Timon: The Proceedings of the Philippine Maritime Heritage Forum
TIMON THE PROCEEDINGS OF THE PHILIPPINE MARITIME HERITAGE FORUM
SELECTED ARTICLES FROM THE PHILIPPINE MARITIME HERITAGE FORUM
Volume 1
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Timon: The Proceedings of the Philippine Maritime Heritage Forum
About the Proceedings
In accordance with the vision of the Asian Institute of Maritime Studies or AIMS to become the Home of Maritime Knowledge Exchange, the AIMS Museo Maritimo annually organizes the Philippine Maritime Heritage Forum since 2015. This initiative aims to build up the overall knowledge and facilitate the continuous dialogue on Philippine maritime heritage and industry.
Since 2015 the forum gathered respectable historians and academicians, industry leaders, and maritime professionals to share their knowledge regarding the maritime heritage and industry of the Philippines.
In celebration of this achievement, AIMS Museo Maritimo established Timon: The Proceedings of the Philippine Maritime Heritage Forum which publishes annually.
A proceedings that summarizes the content of the forums into a research material is necessary to facilitate further research relating to maritime heritage and industry. This endeavor supports researches for academic and policy-making purposes.
The term Timon means rudder in Filipino. Similarly, the proceedings hopes to become an instrument to spread awareness which serves as a foundation for the succeeding forums. It will guide various stakeholders in the maritime industry such as policymakers, seafarers, shipping companies, maritime institutions, and maritime historians.
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Timon: The Proceedings of the Philippine Maritime Heritage Forum
Foreword
Dear Reader,
It is with great pride and honour that we present the selected articles of the Philippine Maritime Heritage Forum Conference Proceedings. It is a necessary reference for further research relating to maritime heritage and industry. Its purpose is to spread awareness and serves as a foundation for the succeeding forums.
The whole editorial team of Museo Maritimo would like to express our deepest gratitude and regards for sharing with us your time in appreciating the rich maritime legacy of the Philippines. We will treasure your perseverance and commitment in reading the first volume of the proceedings.
We would also like to send our gratitude to our authors who supported this undertaking and shared their knowledge and expertise. Their efforts and support enabled us to complete the first volume and fill it with rich and different themes.
Above all, we will forever be indebted to them for joining us in our endeavor of creating a reference material for the continuous exchange and dissemination of maritime heritage and industry thereby spreading the wonders of the Philippine maritime past. Without their cooperation and commitment the entire first volume of the proceedings will not be possible.
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Timon: The Proceedings of the Philippine Maritime Heritage Forum
Lastly, none of this will be possible without the support of our President Dr. Arlene Abuid-Paderanga and Executive Director Mr. Ronel M. Gillesania. The direction and diligence they provided were crucial in the accomplishment of the proceedings.
In summary, we would like to express our gratitude for the support of our authors, the Office of the President and the AIMS community. On behalf of the entire editorial team, we would like to thank you for joining us in our endeavor of spreading and experiencing the vast wonders and richness of the Philippine maritime heritage and industry. We hope that you will enjoy the proceedings.
Sincerely,
Daryl Lorence Abarca Editor
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Timon: The Proceedings of the Philippine Maritime Heritage Forum
Copyright and ISSN
Museo Maritimo supports the Open Access Movement. The copyright of the articles published in the proceedings remain to its respective authors. The authors may republish their article upon the condition that Museo Maritimo is acknowledged as the original publisher. On the other hand, those who intend to copy and redistribute the articles published in Museo Maritimo in any medium or format are free under the condition that they cite the journal article or give the appropriate credit to the author. However, the articles in the proceedings are not eligible for commercial purposes.
All the research articles published in Museo Maritimo are licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution- Commercial 4.0 International License. Museo Maritimo is also licensed with an International Standard Serial Number (ISSN) 2719-1389 and doi.org/10.6084/m9.figshare.13325342.v1
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Timon: The Proceedings of the Philippine Maritime Heritage Forum
Contents
An Ethnographic Study of Maritime Navigation among Fisherfolks of Nagbalaye, Negros Oriental 9 Ma. Teresa G. de Guzman, PhD
Manila: Spain’s Premier Fort and Port in Asia in the Age of Empire 22 Celestina P. Boncan, PhD
Examining pre-colonial Philippine boatbuilding: An archaeological study of the Butuan Boats and the use of edge-joined planking in local and regional construction techniques 44 Ligaya S.P. Lacsina, PhD
Mamamayan, Kalupaan at Karagatan: Ang Pagbubuo ng Imperyong Español sa Pilipinas at Pasipiko (1565-1815) 68 Jose Rhommel B. Hernandez, Ph.D.
Gender Dimensions of MIgration and Maritime Work 78 Carolyn I. Sobritchea, PhD
Ang Pagmamapa ng Pilipinas at Karagatang Pasipiko Bilang Pagbubuo ng Imperyong Español 85 Jose Rhommel B. Hernandez, Ph.D.
The Saga of a Maritime Nation sans Maritime Doctrine 92 Joefe B. Santarita, Ph.D.
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Timon: The Proceedings of the Philippine Maritime Heritage Forum
Preface
The Asian Institute of Maritime Studies (AIMS) Museo Maritimo annually organizes the Philippine Maritime Heritage Forum in accordance to its objective to become the home of maritime knowledge exchange in the country. Since the first maritime forum, Museo Maritimo organized the framework and themes based on the historical progression of Philippine maritime history. The following are the themes of the previous forums:
1st Philippine Maritime Heritage Forum Balik-Tanaw: Retracing Our Connections with the Sea
2nd Philippine Maritime Heritage Forum Akulturasyon, Tradisyon at Bagong Nasyon: Forming the Filipino Nation through Time and Tide
3rd Philippine Maritime Heritage Forum Mastering the High Seas: The Development of the Philippine Maritime Industry
4th Philippine Maritime Heritage Forum Voyages beyond the Shores: Maritime Movements in the Age of Globalization
5th Philippine Maritime Heritage Forum The Philippines as a Maritime Nation: Early Maritime Accounts and Contemporary Opportunities.
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Timon: The Proceedings of the Philippine Maritime Heritage Forum
The first to third forum surveyed the progression of the Philippine maritime history from its early history to the formation of the Philippines as maritime nation. On the other hand, the fourth and fifth forum covered the maritime status of the Philippines in the contemporary period. It focus not only on the maritime history of the Philippines, it also encompass the opportunities and the future of the Philippines as a maritime nation with its maritime past in the backdrop.
Since the historical progression followed by Museo Maritimo in organizing its theme reached the contemporary period, this proceedings aims to consolidate the wisdom and contents of all the previous forums and set a nation-state narrative for the country anchored in its maritime heritage and industry.
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Timon: The Proceedings of the Philippine Maritime Heritage Forum
An Ethnographic Study of Maritime Navigation among Fisherfolks of Nagbalaye, Negros Oriental
Associate Professor Ma. Teresa G. de Guzman, PhD Department of Behavioral Sciences College of Arts and Sciences University of the Philippines, Manila
Abstract
Using ethnographic research approach, this study was conducted to find out indigenous knowledge systems and practices, or IKSP, pertinent to maritime activities. Interviews with fisherfolks of Nagbalaye, Sta. Catalina in Negros Oriental revealed the people’s extensive knowledge of the different types of waves, winds, tides and sea currents and the recommended sailing activities corresponding to each type; knowledge of maritime techniques such as wayfinding using landmarks and celestial bodies; and knowledge and practice of rituals in support of these maritime information and activities. Unfortunately, these valuable techniques and pieces of information are often ignored because they are misperceived to be unscientific, despite their apparent usefulness in creating a “bottom-up approach” to government policy-making mechanisms leading to a better understanding of maritime environments.
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Introduction traditional fisherfolks of Nagbalaye rely on fish and sea n effective tool to achieve products. Most of the fisherfolks a deep understanding of in this community travel from one A seascapes is by listening island to another, not only for to fisherfolks and learning about leisure and trade but also for their indigenous knowledge health emergencies. Their sailing systems and practices, or IKSP. boats or baroto are sometimes This refers to the methods and used to ferry patients to the practices developed by a group of nearest hospital. men, who have formed an advanced understanding of the Knowledge of traditional local sea environment after maritime navigation is very generations of habitation in the important for the fisherfolks of area. One such group of men is Nagbalaye. Even without the use found in Sta. Catalina, Negros and availability of modern Oriental. maritime technology, fisherfolks find their way in the sea, night or Sta. Catalina, Negros Oriental is day. What enables them to do politically subdivided into 22 this is their familiarity with barangays, one of which is landmarks, winds, wave Nagbalaye. Geographically movements, and sea currents. coastal and subsisting on farming, Without these aids, traditional Nagbalaye is classified as rural.1 fisherfolks will be lost and For their subsistence, the flounder at sea.
1www.philatlas.com/visayas/r07/negros- oriental/santa-catalina/nagbalaye.html
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Timon: The Proceedings of the Philippine Maritime Heritage Forum
Using ethnographic research used at night. Fisherfolks depend approach, this study aims to: 1) on the stars and planets as their describe indigenous maritime guide for night navigation with navigation; 2) differentiate the the morning star serving as guide kinds of waves, winds, tides and in the sky. One of the biggest and sea currents; 3) describe types of brightest among these celestial sailing using celestial bodies; and bodies is the kabugasan or the 3) recognize the different kinds planet Venus which is only seen of rituals and practices in at early dawn. It serves as a connection with maritime reminder for the fisherfolks that navigation. Further, it seeks to their night fishing is about to end discover the constructs and and that they need to go back to understandings of maritime their community to sell their fish phenomenon, the range of and other sea products. Similarly, experience of the fisherfolks the biggest and brightest celestial using their traditional maritime body seen at dusk is kapunasan. techniques such as sea Unknown to the fisherfolks, coordinate techniques, kapunasan is also the planet wayfinding, and determining Venus. This celestial body serves wind direction and behavior. as a signal that night fishing is about to start. Kapunasan is Results and Discussion important to the fisherfolks because it reminds them of the Sailing using celestial bodies work at hand. They cannot afford to sail late because the sea is their Usually the fisherfolks go fishing unpredictable sustenance. at night. Celestial navigation or “panagat basi diha sa bituon” is
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Timon: The Proceedings of the Philippine Maritime Heritage Forum
The krus sa timog or the southern Reading the Waves, Winds, Tides cross consists of four stars in the and Sea Currents shape of a cross located in the southern sky. These four stars The traditional fisherfolk can serve as a clock for fisherfolks. If decipher different types of waves the stars are positioned forming that are always associated with an erect cross, it signifies the wind, like the: a) balud midnight; if the cross is tilted back habagat, when the waves are on an angle, it signifies that dawn caused by wind that comes from is fast approaching. the north; b) balud amihan, is when the wind that causes waves Another celestial aid is the comes from the South; c) balud amopolo, a cluster of 15 stars. salatan, when the wind coming The cluster of stars moves in the from the East causes the waves; sky at clockwork precision like the and lastly, d) balud timog, when movement of the moon. These the wind from the South causes stars also help fisherfolks tell the waves. The big waves or dagko time. As with the amopolo, the nga balod, are caused by natural balatik, a four-star arrangement disasters such as typhoons, heavy in the shape of an inverted big rains, and earth movements like letter L, is used by traditional earthquakes that cause tsunamis. navigators to remind them of the These waves are considered time. The balatik moves from devastating by fishefolks because south to west of the horizon. they signal a shortage of food or ting-gutom.
