionnaires 300 Appendix 3 The selection criteria according to the 2005 Operational Guidelines 312 Appendix 4 Advisory and Statutory Bodies 313 Appendix 5 Number of WH properties inscribed each year by region and States Parties with the most designated WHS (the top 20) 314 Appendix 6 Reflections on the WH Designation of Kotor 316 Appendix 7 Matsuura’s recommendation regarding the Jerusalem incident 317 Appendix 8 Maps of the Balkans 318 Appendix 9 Greece’s territorial gains 321 Appendix 10 Albanian State Party 322 Appendix 11 Butrint’s Open Day promotional material 323 Appendix 12 Greek State Party 324 Appendix 13 State Party of FYROM 326 Appendix 14 Turkish State Party 327 Appendix 15 Balkan WHS 329 iv WHS as Landmarks of Identity in the Balkans List of Tables Figure page number Table 4.1 Methodological tools. 41 Table 5.1 Criteria for cultural properties. 46 Table 5.2 Draft Programme 2004-2005. 52 Table 5.3 Table with WHS and tentative Lists by region. 57 Table 5.4 Personal websites referring to WHS. 68 Table 5.5 Representative quotes regarding WHS from Slots’ website. 68 Table 7.1 Table that shows students’ awareness of UNESCO and the convention. 119 Table 7.2 Table that shows students’ familiarity with other WHS. 120 Table 7.3 Table that indicates which are the most commonly known WHS.
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  • Albania Environmental Performance Reviews

    Albania Environmental Performance Reviews

    Albania Environmental Performance Reviews Third Review ECE/CEP/183 UNITED NATIONS ECONOMIC COMMISSION FOR EUROPE ENVIRONMENTAL PERFORMANCE REVIEWS ALBANIA Third Review UNITED NATIONS New York and Geneva, 2018 Environmental Performance Reviews Series No. 47 NOTE Symbols of United Nations documents are composed of capital letters combined with figures. Mention of such a symbol indicates a reference to a United Nations document. The designations employed and the presentation of the material in this publication do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the Secretariat of the United Nations concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city or area, or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries. In particular, the boundaries shown on the maps do not imply official endorsement or acceptance by the United Nations. The United Nations issued the second Environmental Performance Review of Albania (Environmental Performance Reviews Series No. 36) in 2012. This volume is issued in English only. Information cut-off date: 16 November 2017. ECE Information Unit Tel.: +41 (0)22 917 44 44 Palais des Nations Fax: +41 (0)22 917 05 05 CH-1211 Geneva 10 Email: [email protected] Switzerland Website: http://www.unece.org ECE/CEP/183 UNITED NATIONS PUBLICATION Sales No.: E.18.II.E.20 ISBN: 978-92-1-117167-9 eISBN: 978-92-1-045180-2 ISSN 1020–4563 iii Foreword The United Nations Economic Commission for Europe (ECE) Environmental Performance Review (EPR) Programme provides assistance to member States by regularly assessing their environmental performance. Countries then take steps to improve their environmental management, integrate environmental considerations into economic sectors, increase the availability of information to the public and promote information exchange with other countries on policies and experiences.