The fisherfolks described ilhanan or tilimad-on as different
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Timon: The Proceedings of the Philippine Maritime Heritage Forum landmarks in the sea. These are omens may be either favorable or the promontories, towers, unfavorable. 2 lighthouses and mountains also serve as guides to reach a The sea current or sulog (agos) is designated spot or direction for dictated by taob and hunas (high fishing. Tilimad-on is also defined and low tides). High tide or taob uhanan sa panahon， or the sign is dictated by the size and position of the moon. 3 The full of the times. It is a clue, a sign, an moon or bulanon means high tide omen, or it can be many things and the moon that is like an event (death of child disappearing or dulum is together with the death of an old considered as low tide. The new man, the death of a neighbor, the moon or dulum for the fisherfolk failure of light during evening is a good sign for fishing, while meal); an action or gesture the full moon or bulanon is (dropping a spoon, singing- by the described as poor fishing or no stove) or an object (a mole under catch. Overall, the fisherfolks rely the eye, a large ear which is a sign on the position of the moon to of longevity, the smell of candle determine the flow and behavior burning). The whole ominal world of sea current. Attendant to this is is therefore comprised in the the approximate time of fishing, ， concept of tilimad-on and the as seen in Table 1 and Table 2 below.
2 Demeterio, Francisco 1969. Towards a Classification of Bisayan Folk 3www.tideschart.com/Philippines/Centr Beliefs and Customs (pp. 27-50). Asian al-Visayas/Bayawan/ Folklore Studies. Vol. 28, No. 1, 1969
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Timon: The Proceedings of the Philippine Maritime Heritage Forum
Table 1: Nagbalaye Major Fishing Times
Major fishing times Position of the moon 4:39 AM to 6:39 AM Opposing lunar transit (moon down) 5:05 PM to 7:05 PM Lunar Transit (moon up)
Table 2: Nagbalaye Minor Fishing Times
Minor fishing times Position of the moon 11:09 AM to 12:09 PM Moonrise
11:01 PM to 12:01 AM Moonset
A thumb rule or sintido kumon for before they decide whether or the fisherfolks is not to lose sight not to go fishing. of the landmarks. For them, all the celestial bodies being used to A switch in wind direction is the tell time and to indicate other primary indicator for the change information (e.g. to sail or not to from one monsoon to another. sail) can guide them. According to The habagat is known as the the fisherfolks, these celestial Southwest monsoon. The bodies provide information as fisherfolks, or the mananagat, regards position while at sea describe habagat as a strong during fishing, or while they are wind that carries heavy rains but still at the seashore, they observe short in terms of duration. The first the movements and the habagat season warns the positions of these celestial bodies fisherfolks to be cautious in their
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Timon: The Proceedings of the Philippine Maritime Heritage Forum fishing activities because this frequent rainfall and high season is considered as humidity. Flash floods and dangerous due to strong winds. landslides are regular incidents During Southwest monsoon or during this season. On the other hanging habagat, the high- hand, the amihan is the Filipino pressure area is in the Australian term for Northeast monsoon, continent, and the low-pressure which is a cool and dry northeast area is in North China, Mongolia, wind coming from Siberia and and Siberia. The gusty winds from China and blowing down to the west and excessive rainfall Southeast Asia. This season is often turn to dangerous characterized by slight to typhoons. While the rain may moderate rainfall and a prevailing ease rice field irrigation, heavy cold wind that affects the east of rainfall may trigger floods, the Philippines. The Northeast landslides, and potentially monsoon commonly occurs from endanger residents living near October to late March, although riverbanks. The typhoons that occurrence may vary every year. habagat brings, unfortunately, The peak season in fishing in the cause millions, sometimes Philippines is during the amihan billions, worth of reconstruction season since it brings the best damage and kill hundreds of weather conditions: the air is Filipinos. The southwest cool, there is less rain, and monsoon affects the country humidity is low, plus sunshine is from late June to October moderate. The Northeast (occurrence may vary each year). monsoon contributes to colder The low fishing season in the Christmas nights which gives a Philippines occurs during the better ambience fit for the festive habagat season because of
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Timon: The Proceedings of the Philippine Maritime Heritage Forum season.4 Nonetheless, fisherfolks during the rainy or dry season as warn seafarers to be cautious long as the day and night sky is because the sea can be clear, the water is calm, and the unpredictable at times. wind is not strong. Still another type of wind is that which has a The other type of unpredictable south westerly direction; called wind is known as canaway. This salatan, it blows rarely (maybe particular wind which has no fixed two or three times a year) and direction blows two to three slowly. There is no specific month times in a year. This canaway or days when the wind will come causes huge waves, deadly winds, and blow, but it seldom blows, and heavy rains that inundate just like the canaway. For the rivers. At the same time, it can fisherfolks, the salatan is produce a huge volume of water considered unpredictable that is that goes to the sea and changes why it makes sailing dangerous. the movement of the ocean waves. The period from June to For the fisherfolks, there are two December is considered as the kinds of tides: the taob and wet season or tag-ulan. On the hunas. These are the low tides other hand, the dry season called and high tides that are influenced tag-init covers the months from by the position of the moon, January to May. There is no causing the sea to produce a large particular season that ensures a volume of water, which is very good catch. According to the helpful for the fisherfolks to fisherfolks, it can happen either navigate safely in both shallow
4www.divescotty.com/underwater- blog/amihan-habagat-monsoon.php
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Timon: The Proceedings of the Philippine Maritime Heritage Forum and deep waters. The hunas or surface water flows in one low tide is considered not safe for direction but when the fisherfolks fishing in shallow water but it is move to the deeper part of the good for harvesting kinhason or sea, the water moves in an seashells and catching opposite direction. The sulog or crustaceans. On the other hand, huwaso serves as a basis for the the high tide, or taob, for the use of sail or layag in order to fisherfolks is a good sign control the direction and speed of especially during night the baroto or boat. spearfishing. But high tide is not Over all, for fisherfolks, good for harvesting seashells due to strong current. The sea current kung mag blue ra ang of sulog or huwaso (the deceptive dagat, daghan ko ug calm in the eye of the storm) is kwarta [if the sea water is blue, it’s a sign for a dictated by the wind and wave good catch and lots of movement. The stronger the income]. wind and waves, the stronger the sea current becomes. The sea Conducting the Rituals of the current is heightened by the Traditional Navigators changing of sea tides and movement of the winds. The Most of the fisherfolks practice sulog or huwaso is dictated by the rituals like lashing the boat with position and shape of the moon. prepared and smoked seashore The position of the moon also grasses or tree branches. This is indicates the flow of sea current. usually done by the boat owner The sulog or huwaso as together with his family to get rid experienced by the fisherfolks is a of bad spirits so that they do not dual sea current where the go along or ride home with them
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Timon: The Proceedings of the Philippine Maritime Heritage Forum to bring bad luck. The other form custom of smoking, however, of ritual is by using kamangyan, seems to have been borrowed by which serves as incense. the lowland peoples from the Simultaneous with the burning of uplanders.5 incense is the chanting of the boat owners; the pamulong- One of the most important rituals pulong is believed to keep the that is performed during the bad spirits away from their fishing launching of a newly built boat is boat and their family. The belief called paduguan or bloodletting. in purification by fire or smoke is, This is carried out when an animal common among the fisherfolk. -- like duck, chicken, goat, or pig – Palina is the cure of diseases, is killed and its blood is smeared especially those caused by all over the boat and offered to supernatural beings (engkantos the spirits. For the fisherfolks, the ，mga kalag, barangans and blood can make a significant contribution to the boat or its others). For the fisherfolks it is owner, depending on the kind of used, to ensure the good luck of a sacrificial animal killed. For store or of fishing gears (boats examble, a) the blood of a duck and nets are “smoked”) but for can make the boat move in the others, it is used for gambling (the water like a duck, fast and tari or sabong, or the spurs unsinkable; b) the blood of a fastened to the ankles of fighting chicken can make the boat owner cocks are also “smoked”). The an early riser, hence the first to
5 Demeterio, Francisco 1969. Towards a Classification of Bisayan Folk Beliefs and Customs (pp. 27-50). Asian
Folklore Studies. Vol. 28, No. 1, 1969
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Timon: The Proceedings of the Philippine Maritime Heritage Forum catch the fish for the day. Usually and sturdy, and to make fishing fisherfolks sacrifice three (3) activities productive. For the black-feathered chickens, or the traditional practitioner: buyugon, for the spirits of the sea to avoid dimalas or bad luck; c) Ang ritwal depende sa the blood of a goat can make the sitwasyon sa sakit sa boat tough and resilient at tawo. Mau pod ni ang daytime; and lastly, d) the blood basehan kung unsa ang angay nga ihawon o of a pig can make the boat’s ihalad nga mga hayop ug enterprise productive and the gamit. Hal. mama boat owner fat, like a pig. The magdagkot ug kandila ug animal’s blood is offered while ang angay nga ihalad sa the members of the family, mga espiritu.] [Ritual taught by the traditional depends on the severity practitioner, chant something in of one's illness. It is also the basis that the type of Latin. The kind of animal offered the animal body to be for sacrifice is determined by the sacrificed and the albularyo, mananambal or may equipment to be used [ex. naantigohan (person with Bettlenut and candles] knowledge in communicating that will be offered to the with the spirits). Not any spirits]. traditional practitioner is Before its maiden voyage or consulted; who is consulted ipalawod/ipalitaw, a maglahad or depends on the case and spirits ritual for the spirits of the sea is that are believed to exist in the again conducted. area. As with the other rituals, the intention is to get rid of the bad spirits and make the boat safe
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To this day, the traditional fishing sa iyang kuha, pobre skills are gradually disappearing kauyo sila kinahanglan because traditional fisherfolks nila ibaligya ang gamay kuha naa isda para now opt to work outside their masuntentohan ang community as construction ilang pagkaon [although workers, farmers and as he is a fisherman, his seafearers (this is somewhat family seldom enjoys his related to their traditional fishing catch, as they are so poor work). This is due to limited that they have to sell fishing produce, limited funds to even small fishes in order to have money to buy maintain their fishing equipment, other food staples.] inability to compete with advanced fishing techniques Apart from this, the techniques using machines and modern and knowledge of the traditional fishing equipment (such as sonar, fisherfolks are often ignored and fish finders) and big motorized marginalized because they are fishing boats like basnig, not considered scientific. Thus, pumpboats, and little support even if the young generation is from the government. 6 As one of interested in learning the the interviewees, Mang Beny, traditional ways of fishing, this said: interest is nipped in the bud.
Bisan siya usa ka, The relevance of traditional mananagat, ang iyahang pamilya dili kayo nalipay maritime beliefs, practices and
6www.manilatimes.net/2018/01/13/busi ness/maritime-business/sustainability- efforts-ph-maritime-industry/373988/
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Timon: The Proceedings of the Philippine Maritime Heritage Forum techniques in understanding the concerted efforts of all its local seascape is obvious. This stakeholders from the public and should be the starting point of private sectors, led by a any effort to improve government that promotes and sustainability in the Philippine implements traditional fishing maritime industry. Such a programs, lasting and proactive “bottom-up approach” to relationships among all involved policymaking improves the sectors will be forged. chances of progress in the Philippine maritime industry. With the commitment and
References:
Demeterio, Francisco 1969. Towards a Classification of Bisayan Folk Beliefs and Customs (pp. 27-50). Asian Folklore Studies. Vol. 28, No. 1, 1969 www.tideschart.com/Philippines/Central-Visayas/Bayawan/ www.divescotty.com/underwater-blog/amihan-habagat-monsoon.php www.manilatimes.net/2018/01/13/business/maritime- business/sustainability-efforts-ph-maritime-industry/373988/ www.philatlas.com/visayas/r07/negros-oriental/santa- catalina/nagbalaye.html
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Manila: Spain’s Premier Fort and Port in Asia in the Age of Empire
Celestina P. Boncan, PhD University of the Philippines Manila
Abstract
On June 24, 1571 Spanish conquistador Miguel Lopez de Legazpi founded a Spanish city on the site of Rajah Soliman’s Maynilad, for years a thriving trading settlement located near the mouth of the Pasig River. Legazpi’s founding of Manila changed the contour of the land to fit the needs and objectives of the Spaniards. From the late 16th up to the 19th centuries, Manila served two principal functions of Spanish colonial policy. The first was as “recinto” or fortified city and the second was as “entrepot” or center of trade. From 1571 to 1898, Manila was Spain’s premier fort and port in Asia in the Age of Empire.
Key Words: Manila, fort, defense, port, trade
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Introduction feature. It was a strategically located fort: Founding of Manila as a Spanish City “facing the mouth of the river and the sea, a
palisade of logs, actually n 1570 Manila was a trunks of coconut trees flourishing settlement which was meant more located near the mouth of to deflect gunfire than I the Pasig River as it deposits to enclose since it was its waters to Manila Bay. It was easy to pass between the logs, planted in the ruled by native chieftains called ground about a foot rajahs who traced their ancestry from each other. The to the rajahs of Borneo. It was fortification proper called Maynilad named after the consisted of narrow mud nilad plant which grew in walls mounted with a abundance on the marshes at dozen pieces of artillery, the mouth of the Pasig River. mostly small calibre cannon. The town itself Chieftain of Manila was Rajah was a mass of nipa huts Soliman. huddled around Soliman’s palace which Soliman’s Manila was not only a was a big house with a trading settlement. It had one lot of porcelain and other outstanding blankets, a number of wooden tanks filled with
water and stores of
copper, iron, wax and cotton. Beside the palace was an arsenal.
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Nearby was a forge newcomers without a battle. where cannons were They refused to surrender what made under the was once their village to the direction of a Spaniards without a fight. In Portuguese armorer.”7 Bankusay along the bay fronting
Manila, the two chieftains Miguel Lopez de Legazpi, captain gathered their followers. of a Spanish expedition with Soliman’s men boarded their orders to found settlements in boats and met the Spaniards off the Philippines, had already the shore. Soliman’s men began made Cebu as his initial capital in shooting arrows at the Spaniards 1565.8 However, reports who retaliated by firing their reached him of a more suitable guns which killed many of capital, Manila in the island of Soliman’s men. Despite their Luzon north of Cebu. Arriving bravery, Soliman’s men were there in 1570 Legazpi prepared unable to defeat the Spaniards. to take possession of Manila. They then retreated and moved However, Manila’s native back to the shore.9 chieftains, Rajah Matanda and Rajah Soliman, had no plans to On June 24, 1571 Legazpi relinquish the settlement to the formally founded Manila as a
7 Nick Joaquin, Manila, My Manila: A Emma Helen Blair and James Alexander History for the Young. Manila: Vera- Robertson (eds.), The Philippine Reyes, 1990, p. 13 Islands: 1493-1898, Cleveland: The 8 T. Valentino Sitoy, Jr., The Initial Arthur H. Clark Co., 1903-1907. This 55- Encounter, Volume 1. Quezon City: volume compilation of primary sources New Day Publishers, 1985, p. 112 will hereinafter be referred simply as “Blair and Robertson.” 9 “Relation of the Conquest of the Island of Luzon,” 1572, vol. 3, p. 157,
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Spanish city. On this day he Soliman’s Manila. For the design created Manila’s first cabildo or of the Spanish city that he city council made up of two wanted to build, Legazpi turned alcaldes ordinarios (mayors with to the guidelines issued by King judicial powers), one alguacil Philip II in 1573 known as mayor (bailiff or constable), and “Ordinances Concerning twelve regidores (counselors) Discoveries, Settlements and and appointed more officials, Pacification of the Indies.” These namely, one notary for the ordinances laid down the basic cabildo and two notaries for the principles of town planning of court, on the following day.10 cities to be founded in Spain’s overseas colonies. The Legazpi wanted to create a ordinances called for a basic Spanish imprint on the land. His design which was a compact aim in doing this was to erase layout arranged in a typical from the memory of the people checkerboard pattern. Streets the once prosperous and crisscrossed across the lay of the commanding native settlement land from north to south and 11 on the banks of the Pasig River. from east to west creating, in the First, he burned Rajah Soliman’s process, square or rectangle palisaded settlement. Next, he building lots. At the center was proceeded to build his new city an open space in the shape of a on the actual site of Rajah square called plaza mayor from
10 Fernando Riquel, “Foundation of the 1581) in General History of the City of Manila,” 1572, vol. 3, pp. 173- Philippines, Part 1, Vol. 1. Manila: 174, Blair and Robertson Historical Conservation Society, 1986, 11 Martin J. Noone, The Discovery and p. 410 Conquest of the Philippines (1521-
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Timon: The Proceedings of the Philippine Maritime Heritage Forum where the four principal streets years, this design-pattern was of the city began. Lots around followed in other Spanish cities the plaza mayor were reserved founded in Central and South for royal buildings, the principal America such as Vera Cruz in church, buildings for the use of Mexico, founded in 1519, the city and the shops and Cartagena in Colombia, founded houses of merchants. The in 1533, Lima in Peru, founded in aduana or customs house, the 1536, Santiago in Chile, founded arsenal, and the hospital for non- in 1541, Bogota in Colombia, contagious diseases occupied founded in 1553, Caracas in lots near the principal church, Venezuela, founded in 1567, the royal buildings and the city Buenos Aires in Argentina, council so that they could easily founded in 1580.12 In effect, the assist one another. The first checkerboard pattern defined cities founded along this design- the exact form of the pattern were in islands in the settlement, the alignment of the Caribbean Sea such as Santo roads, the arrangement of the Domingo in Hispaniola, founded blocks, and the pattern for the in 1502, San Juan in Puerto Rico, division of the parcels among the founded in 1509, Santiago in founding members.13 Cuba in 1514, and Havana also in In Manila, Legazpi followed the Cuba, founded in 1515. In later grid iron pattern of Spanish
12 Patricia Sendin. “The Spanish Spanish America: The Law of the Indies Colonial Town: Planning Flexibility in as a Planning Tool for Urbanization in Spite of the Grid.” Early Towns in Venezuela,” in Focus: www.patriciasendin.com/2014/06/the- Vol. 2: Iss. 1, Article 13, spanish-colonial-town-planning.html digitalcommons.calpoly.edu/cgi/viewco 13 Roberto Rodriguez. “The ntent.cgi?article=1038&context=focus Foundational Process of Cities in
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Timon: The Proceedings of the Philippine Maritime Heritage Forum colonial cities built in America.14 cathedral church and Antonio de Morga, Lieutenant municipal buildings. He Governor of Manila in 1603, left another square, described in the following words plaza de armas, fronting the lay-out of Manilamanner in which was built the fort, which Legazpi parcelled out as well as the royal building lots in Manila: buildings. The houses of the Cabildo, located on Manila was laid out with the square, are built of well-arranged streets stone. They are very and squares, straight sightly and have and level. Legazpi handsome halls. On the apportioned the new ground floor is the settlement to the prison, and the court of Spaniards in equal the alcaldes-in-ordinary. building-lots. A On the same square is sufficiently large main situated the cathedral square (plaza mayor) church.15 was left, fronting which were erected the
14 The use of the grid iron plan is www.art.net/~hopkins/Don/simcity/ma considered in traditional historiography nual/history.html one of the most important 15 Antonio de Morga, 1559-1636. contributions of town planning in New History of the Philippine Islands. The Spain and a direct result of the Project Gutenberg EBook, 2003 (E-Book application of the schemes for ideal Number: 7001). cities. History of Cities and City www.bohol.ph/books/PhilippineIslands Planning by Cliff Ellis /PhilippineIslands.html
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From the late 16th up to the 19th encircling stone wall reinforced century, Manila served two with ramparts, bastions and principal functions for Spanish ravelins. policy in Asia. The first was as Spain’s “recinto” or fortified city Legazpi began building a fort for and the second was as the defense of his newly “entrepot” or center of trade. established Spanish city. The fort Integral to the realization of was located at the area nearest these aims was the making of the point where the waters of Manila as Spain’s premier fort the Pasig River met the waters of and port in Asia in the Age of Manila Bay. The fort was named Empire. “Santiago’ after the patron saint of Spain, St. James the Greater. Manila as Fort Fort Santiago was initially built of coconut tree trunks held Manila was designed to be an together by mounds of earth. enclave for Spaniards. As such, The usefulness of the fort as a foremost in the minds of the defense of Manila was put to a Spaniards was their safety, on test in 1574. On November 30 of one hand, from unpacified and this year, a thousand Chinese rebellious natives and on the mercenaries aboard 70 ships other hand, from rival European reinforced with artillery arrived. powers like the Portuguese and They constituted the advance the Dutch. Central to this troops of Li-Ma-Hong under the concept was the construction of command of his trusted general, an impregnable defense system Sioco. The Chinese initially founded first on a formidable landed in the area of Parañaque stone fort and, second, an thinking this was Manila, the
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Timon: The Proceedings of the Philippine Maritime Heritage Forum newly founded Spanish city that retaliatory force made up of 350 they had heard about. Realizing Spanish soldiers and 2,000 their mistake they proceeded to Filipinos under the command of march to Manila which they Juan de Salcedo laid siege to the assaulted in no time upon Chinese in their fort for six reaching it. On this day, months. Sensing no success in November 30 which is the feast their endeavor, the Chinese left day of St. Andrew the Apostle, their fort and sailed away.16 the Spaniards bravely defended Manila against the Chinese For the loyalty to Spain attackers. Two days later at demonstrated by the city, King dawn of December 2, Li-Ma- Philip II gave Manila the title of Hong himself arrived in Manila “Muy noble y siempre leal” 17 with more men. Under the (Distinguished and Ever Loyal). command of General Sioco l,500 In 1596 King Philip II again Chinese again attacked Manila. honored Manila. In this year, he But the attack was in vain. bestowed upon Manila its own General Sioco was killed and the coat-of-arms which consisted of Chinese became demoralized. “an escutcheon divided across; They returned to their boats and in the upper part is a castle on a sailed north towards the Ilocos red field, and in the lower a lion where they built a fort. A of gold, crowned and rampant, holding a naked sword in its right
16 Maria Lourdes Diaz-Trechuelo 17 Fray Juan Francisco de San Antonio, Spinola. Arquitectura Española en The Philippine Chronicles of Fray San Filipinas (1565-1800). Sevilla: Escuela Antonio (translated from the Spanish de Estudios Hispano-Americanos de by D. Pedro Picornell. Manila: Casalinda Sevilla, 1959, pp. 7-9 and Historical Conservation Society, 1977, p. 255
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Timon: The Proceedings of the Philippine Maritime Heritage Forum paw; one-half of the body is in wall by raising the parapets. He the form of a dolphin upon the also built a platform at the point waters of the sea, to signify that nearest the sea which he named the Spaniards crossed the sea Plataforma de San Miguel to with their arms to conquer this guard the mouth of the river. kingdom for the crown of The platform had a Castilla.”18 circumference of 200 feet which made it capable of being Convinced of the imperative installed with twelve large need for a much stronger fort for cannons.19 the city, the Spaniards began building a new fort made of Fort Santiago alone was not stone. Construction of the new expected to defend Manila. stone fort was begun in 1590 by Governor-General Guido de Governor General Gomez Perez Lavezares (1572-1575) began Dasmariñas. Construction work the building of a wall initially to place Fort Santiago in made of palisade which was constant readiness for the continued by his successor, defense of Manila continued Francisco de Sande (1575-1580). th until the end of the 19 century. By 1585 during the time of The task of maintaining Fort Governor-General Santiago de Santiago was placed upon the Vera (1585-1589), the palisade shoulders of succeeding wall started to be replaced by a governors-general. For example, stone wall. The initial stone wall Sabiniano Manrique de Lara was further improved during the repaired the retaining curtain time of Governor General
18 Ibid, p. 255 19 Diaz-Trechuelo, pp. 151-152
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Gomez Perez Dasmariñas (1590- and a revellin or ravelin which 1593). Improvements made at defended a gate. As if these the time included making the fortifications were not enough, stone wall rise to as much as 30 the Spaniards added another feet high and extend 4 feet wide. layer of defense. Soldiers Because it was now surrounded guarded these forts, bastions by a stone wall, Manila came to and redoubts. At no time of the be popularly called “Intramuros” day or night were these or city within the walls. defenseworks not guarded by alert sentries. Defending the The cortina or the line of northern, eastern and southern Manila’s stone wall was flanks of the stone wall were interrupted at various points by high-caliber cannons. Beyond various kinds of defense works. the cortina were two rings of These included a fortin or small foso or moat surrounding fort, a bastion also called Intramuros filled with water baluarte or structure protruding drained from the Pasig River.20 from the main wall, and a baluartillo or small bastion. The The construction of Fort stone wall between the bastions Santiago and the encircling was broken by outer defense stone wall reinforced by works such as a reducto which bastions, ravelins and postern defended a bastion or a baluarte gates, the conscription of
20 Leon Wolff. Little Brown Brother: Kapaligiran noong 1896: Pagmamapa How the United States Purchased and ng Himagsikan,” Historical Bulletin, vol. Pacified the Philippines Singapore: XLVII (2014): 88-90 Oxford University Press, 1991, p. 20-21; Celestina Boncan, “Maynila at
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Timon: The Proceedings of the Philippine Maritime Heritage Forum military details in strategic parts islands. Governor-General of the city, the defensive Domingo de Zabalbaru (1701- alighnment of the suburbs all 1709) affirmed the earlier made Manila a “recinto” or finding of his predecessor fortified city. (Gomez Perez Dasmariñas) to which the Fiscal of the Council of The defense of Manila extended the Indies agreed. Nearly a well beyond Fort Santiago and hundred and fifty years later in the city’s stone wall. To the 1747 Acting Govenror-General south of Manila lay the Cavite Fray Juan de Arechederra (1745- Peninsula. As early as 1591, 1750) described the Cavite Governor-General Gomez Perez Peninsula as the key and defense Dasmariñas already noted its of the City of Manila.21 strategic importance to the defense of Manila. He said that Due to the great military the Cavite Peninsula was not importance of the Cavite only the port of Manila but also Peninsula, it demanded the best the only place in Manila Bay security measures. King Philip III from where an enemy assault ordered the construction of a against Manila could be staged. fort which was started in 1609. This finding of the governor- Fort San Felipe was strategically general was continuously located. Built near the tip of the asserted in later years. In a letter Cavite Peninsula, Fort San Felipe to King Philip IV in 1650, the overlooked the southern waters city’s aldermen called the Cavite of Manila Bay. Unfortunately Peninsula as the key of these however, due to the lack of
21 Ibid., p. 289
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Timon: The Proceedings of the Philippine Maritime Heritage Forum funds and the scarcity of men to means of a palisade and a serve as guardsmen, only a small covered walkway. He also built fort was constructed. In 1628 an earthen esplanade in front of news reached the country that a the port where he installed forty squadron of 40 Dutch and cannons.22 English ships was on its way to the Philippines. Governor- The only time that the walls of General Juan Niño de Tabora Manila were breached was in (1626-1632) quickly convened 1762. On September 23 of this the Council of War. Among the year a British fleet made up of military preparations agreed fourteen vessels anchored in upon was the reenforcement of Manila Bay. Aboard were 274 Fort San Felipe. The fort was marines who were joined the enlarged and totally made of following day by 632 seamen. stone. Constructed therein The fleet came from the British facing the beach were four half colony of Madras in India. This cavaliers capable of bringing in unfolding event was occasioned 200 soldiers and solid by the start of the Seven Years 23 embankments for the mounting War in Europe. Spain and of the artillery. At the opposite Britain were on opposite sides of or landside a redoubt was the war. Thinking of making a constructed facing the fort first strike on the Spaniards in which was connected to it by Manila, the British in India
22 Ibid., p. 290 declared war on Spain on January 2, 23 France and Britain were at war in 1762. Onofre D. Corpuz, The Roots of 1761. The Spanish king being related to the Filipino Nation, vol. 1. Quezon City: the French king, these monarchs signed Aklahi Foundation, Inc., 1989, p. 313 a Family Compact that year. Britain
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Timon: The Proceedings of the Philippine Maritime Heritage Forum organized the fleet with orders royal buildings, churches and to occupy the city. Rear Admiral homes of the Spaniards. To Samuel Cornish and Brigadier prevent his capture by the General William Draper to whom British, Governor-General Simon command of the fleet had been de Anda had earlier escaped given ordered the landing force from the city through a tunnel to set up camp preparatory to that led to the Pasig River and attacking Manila. The British from there proceeded north to were able to bring to shore their Pampanga where he set up the supplies one week later. On the provisional capital. In his following October 4, the absence Anda left the city to Spaniards sent a force of Archbishop of Manila Manuel Pampango militia to Rojo del Rio y Vieyra who counterattack the British; became the Acting Governor- however, the British were able General. Not too long after, the to fend them off killing nearly a good Archbishop surrendered third of them. The British then Manila to the British to avoid fired their cannons on the further bloodshed and disorder curtain wall along Bastion de San in the city. In 1762 Manila lost its Andres. Continuous cannon fire fame as the fabled invincible weakened this part of the Spanish recinto in Asia.24 curtain wall. Two days later, they entered Intramuros and began The British occupied Manila for ransacking and assaulting the two years. By 1764 the Seven Years War had already ended.
24 Manuel Rojo, “Rojo’s Journal,” 1762, Vol. 49, pp. 104-131, Blair and Robertson
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The British restored the city back Clavero were professional to the Spaniards. The harrowing engineers. They brought to experience of foreign Manila their knowledge of the occupation taught the Spaniards latest techniques in military a lesson. They needed to engineering. They made plans, increase the defense of Manila sectional views and elevations of to avert a repeat of the the gates, bastions, ravelins and disastrous capture of the city. In redoubts of Manila’s curtain wall the succeeding years, the task of to show the improvements that strengthening the defense of needed to be done.25 Manila was no longer placed upon the shoulders of the Manila as Port colony’s top official, the The location of Manila was governor-general. Spain began conducive to the Spaniards and to send military engineers to the for their future policy in the Philippines who were members Philippines. Manila was more of the Corps of Engineers. safely located unlike Cebu. Military engineers such as Juan Located in the island of Luzon, de Ciscara y Ramirez, Tomas de Manila was farther away than Castro y Andrade, Miguel Cebu from the Moluccas where Antonio Gomez, Feliciano the Portuguese were based. At Marquez y Trujillo, Dionisio the time Legazpi arrived in the O’Kelly y Burke, and the Visayas, a number of Portuguese collaborators of the latter ships were in the vicinity namely Jose Belesta y Pared, Tomas Sanz, and Gregorio
25 Diaz Trechuelo, pp. 67-93
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Timon: The Proceedings of the Philippine Maritime Heritage Forum suspicious of the presence of the November to March, either Spaniards.26 which way the winds blew sea travel between the Philippines Manila was not only safely far and China had become an often removed from Portuguese occurrence.27 assault. It was also conveniently located on the path of trade The location of Manila proved to routes. For centuries Chinese be fortuitous for the Spaniards. merchants sailed along the With the tornaviaje (eastern western side of the island of route across the Pacific Ocean Luzon. These merchants came from Manila to Mexico) already from the southern province of discovered, it was but natural for Fujian. They crossed the South the Spaniards in Manila to China Sea and traded mostly establish a trade with Mexico.28 with the islands of Palawan and Mindoro. Their trading ships The trade products sent by were light boats which relied on Manila merchants to Mexico wind power. A moderate wind were Asian, mostly Chinese, blew over these waters most merchandise. It was but times of the year. Whether inevitable for Manila to send blowing southwest from June to Chinese products to Mexico. November or northeast from Manila had long been visited by Chinese traders even before the
26 Sitoy, p. 167 Acapulco Galleon Trade” in 27 Fedor Jagor, Travels in the Kabarkadahan: La Ruta del Galeon Philippines. Manila: Filipiniana Book Manila-Acapulco: Ang Galeong Nag- Guild, p. 24 uugnay sa Manila at Acapulco. Pasay City: UNESCO National Commission of 28 Celestina Boncan, ““The Tornaviaje: the Philippines, 2016, pp. 18-31 Setting the Course of the Manila-
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Spaniards arrived. Chinese cotton, pearls, tortoise shells, vessels regularly went to the medicinal betel nuts, and abaca Philippines to trade. During the cloth. While he was in Panay, Chou Dynasty (1026 BCE-256 Legazpi heard news that the BCE), Chinese merchants people of the island of Luzon brought pottery, jars, porcelain engaged in much trade. One dishes and opaque glass beads.29 settlement stood out among the The exchange was by means of rest. This was Manila which was barter. Hence, the Filipinos located on the banks of an exchanged the Chinese products important river. It was well with birds' nests, pearls and settled and had much commerce tortoise shells. By the time of the with China. Sung Dynasty (960 CE-1279 CE), there was more trade between The products that Manila sent to the Chinese and the Filipinos. On Acapulco for the purpose of their part, the Chinese brought trade became far more silk products, cotton cloths, gold extravagant and numerous. thread, musk, gilded porcelain There were textiles of various bowls, earthen jars and crockery, make and use --- “raw silk in large porcelain vases, gilded various forms such as raw silk in water jugs, plates, bowls and bundles, of the fineness of two some fine porcelain jars. The strands, and other silk of coarser Filipinos, on the other hand, quality, fine untwisted silk, white bartered their yellow wax, and of all colors, wound in small
Vol. 3, p. 583; Austin Craig, "A 29 S.V. Epistola, "The Day the Chinese Thousand Years of History before the Came to Trade," Filipino Heritage Coming of the Spaniards" (Manila: Lahing Pilipino, Inc., 1977),
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Timon: The Proceedings of the Philippine Maritime Heritage Forum skeins; quantities of velvets, and rubies, sapphires and crystal some plain and some stones.” There were goods with embroidered in all sorts of utilitarian use --- “metal basins, figures, colors and fashions, copper kettles and other copper others with body of gold and and cast iron pots; quantities of embroidered with gold; woven all sorts of nails, sheet iron, tin stuffs and brocades, of gold and and lead, saltpeter and silver upon silk of various colors gunpowder.”30 and patterns; quantities of gold and silver thread in skeins; The trade with Acapulco made damasks, satins, taffetas and Manila an entrepot or center of other cloths of all colors and trade. The volume of the white cotton cloth of different carrying trade to the Philippines kinds and qualities.” There were from China, Macao, Siam, luxurious goods for everyday use Cambodia and India steadily 31 --- “many bed ornaments, increased. Various products hangings, coverlets and arrived in the country earmarked tapestries of embroidered velvet for transport to Acapulco such as and damask; tablecloths, carpets from Persia, jewels from cushions and carpets; house India, rich hangings and bed trappings of the same stuff and coverings from Bengal, embroidered with glass beads cinnamon from Ceylon, pepper and seed pearls.” There were from Java and Sumatra, spices precious stones such as “pearls from the Moluccas, balsam and
30 Antonio de Morga, “Sucesos de las 31 Nicholas Cushner, S.J., Spain in the Islas Filipinas,” in Blair and Robertson, Philippines: From Conquest to vol. 16, pp. 178-180 Revolution. Quezon City: Ateneo de Manila University, 1971, p. 128
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Timon: The Proceedings of the Philippine Maritime Heritage Forum ivory from Cambodia, camphor winds were strong, the caravel from Borneo, civet from could sail at great speed.33 Ryukyus, silverware and lacquer from Japan, and silks of all kinds The Spaniards redesigned the from China.32 galleon to fit different purposes. First, the Spaniards used the Serving as transporters of Asian galleon for expeditions of merchandise to Acapulco were exploration, discovery and sturdy wooden Spanish ships conquest beyond the familiar called galleons. The galleon was waters of the Mediterranean Sea indeed a sturdy ship capable of and the Atlantic Ocean up to the long distance travel. It traces its Azores and Canary Islands. Two development as a sailing ship in of the three ships of Christopher the 15th century. The initial Columbus, the Niña and the design of the galleon was the Pinta, were caravels. caravel. The caravel is said to Christopher Columbus believed have been developed by the that the sailing distance to Asia Portuguese for exploratory was only five weeks. The Victoria travel of the coast of Africa. It was one of five ships of the weighed from about 50 to 60 expedition of Ferdinand tons and about 75 feet long. It Magellan which left Spain in had two or three poles for lateen 1519 for the Moluccas. It was or triangular-shaped masts since not a caravel but a nao or carrack it relied on wind power. When which weighed heavier at 85
32 Benito J. Legarda, Jr., After the Quezon City: Ateneo de Manila Galleons: Foreign Trade, Economic University Press, 1999, p. 34 Change & Entrepreneurship in the 33www.britannica.com/technology/cara Nineteenth-Century Philippines. vel
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Timon: The Proceedings of the Philippine Maritime Heritage Forum tons.34 The flagship of the Señora de Covadonga was expedition of Miguel Lopez de captured by Commodore Legazpi, the San Pedro, which George Anson. It was easily left the port of Barra de Navidad beaten by the British since it had in Mexico in 1564 weighed 500 no lower tier of guns. On the tons.35 Secondly, the Spaniards contrary, while it was smaller used the galleon to bring trade than the Covadonga, Anson’s merchandise across the Pacific ship Centurion had more guns. Ocean. The galleon thus had to The heavy weight also made the be made bigger in size --- the galleon sail more slowly, as in the hulls were longer and wider --- case of the Nuestra Senora del and heavier in tonnage. The Pilar. Because of the slow Nuestra Senora del Rosario passage, it took the galleon more weighed 1,710 tons while the time to reach Acapulco Santisima Trinidad weighed preventing it “to sail to more than 2,000 tons. The heavy windward and to keep clear of weight at times posed a tactical the land or run away from disadvantage. Usually, storms.” Such was the case of provisions for the defense of the one of the voyages of the ship such as batteries were Santisima Trinidad. The galleon abandoned in favour of more left Manila on July 22, 1751 and cargo space. Or else lighter reached Acapulco on February weapons were installed to 27, 1752. Many of the prevent the galleon from being passengers became sick and a top-heavy. In 1743 the Nuestra number even died as the voyage
34 Noone, p. 34 35www.guampedia.com/galleon-san- pablo
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Timon: The Proceedings of the Philippine Maritime Heritage Forum entailed an additional one and a Conclusion half month.36 The twin developments of The Manila-Acapulco Galleon Manila as Fort and Manila as Trade ended in the first quarter Port were the creations of of the 19th century. Mexico colonialism. The characteristic became independent and made features of Manila as Fort and the continuation of an exclusive Manila as Port were in trade with a Spanish colony such consonance with Spain’s policy as the Philippines no longer in the 16th century, the so-called germane. On the part of the age of empire. Spaniards Spanish colonial government in conducted voyages of Manila, it began to open the exploration, discovery and country to liberal foreign trade. conquest with the singular aim For the first time after nearly of bringing gold and glory to two hundred fifty years, the Spain. Philippines began to trade with ships from Great Britain, France The Spaniards turned Manila and Germany. Through this into a bastioned city to serve as liberal foreign commerce the an exclusive enclave far from the products of Europe reached the reach of natives whom they Philippines.37 relegated to the other side of the Pasig River. Even as Intramuros, their walled city, was already set
36 David F. Marley, “The Great Galleon: 37 Jonathan Fast and Jim Richardson, The Santisima Trinidad (1750-1765). Roots of Dependency: Political and Philippine Studies 41, no. 2 (1993): 167- Economic Revolution in 19th Century 173 Philippines. Quezon City: Foundation for Nationalist Studies, 1979, pp. 13-18
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Timon: The Proceedings of the Philippine Maritime Heritage Forum apart from where Filipinos lived it was the goods of Asian nations by a natural boundary, the Pasig like China, Japan and India that River, they still set up a the Spanish galleons brought to perimeter of exclusivity by the doorsteps of Mexico. building a wall of stone to separate themselves from the In 1896, Manila was still Spain’s native populace. Manila became impregnable recinto. The a recinto, a city fortified by revolution against Spain had defensive works such as begun. The Katipunan forces of bastions, ravelins and redoubts. Andres Bonifacio began to Manila was a city no different besiege Manila. Central to their from the medieval castle cities of plan of defeating the Spaniards Spain like Avila, Salamanca and was to strike them at the heart of Segovia.38 their power --- Manila. However, Manila with its stone wall and The Spaniards made Manila the defensive works prevented the entrepot of trade in Asia but for Katipunan forces from bringing which no great advantage their battles to Manila. Andres accrued to native Filipinos. The Bonifacio had to wage the trade that Manila engendered as Revolution’s initial battles in far- Port was a trade that did not off San Juan del Monte, Santa develop the local economy nor Mesa, Caloocan, Pasig and bring the products of the Taguig.39 country to America. But instead,
38 Pedro Otriz Armengol, Lecture on 39 Teodoro Agoncillo and Milagros Intramuros. Manila: Intramuros Guerrero, History of the Filipino Administration, 1982, p. 5 People. Quezon City; R.P. Garcia Publishing Co., 1987, pp. 170-172
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In the 19th century the challenged by the rise of new distinction of Manila as an entrepots in Asia which entrepot of the trade between heretofore were merely small Asia and America waned with fishing villages. Singapore on the the end of the Manila-Acapulco tip of the Malay Peninsula and Galleon Trade. However, the Hong Kong on the southern country’s new liberal foreign coast of China were raised to the commerce gave Manila a new status of entrepots of trade by distinction as an entrepot of another European colonizing trade. This time Manila became power, Great Britain. Today, the center of trade between Asia Spain’s former entrepot of Asian and Europe. British, French and trade cannot rely on her famed German trading ships visited the sunset by the bay to bring in port of Manila bringing the trade. Manila has to compete products of a revolution in with these entrepots that have technology happening in Europe in this age of global trade risen to at this time, the Industrial the challenge to bring to Asia not Revolution. Nonetheless, the only Asian but also North exclusivity of Manila as an American, European and even entrepot of trade was Middle Eastern trade.
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Examining pre-colonial Philippine boatbuilding: An archaeological study of the Butuan Boats and the use of edge-joined planking in local and regional construction techniques
Ligaya S.P. Lacsina, Ph.D Maritime and Underwater Cultural Heritage Division National Museum of the Philippines
Introduction
n 1976, looters unearthed Philippines examined six of these the incomplete remains of boats and recovered three. I what is now referred to as Excavations revealed that Butuan Boat 1 buried under construction features of the approximately 1.5 m of flood Butuan Boats were deposits in Barangay Libertad, characteristically Southeast Butuan City, Philippines. Asian lashed-lug boats and as According to various reports, described in historical looters have since that time documents. Unfortunately, come across between nine and much of the early reporting of 11 Butuan Boat remains in an the Butuan Boat sites and area less than 1 km in radius. related archaeological activities was unclear and details such as Archaeologists from the National locations, dimensions, and wood Museum of the identification, were presented
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Timon: The Proceedings of the Philippine Maritime Heritage Forum inconsistently. Construction Southeast Asian boatbuilding features were only discussed in and lashed-lug boats general terms and early attempts to radiocarbon date The available evidence for plank- the first three recovered boats in built Southeast Asian vessels the 1970s and 1980s resulted in demonstrates the use of a shell- widely disparate results of based construction technique fourth, thirteenth, and tenth (Manguin 1993:258–260). centuries, respectively. Shipbuilders erected and aligned hull planking to create the shell This paper presents a summary of the vessel by edge-joining of the results from the re- strakes using dowels and lacing examinion of the Butuan Boats, ligatures through pre-drilled the oldest planked watercraft holes in the planks, or solely by found in the Philippines. The dowels, that were sometimes boats were re-recorded, their locked in place by wooden pegs timbers were identified, and inserted through the thickness reliable radiocarbon dates were of the planks (Manguin obtained. This data, along with 1993:258–260). In so-called other archaeological, historic, lashed-lug boats, the hull was and ethnographic evidence from then strengthened transversely throughout Southeast Asia, with frames secured by lashing broadens our understanding of to a series of protruding, lashed-lug boat construction, a perforated lugs carved on the practice that survived at least interior surfaces of the hull 1,500 years. planking. Thus, metal fastenings were eschewed in place of materials such as wooden
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Timon: The Proceedings of the Philippine Maritime Heritage Forum dowels, treenails, wooden pegs, The Spanish priest Francisco rattan strands and rope. But one Alcina provided the most can imagine how labor-intensive detailed telling of Visayan and it would have been to carve lashed-lug boat construction in out the lugs and bore out dowel his 1668 manuscript Historia de and lashing holes. The las islas e indios de Bisayas… construction would have also (Alcina 2005 [1668]) wherein he involved considerable wood asserted that in lashed-lug boats wastage as planks would have “the seams between one board had to be at least twice as thick and the next so joined that they as needed in order to seem to be of a single piece”. accommodate the lugs. Finally, in 1869, the British naturalist and explorer Alfred The skill used to construct Russel Wallace said that the lashed-lug boats was highly boats in the Kei islands of commended by European eastern Indonesia were so well observers who, centuries apart, made that “without aid other gave almost identical praise to than rude practical skill … it is boatbuilders. Portuguese often difficult to find a place chronicler Gabriel Rebello wrote where a knife blade can be an account of the Moluccas in inserted between the joints” the 1569 text Informação das (Wallace 2014 [1869]). Cousas das Molucas, (Description of the Moluccas). Archaeological evidence of He said that the joins of lashed- lashed lug boats predates the lug boats planks “are made so European arrival in Southeast tight that the seams are barely Asia by at least 1,000 years. The visible” (Manguin 2012). oldest such vessel is the Pontian
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Boat from peninsular Malaysia, holes, making the Kuan Luk Pad dated to between the third and construction rare if not unique in fifth centuries AD by lashed-lug boats. radiocarbon analysis as well as associated ceramics that date to More than twenty examples of roughly the same period lashed lug vessels have been (Gibson-Hill 1952). The Pontian found in the archaeological boat planks were fastened to record from throughout the one another using both dowels region. Aside from the sites and stitching. The lugs are in the already mentioned, evidences of shape of half-oblong cylinders these boats have been found in with large cut-out lashing holes Indonesia, Vietnam, and even rather than the rectangular lugs Hong Kong (Manguin 2012; of later examples such as the we Nishino et al 2014). see in the Butuan Boats. The latest archaeological Boat planks from the so called evidence of lashed lug boats in Kuan Luk Pad boats with similarly Southeast Asia are the shaped rounded lugs were found Philippines’ shipwrecks in Thailand along the Thai-Malay Gujangan shipwreck, containing peninsula. They were found in a ceramics dating to the fifteenth bead production site dated to and sixteenth centuries and San between the fifth and sixth Isidro shipwreck, containing centuries AD (Manguin 2012). ceramics from the sixteenth Though the planks are highly century (Cuevas et al. 2004). fragmented, there is no While absent in the evidence of dowelling holes in archaeological record during the the plank edges, only lacing European colonial period, the
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Timon: The Proceedings of the Philippine Maritime Heritage Forum continuation of lashed-lug boat Maldives (Hornell 1936; Kano production and use is confirmed and Segawa 1956; Millar 1993). by the previously discussed historical accounts by Rebello, Contemporary Philippine Alcina and Wallace. boatbuilding
In the early twentieth century, In terms of construction, the James Hornell (1920) reported most prevalent form of on the construction of a lashed- traditional boats in the lug vessel on Halmahera island in Philippines today are far Indonesia. The last known use removed from the plank-built and construction of lashed-lug boats of the pre-colonial and boats is in the remote eastern colonial times. Double outrigger Indonesian whaling village of vessels as small as 4 m, and as Lamalera where anthropologist large as 50 m in length are Robert Barnes (1996) recorded broadly referred to as baroto or the practice in the 1970s and banca, but can have specific 1980s. As there have been no names such as basnigan, paraw, reports since that lashed-lug balandra, subiran and tango boat construction has ceased on depending on function, form and this remote island, it is possible size (Aguilar 2006; Funtecha this still takes place. Twentieth 2000). Banca hulls are century lashed-lug boat assembled frame-first with a construction are not limited to plywood skin constructed on a Southeast Asia. They have also dugout base, with stem and been reported in Taiwan, the stern posts. A recent Solomon Islands and the development in banca construction is the use of
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Timon: The Proceedings of the Philippine Maritime Heritage Forum fibreglass and moulds, making contained valuable grave goods production cheaper and faster such as Chinese ceramics and (Dedace and Yan 2014). Wooden gold ornaments. Using long plank-built watercraft in the metal rods to probe through the Philippines have become less earth for the wooden coffins, common, but when they are they came upon the timbers of made, their builders still follow what is now referred to as shell-based construction and Butuan Boat 1. The find was dowel edge-joining (Abrera reported to local government 2009; Green et al. 1995). The use officials, who in turn alerted the of lugs has been abandoned, and leadership of the National frames are fastened directly to Museum of the Philippines planks with wood or iron (NMP). Personnel from the fastenings. NMP’s Archaeology Section investigated the boat’s remains The Butuan Boats (Peralta 1980). After several months, looters found the 1976, remains of plank-built remains of Boats 2 and 3, about boats, referred to as the Butuan one kilometre south of Boat 1. Boats, were excavated from Excavations were undertaken on underneath about two metres of all three sites, though work on waterlogged alluvial sediment Boat 3, described as a smaller within about a one-kilometre vessel, was abandoned (Peralta radius in Barangay Libertad, 1980). The remains of Boats 1 Butuan City, Philippines. The first and 2 were recovered and Butuan Boat was partially displayed in exhibits managed unearthed in 1976 by looters and operated by the National searching for buried coffins that Museum, though Boat 2 is
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Timon: The Proceedings of the Philippine Maritime Heritage Forum currently in storage pending the which are adjoining one another, opening of a new exhibit. Boat 5 commenced in 2012 and is yet to was excavated and recovered in be completed. The remains of 1986 as part of a course on these two boats were located archaeological excavation and just several meters east of the conservation organised by the Boat 2 excavation trench, which Association of Southeast Asian remains unfilled. All excavated Nations (ASEAN) and hosted by Butuan Boats were in an area the NMP (ASEAN 1986). It was with less than a one-kilometer located approximately one radius. kilometer southwest of Boat 1 and less than 400 meters Various authors set the total northwest of Boats 2 and 3. The number of excavated and remains of Boat 5 are now stored unexcavated boats at eight or exhibited in the NMP in (Ronquillo 1997; Salcedo 1998), Butuan. In 1989, an NMP team nine (Clark et al. 1993; Green et carried out a series of al. 1995:182) or 11 (Cembrano excavations in the area to 1998; Galpo 2002), though these determine the distribution and have not been archaeologically extent of archaeological sites. confirmed. During this project, the remains As the remains of Boats 1, 2 and of Boat 7 were unearthed and 5 were recovered, they have found to be in a poor state of been the most documented and preservation; its planks could closely studied. The excavation not be recovered, but smaller of Boat 3 was suspended soon wooden pieces such as dowels after it was unearthed in the were collected (Bautista 1989). 1970s, and little information on The excavation of Boats 4 and 9,
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Timon: The Proceedings of the Philippine Maritime Heritage Forum it exists, except that it is similar or even conflicting. At the same to the others and composed of time, it seemed that because only three surviving planks these lashed-lug boats seemed (Peralta 1980). The excavations to match and confirm historical of Boats 4 and 9 are yet to be accounts, they were often completed, and any spoken about interchangeably observations about them should or collectively as if all were be considered preliminary. identical; there appeared to be little effort at making detailed Boats 1, 2, 4, 5 and possibly 3 are comparisons between the all dowelled and lashed-lugged Butuan Boats. boats. Boat 7 was dowelled but far too deteriorated to judge if it While the official archaeological was also lashed-lugged. reports provide little Similarly, initial research information, bits of data indicates that Boat 9 is edge- eventually emerged in joined with dowels but does not subsequent papers published by appear to be a lashed-lug boat. It several authors, though few of also appears that Boat 9 the earlier inconsistencies were measures at least twice the size addressed (Cembrano 1998; of the other Butuan Boats. Any Peralta 1980; Ronquillo 1997; other technical information is Salcedo 1998). absent from the official reports of the earliest Butuan Boat Almost a decade after the first studies. Unfortunately, the Butuan Boat was found, information from the reports researchers realised the from the 1970s to mid-1980s at necessity of detailed recording times seems incomplete, unclear of the Butuan Boat remains
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(Clark et al. 1993; Green et al. comprehensive to date, making 1995). The first attempts at use of photo mosaics and full- thoroughly recording the boats scale timber tracings. These came years later, in 1988 for teams were the first to see each Boat 2 in Manila, and in 1992 for boat, and indeed each Boats 1 and 5 in Butuan City. This component individually. came about through a collaboration between As for the kinds of wood used, researchers from Australia’s Heritera littoralis has been Northern Territory Museum of generally cited as used for Boat 2 Arts and Sciences, the Western planks, while Boat 5 was Australian Maritime Museum constructed using Pistacia and the Philippines’ National chinensis. Some sources, Museum. They confirmed that however, have alternately stated up to that point, no accurate that Heritiera was utilized in the construction drawings of any of planks of Boats 1, 2, and 5, or just the Butuan Boats had been Boats 1 and 2, while another produced. The team carried out reported that Boat 1 planks comprehensive documentation consisted of a Diospyrus sp. through proper artefact Perhaps the largest uncertainty photography and drawing (Clark that arose from early Butuan et al. 1993; Green et al. 1995). Boat research was from the large The teams considered this work disparity in the radiocarbon as preliminary and hoped to dating of Boats 1, 2, and 5. return to do more in-depth Unspecified sample from each studies but were unable to do so, Boats 1 and 2 were dated at the however. Their documentation, radiocarbon laboratory of however, is easily the most
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Gakushuin University in Japan examining the construction of and resulted in a 1630±110 BP each Butuan Boat more closely, (or 320 AD uncalibrated) for the the details of which will be former and 700±90 BP (or 1250 discussed in a subsequent paper, AD uncalibrated)—more than atypical features that were 900 years difference for two previously unreported or lashed lug-boats deposited in downplayed began to emerge similar environments and found such as the various designs less than 1 km away from each among of the lashed-lug Boats 1, other (Peralta 1980). 2, 4 and 5 keel pieces, lug shapes, lashing patterns, plank Latest findings on the Butuan fastening, and even wood used. Boats These findings are especially notable because of long- Because of uncertainties from standing views that see a previous research, the Butuan tradition as static and Boats were re-studied in order to unchanging. clarify matters. All of the recovered Butuan Boats, 1, 2, To summarize, the lashed-lug and 5 were remeasured. Boats 4 vessels’ remains suggest an and 9 that where still being original length of more than 10 excavated, were also m, and less than 15 m. None documented. The results are were fitted with a true keel— consistent with Clark et al.’s and they were instead designed with Green et al.’s work. a keel plank that was left slightly thicker than the hull planking. The results further concentrated This suggests that their use may on differences and variations on have been limited to inland and the lashed-lug Butuan Boats. In
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Timon: The Proceedings of the Philippine Maritime Heritage Forum coastal waters, as round or flat of Butuan Boats 1, 2, 4, 5, and 9 hulls would be difficult to use in as seen in the figure below. open seas. Conclusion There are also similarities in the ends of the boats. Rather than The date from the re- having a stem and stern post, examination of the Butuan Boats 1, 2, 5 and even the much Boats, along with other larger and non-lashed-lug Boat archaeological, historic, and 9, were each found with a wing ethnographic evidence from end. throughout Southeast Asia, broadens our understanding of Direct radiocarbon dating of lashed-lug boat construction, a samples collected from each of practice that survived at least the boats’ major timber 1,500 years. This study can then components strongly suggest be broadened to study possible that they were constructed and reasons for the loss, persistence, used during the same period, or development of certain with each of the calibrated ages aspects of boat construction and consistently ranging between adds significantly to the the late seventh to tenth knowledge of Philippine and centuries A.D. (Table). Southeast Asian boatbuilding technology and practices. At least ten different trees were used for the planks and frames References
Abrera, Maria Bernadette L. 2009 Keeping a Sama tradition alive. Philippine Daily Inquirer June 6, 2009. Manila.
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Aguilar, Glenn D. 2006 The Philippine indigenous outrigger boat: Scaling up, performance and safety. Marine Technology Society Journal 40(3):69–78.
Alcina, Francisco 2005 [1668] Historia de las islas e indios de Bisayas...1668 / History of the Bisayan people in the Philippine Islands. Evangelization and culture at the Contact Period. Translated by C.J. Kobak and L. Gutierrez Part One Book 3, Volume 3. UST Publishing House, Manila.
ASEAN 1986 Report on the third intra-ASEAN Archaeological Excavation and Conservation Butuan City, Philippines 16 November–10 December 1986. ASEAN.
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Bautista, Angel P. 1989 Preliminary report on the archaeological excavation, Butuan City, Agusan Del Norte March 1-30, 1989. National Museum (Philippines).
Cembrano, Margarita R. 1998 Patterns of the past. National Museum (Philippines), Butuan City.
Clark, Paul, Jeremy Green, Tom Vosmer and Rey A. Santiago 1993 The Butuan Two Boat known as a balangay in the National Museum,
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Manila, Philippines. The International Journal of Nautical Archaeology 22(2):143–159.
Cuevas, Maharlika A., Wilfredo P. Ronquillo and Rey A. Santiago 2004 Boat building traditions in pre-18th century Philippines. Paper presented at the ASEAN-COCI, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.
Dedace, Sophia and Greg Yan. 2014 Re-engineering the Philippine banca. Rappler. Manila.
Funtecha, Henry 2000 The history and culture of boats and boat-building in the western Visayas. Philippine Quarterly of Culture and Society 28(2):111–132.
Galpo, Bernandinito C. 2002 A special report on the ground sub-surface probe utilizing a slender plain round steel bar with welded small tempered steel ball bearing at the tip of the lateral canals and drains of the National Irrigation Administration (NIA) Lower Agusan Development Project Irrigation Component (LADP-IC) at Butuan City and Municipality of Buenavista, Agusan Del Norte. National Museum (Philippines).
Gibson-Hill, Carl Alexander 1952 Further notes on the old boat from Pontian. Journal of the Malayan Branch, Royal Asiatic Society 25(1):111–133. Green, Jeremy, Tom Vosmer, Paul Clark, Rey A. Santiago and Mauro Alvarez 1995 Interim report on the joint Australian-Philippines
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Butuan Boat project, October 1992. The International Journal of Nautical Archaeology 24(3):177–188.
Hornell, James 1920 The outrigger canoes of Indonesia. Madras Fisheries Bulletin 12(2):43–114.
1936 Boat construction in Scandinavia and Oceania; another parallel in Botel Tobago. Man: A Monthly Record of Anthropological Science XXXVI(200):145–147.
Kano, Tadao and Kokichi Segawa 1956 An illustrated ethnography of Formosan Aborigines. Revised Edition. Maruzen Company, Limited, Tokyo.
Manguin, Pierre-Yves 2012 The archaeology of the lashed-lug tradition of Southeast Asia: An update. Proceedings of the EURASEAA. Dublin, Ireland.
Millar, Karen 1993 Preliminary report on observations made into the techniques and traditions of Maldivian shipbuilding. Bulletin of the Australian Institute for Maritime Archaeology 17(1):9–16.
Nishino, Noriko, Toru Aoyama, Jun Kimura, Takenori Nogami and Le Thi Lien 2014 Nishimura project: The oldest shipwreck found in Vietnam— testimony to the maritime ceramic route. Proceedings of the Underwater Archaeology in Vietnam and Southeas Asia: Cooperation for Development:143–153.
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Peralta, Jesus T. 1980 Ancient mariners of the Philippines. Archaeology September–October 1980:41–48.
Ronquillo, Wilfredo P. 1997 Butuan Boats. In Encyclopedia of underwater and maritime archaeology, edited by J. P. Delgado, pp. 79. British Museum Press, London.
Salcedo, Ceclio G. 1998 The ingenious Filipino boat. In Kasaysayan. The story of the Filipino people, pp. 207–219. Volume two: The earliest Filipinos. Asia Publishing Company Limited, Hong Kong.
Wallace, Alfred Russel 2014 [1869] The Malay archipelago. The University of Adelaide Library, South Australia.
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Figures and tables
Butuan Boat sites in the southern Philippines.
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The reconstructed Butuan Boat 2 as exhibited in the National Museum, Manila in 2013. The dark-coloured planks are original timbers while frames and light-coloured timbers were fabricated for the exhibit. The frames obscure some lug holes.
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Drawing of Boat 1 planks as it is exhibited at the Butuan Archaeological Park.
Boat 2 timbers as displayed at the Museum of the Anthropology in 2013.
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Keel plank of Boats 4. Courtesy National Museum of the Philippines.
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Wing end of Butuan Boat 9.
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Preliminary excavation drawing of Boats 4 (upper left) and 9 (lower right). Courtesy National Museum of the Philippines.
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Butuan Boats wood identification guide. From top, Butuan Boats 1, 2, 5, 4 and 9. Micrographs by FPRDI. Timon: The Proceedings of the Philippine Maritime Heritage Forum
Keel plank lug arrangements in Butuan Boats 1, 2, 4, and 5 (top to bottom).
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TABLE
Calibrated Age percent Conventional (IntCal13 δ13C Modern Radiocarbon ANSTO Sample Submitter dataset Carbon age code Type ID using OxCal 4.2) 1σ 1σ cal AD 2σ (‰) pMC yrs BP error error range Boat 1 - OZQ841 Wood -24.9 ± 0.4 86.69 ± 0.27 1,145 ± 25 777 to 974 Keel Boat 1 - OZQ842 Wood -25.0 ± 0.1 86.87 ± 0.29 1,130 ± 30 777 to 988 Wing end Boat 2 - OZQ844 Wood -25.5 ± 0.1 86.14 ± 0.30 1,200 ± 30 715 to 940 Keel Boat 2 - OZQ845 Wood -25.3 ± 0.1 85.83 ± 0.29 1,230 ± 30 689 to 882 Wing end Boat 4 - OZQ846 Wood -25.4 ± 0.2 86.67 ± 0.36 1,150 ± 35 775 to 973 Keel Boat 5 - OZQ848 Wood -25.5 ± 0.3 86.65 ± 0.28 1,150 ± 30 776 to 971 Keel Boat 9 - OZQ851 Wood -26.8 ± 0.1 86.56 ± 0.27 1160 ± 30 773 to 968 Wing end
Table 1. Results of 2014 AMS C-14 analysis of Butuan Boat samples.
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Mamamayan, Kalupaan at Karagatan: Ang Pagbubuo ng Imperyong Español sa Pilipinas at Pasipiko (1565-1815)
Jose Rhommel B. Hernandez, Ph.D. Department of History De La Salle University, Manila
Introduksyon
ng panayam na ito’y panayam na ito ang Kalakalang isang paglalayag sa Galyon sa pagitan ng Maynila at A panahong kolonyal ng Acapulco na naganap sa pagitan Pilipinas mula sa taong 1565 ng 1565 hanggang 1815. Subalit hanggang sa taong 1815. Taong di tulad sa mga nauna nang pag- 1565 ang pagdating ng aaral, hindi pagtutuunan ng Conquistador na si Miguel Lopez pansin ang ekonomiya at mga de Legazpi na siyang nagpatuloy produktong iniluwas sa sa naudlot na pananakop ng magkabilang dulo ng “Lawang sangkapuluan noong 1521. Espanyol.” Sa halip, pagtutuunan Taong 1815 naman nang opisyal ng pansin ang mahalagang papel na tumigil na ang Kalakalang nito sa pagbubuo ng Imperyong Galyon bunga ng pagsisimula ng Español sa Pilipinas at sa Rebolusyon laban sa Espanya ng Pasipiko. Pag-uugnayin din ang bansang Mexico. Isang tatlong salik pangkasaysayan ng mahalagang konsiderasyon sa Mamamayan, Kalupaan at Karagatan upang higit na makita
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Timon: The Proceedings of the Philippine Maritime Heritage Forum ang kabuluhan at kahalagahan pagsisimula ng mga pag-uusap ng mga galyon sa pagpapanatili, para sa pagtuklas ng bagong pagpapalawak at pagbubuo ng daang gagamitin sa paglalayag Imperyo. ng mga galyon patungong Acapulco. Mula sa taong ito ay Nahahati sa apat na panahon magpapatuloy ang pagtuklas at ang kasaysayang ito ng paggamit sa mga daang ito pagbubuo. Ang unang panahon hanggang 1791 na siyang taong ay magsisimula sa taong 1565 nagpasiya ang pamahalaang sibil hanggang sa taong 1599. Bilang ng Pilipinas noon na gamitin na mga hugpungang pangyayari, lamang muli ang mga daang 1565 ang pagdating ni Legazpi na natuklasan pa ni Urdaneta siya ring taon ng pagkakabuo ng noong ika-15 na dantaon. Ang daang natuklasan ng kanyang huling panahon ay ang patuloy fraileng navegador na si Andres na paggamit ng mga daan ni de Urdaneta. Sa taon ding ito Urdaneta hanggang sa pagtigil magsisimula ang Kalakalang ng kalakalan pagsapit ng 1815 Galyon. Matatapos ang bunga ng pagsisimula ng panahong ito sa taong 1599 kung Rebolusyon sa Mexico. kailang ginanap ang isang matatawag na referendum na Ang Pagtatatag ng Kolonya nagpapatibay sa pananakop ng (1565-1599) sangkapuluan. Magiging preokupasyon sa Magsisimula ang ikalawang pagtatatag ng pamahalaang panahon sa taong 1599 o ang kolonyal sa Pilipinas ang taon ng referendum hanggang lehitimasyon ng pananakop nito. sa taong 1613 na siyang Sa batas na sinusunod ng
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Espanya mula pa sa panahon ni ang Kristiyanismo. Naging Alfonso El Sabio (1252-1284), lehitimasyon samakatuwid, ang itinatakdang magiging legal Kristiyanisasyon na itinutulak na lamang ang pananakop ng isang ng mga Santo Papa mula pa teritoryo kung makukuha ito sa noong 1493 bunga ng isa sa tatlong kadahilanan. Una, deklarasyon ni Alejandro VI na magiging pag-aari ng isang naghati ng daigdig sa pagitan ng kaharian ang isang teritoryo España at Portugal. Ito ang kung nagkaroon ng pag-iisang panghahawakang katuwiran ng dibdib sa pagitan ng mga dugong mga kolonisador hanggang sa bughaw na nagmamay-ari ng pagdating ng itinalagang Obispo mga teritoryo. Ikalawa, maaari ng Maynila na si Domingo de ring makamit ang teritoryo sa Salazar, O.P. sa taong 1582. pamamagitan ng isang makatarungang digmaan. Ikatlo, Kaagad na ipinatawag ni Salazar magiging pag-aari ng isang ang isang sinodo o pagpupulong kaharian ang isang teritoryo ng mga pari at pinunong sibil na kung buong pusong tinanggap nasa Pilipinas. Naging ito ng mga taong naninirahan sa pangunahing paksa ang mga sinasakop na lugar. pang-aabuso ng mga Encomendero sa kanilang mga Bagamat hindi pumasok ang tauhan sa loob ng mga Pilipinas sa alinmang Encomienda. Ang encomienda kategoryang ito, minabuti ang malalaking lupang naman ng España na manatili pa ipinagkatiwala ng Hari sa mga rin sa sangkapuluan bunga ng nakatulong sa pananakop. May paniniwalang nararapat na kaukulang tungkulin ang mga ibigay sa mga mamamayan nito Encomendero na turuan ng
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Timon: The Proceedings of the Philippine Maritime Heritage Forum pananampalatayang Kristiyano “Indio.” Naging mahalaga, sa ang mga mamamayang nasa huli, ang pangangailangan na ilalim nila kapalit ng mga trabaho magkaroon ng isang referendum at buwis para sa kabutihan ng na hihiling sa kasagutan ng mga kolonya. Gayunpaman, ayon sa mamamayan kung pumapayag sumbong ng mga misyonero, ba silang maging sakop ng Hari. ginagawa nang mangolekta ng Subalit sa pagtatapos ng Sinodo buwis ng mga encomendero sa ay hindi naman naganap ang mga mamamayan kahit di pa referendum at patuloy pa ring man ito nagiging Kristiyano. pinanghawakan ang Nagpasiya naman ang mga Kristiyanisasyon bilang dahilan misyonerong huwag ng pananakop. pakumpisalin ang mga encomendero na siya namang Ganito ang pinanghahawakang ikinagalit ng mga ito at siya ring katuwiran ng mga Español isinumbong sa bagong obispo. hanggang sa gulatin sila ng isang malakihang pag-aalsa ng mga Kaugnay nito ang muling Datu sa Kaharian ng Tondo. pagkabuhay ng isyu ng Sabay-sabay sanang sasalakayin lehitimasyon ng pananakop. ng isang malaking hukbo sa ilalim Lumabas sa mga deliberasyon ng ng mga Datu ang sentro ng mga sinodo ang kawalan ng legal na Español sa Maynila sampu ng basehan ng pananakop yamang hukbong dagat ng Sultan ng wala namang naging Brunei nang mabunyag ito. makatarungang labanan ang Hinuli ang mga pinuno, nilitis at mga naganap at kung kaya ilegal hinatulan ng kamatayan ang mga ang lahat ng pagpasok ng mga pinunong katulad nina Agustin Español sa mga teritoryo ng de Legazpi at Magat Salamat,
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Timon: The Proceedings of the Philippine Maritime Heritage Forum samantalang ipinatapon naman pangunahin niyang mithiin ang higit nanakararami. Bagamat hanggang sa maging Obispo ng hindi naging matagumpay, Nueva Segovia, ang pagkakaroon naging malaking banta naman ng isang referendum na naganap ito sa mga Espanol kung kaya’t noong 1599 sa ilang lugar sa minabuti nitong gamitin ang mga Pilipinas tulad ng Pangasinan at naiwang pinuno bilang mga sa gawing Timog Katagalugan. kasangkapan ng kolonisasyon. Naging preokupasyon Kasabay ng malaking Sabwatang samakatuwid, sa panahong ito ito ang pagdating naman ng ang lehitimasyon ng pananakop. isang pangkat ng mga Sa loob ng humigit kumulang na misyonerong Dominiko kung tatlumpung taon ng pananakop saan kabilang si Miguel de ang pangangatwiran nito bilang Benavides, O.P. Bunga ng isang lehitimong gawain ng nasabing pag-aalsa at sa kolonya. Malinaw na ito’y pagdating ng mga bagong nagmumula sa konsensya ng kapanalig ng Obispo Salazar, mga fraile na hindi makapayag sa muling nabuhay ang isyu ng di-makatarungang pananakop. lehitimasyon ng pananakop. Subalit ang malaking tulak para Minabuti ng dalawang Dominiko sa referendum ay ang Sabwatan na magtungo sa España upang ng Tondo noong 1587-88. kausapin ang matanda na noong Pagbalikwas ito sa inaakalang si Felipe II at humingi ng mapayapang pananakop at pahintulot para sa isang balikwas naman ang referendum referendum. Hindi na nakabalik sa pag-aalsang ito. Sa huli, si Salazar sa Pilipinas. Subalit sa naging kampante ang konsensya pagbabalik ni Benavides, naging ng mga Español na ang mga
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Timon: The Proceedings of the Philippine Maritime Heritage Forum mamamayan kanilang kaharap labag sa Kristiyanismo at sa ay magiging matatapat na sakop maaari pang linisin nito. ng kaharian ng España. Ito ang magiging panahon kung Mamamayan (1599-1613) kailan napakaraming pag-aaral at pagtatala ng mga misyonero Matapos ang referendum ng tungkol sa kultura at kaugaliang 1599, nabigyan ng bagong sigla natagpuan nila sa Sangkapuluan. ang Kristiyanisasyon ng Pilipinas. Magandang halimbawa ang mga Yamang wala nang anumang akda nina Juan de Plasencia katanungan tungkol sa pagiging tungkol sa mga kaugaliang legal nito, naging masigasig Tagalog noong 1589. Taong kapwa ang mga pinunong sibil at 1609 nang ilimbag ni Morga ang relihiyoso sa higit pang pagkilala kanyang Sucesos na hindi ng kanilang mga nasasakupang matatawaran ang kahalagahan Indio. Napakahalaga para sa kung kaya’t mismong si Jose Rizal gawaing ito ang pagtatala at pag- ay nagpasiyang bigyang aaral sa mismong kultura ng mga paliwanag ito pagsapit ng huling bagong sakop ng Imperyo. bahagi ng ika-19 na dantaon. Katunayan, ayon pa nga sa Sunud-sunod din ang mga Sinodo, maaaring manatili ang kronika at pag-aaral tulad ng kina kalinangan ng mga Indio kung Pedro Chirino (1604), Francisco hindi ito lumalabag sa Alcina tungkol sa mga Bisaya pananampalataya. Sa mga (1668), Gaspar de San Agustin imbentaryo ng kaugalian, tungkol sa mga pananakop na mabibigyan ng pag-iiba ng mga ginawa ng mga Español (1698). misyonero ang nakikita nilang
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Sa pamamagitan ng mga naisulat ng kahilingan, mula sa mga na ito, nadagdagan ng marami encomenderong nakikilahok sa pang datos ang marami nang Kalakalang Galyon, sa mga kaalaman ng mga mananakop paghahanda tungo sa pagtuklas tungkol sa mga Indio. Naging ng isang bagong daan papalabas mahalaga ang mga ito sa ng Pilipinas patungong Acapulco. kanilang pagbubuo ng imahe at konsepto kung ano ang Indio na Kalupaan (1613-1791) kanilang panghahawakan hanggang sa pagsapit ng ika-19 Taong 1613 pa lamang ay na dantaon. Matatagpuan dito mayroon nang petisyon mula sa ang mga “stereotypes” na mga Encomendero at mga maririnig pa rin hanggang negosyante ng Galyon na ngayon tungkol sa mga Pilipino, tumuklas ng bagong daang e.g. tamad, etc. gagamitin ng kalakalan palabas ng Pilipinas bukod sa Tuwid ng Naging mahalaga rin ang mga San Bernardino. 1740 naman akdang ito upang maunawaan ng nang naisagawa ang pagtuklas mga misyonero ang mga ng bagong daan sa gawing hilaga kumplikadong ugnayan sa o paakyat sa gawing Ilocos. pagitan ng mga mamamayang Samantala, sinisikap naman ng Indio. Pati na ang mga dinamiko Pamahalaang Kolonyal na ng kanilang pananampalataya at pasimulan ang mga kaayusang pulitikal. kinakailangang reporma sa mga administrasyon ng Encomienda. Sa pagtatapos ng panahong ito, Bunga ng pagnanais na magiging abala naman ang makilahok sa kalakalan, pamahalaang kolonyal, bunsod sumentro ang mga
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Timon: The Proceedings of the Philippine Maritime Heritage Forum encomendero sa Maynila, sa umupo bilang Gobernador halip na pangalagaan ang Heneral si Simon de Anda y pagsaka sa mga kalupaan sa Salazar. Malalaking reporma ang lalawigan. Dahan-dahang nalipat tatangkain ni Anda y Salazar na sa kamay ng mga korporasyong magpapatuloy sa pagdating ni relihiyoso ang mga lupain bunga Jose Basco y Vargas. Bagamat ng mga donasyon at pambayad hindi magtatagal ang mga utang ng mga encomendero. institusyong itinatag ng mga Kapansin-pansin ang mga pag- Heneral na ito, maisasaayos aalsang agraryo matapos ang naman nito ang mga pagpaslang sa Gobernador pundasyong kailangan para sa Heneral Fernando Bustamante mga pagbabagong magaganap noong 1719. Taong 1745 ang pagsapit ng ika-19 na dantaon pinakamalaking pag-aalsang lalu na sa mga Encomienda na agraryo na muli pang nabuhay unti-unti nang lumilipat sa noong 1820. sistemang Hacienda.
Magsusunod-sunod din ang mga Karagatan (1791-1815) Obispo sa paghawak ng kapangyarihan bilang mga Nagsimula ang mga paglalayag Gobernador Heneral kung kaya’t para sa bagong daan ng Galyon higit na lalakas ang noong 1773 gamit ang galyong kapangyarihan ng mga fraile at Nuestra Señora de la sa dahan-dahang malilipat na sa Consolacion. Sumunod dito ang kanila ang pag-aari ng mga naging paglalayag ng La Encomienda. Mababago lamang Marinera noong 1780. Itong ang takbo ng pamamahala sa huli’y nakarating sa Bismarck pagsapit ng 1770 kung kailan Archipelago, pataas sa Guam
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Timon: The Proceedings of the Philippine Maritime Heritage Forum hanggang sa San Blas. o Lawang Español. Sa kanilang Mahahalaga ang mga naging pamamahala nabuo ang ekspedisyong ito yamang pagkakakilala nito at sila rin ang humahanap ito ng alternatibong nagtala ng mahahalagang islang daan sa San Bernardino sa nagkalat sa paligid nito. dulong timog ng Luzon. Bukod dito, mahalaga rin ito sa España Naging malinaw rin ang pag-iral yamang nakapagtatag sila ng ng maraming tao na naging kanilang mga posteng nagmarka pangunahing obheto ng mga sa Pasipiko bilang kanilang pagpupunyaging misyonero na teritoryo. nagbukas naman sa maraming pagkakataon para sa pag-aaral at Patuloy na ginamit pa rin ang San pag-unawa sa wika at Bernardino subalit ang kalinangang bumabalot sa mga pagkakaroon ng kaalaman sa ito. iba’t-ibang kapuluan sa Pasipiko ang siyang nagtangi dito bilang Konklusyon isang malaking teritoryo ng Imperyong Español. Mananatili Kung may kahalagahan man ang itong gayon sa kabila ng pagtigil panahong ito, marahil ito na ang ng kalakalang Galyon pagsapit ng mga pagtatala at mga 1815. Gayunpaman, ang mga masasabing sinaunang pag-aaral pagsisikap na bumuo ng mga sa mga Pilipino. Nagsimula ang daan sa Karagatang Pasipiko ay mga mananakop sa kanilang magbubunga ng mga mapang pagbubuo ng imaheng “Indio” sa nagawa para dito. Nabuo ang gayo’y maunawaan at higit na imahe ng isang karagatang epektibong maipasok ang binansagang “Laguna Española” pananampalataya sa kanilang
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Timon: The Proceedings of the Philippine Maritime Heritage Forum kalinangan. Sa kanilang na pag-aaral pagsapit ng huling pagbubuo ng imaheng Pilipino, bahagi ng ika-19 na dantaon at isinabay rin dito ang pagtatala at maging sa kasalukuyan. Ang pagsakop sa kalupaan. Tinangka pagkakaunawa sa mga nilang gawing mayabong ang kapaligiran ng Pasipiko, sa mga lupain subalit umabot ito sa taong naririto ang naging punto ng pang-aabuso. Sa huli’y pundasyon ng kakanyahang isinadokumento rin ang ipinaglaban pagsapit ng karagatan. At, bunga nito, higit Himagsikang 1896 at na naging malawak ang kakanyahang pinanghahawakan kasakupang tinatanaw ng mga hanggang sa kasalukuyan bilang mamamayan. Naging mga mga Pilipino. pundasyon ito sa mga darating
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Timon: The Proceedings of the Philippine Maritime Heritage Forum
Gender Dimensions of Migration and Maritime Work
Carolyn I. Sobritchea, PhD Professorial Lecturer University of the Philippines Open University
Introduction Around 12 percent of the annual GNP (about US$ 7 to 8 Billion) he Philippines is one of comes from the remittances of the leading providers of OFWs although unofficial overseas contract estimates are as high as 25 T 41 workers worldwide. There are percent. In recent years, these some 8.23 million Filipinos remittances have helped keep presently living and working in the Philippine economy afloat 193 countries. Of this number, and maintain a healthy level of some 3.8 million are regular or foreign reserves. As the former documented workers, while 847, Foreign Affairs Secretary Blas 792 are undocumented ones.40 Ople once said, “OFWs have built more low-cost houses than all the housing projects of the government put together, they send more children to college
40 Commission on Human Rights Families.” Quezon City: CHRP and CMA, Philippines and Center for Migrant page 197, Advocacy. n.d. Preparing for the Treat 41 ACHIEVE. 2002. “Labor Migration and Reporting Process of the Convention on HIV/AIDS: Understanding the the protection of the Rights of all Intersections.” Quezon City, Migrant Workers and Members of their Philippines.page 4.
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Timon: The Proceedings of the Philippine Maritime Heritage Forum than all out scholarship vulnerabilities they have gone programs combined, and they through over the years due to provide the mass purchasing various causes like the lack of power that delivers a large enabling policies and support market to the products of our services for them by both host industries.” 42 and receiving countries. Despite the contributions of overseas Filipino workers to the Gender Dimensions of Overseas national and household Work economies, many have suffered from various forms of labor and The results of the 2018 Survey of personal abuses. Both official Overseas Contract Workers and anecdotal reports from conducted by the Philippine government agencies and NGOs Statistics Authority (PSA) show attest to the many economic and that there were more females socio-cultural risks and (58.8%) than males (41.2%) who vulnerabilities of Filipino migrant worked abroad during the workers. period April to September, 2018. Female OFWs were generally This paper describes the various younger than the males, with experiences of female and male about half (47.5%) of them migrant workers. It focuses of belonging to the age group 25- the many forms of risks and 34 years. The male OFWs of this
42 ACHIEVE, 2004 “Report on the 4 “ Results from the 2018 Survey on Seminar-Workshop on Migration and Overseas Filipinos.” psa.gov.ph. data HIV/AIDS for Foreign Service accessed November 3, 2019. Personnel.” Quezon City: Philippines ACHIEVE. page 1.
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Timon: The Proceedings of the Philippine Maritime Heritage Forum age group made up 38.9 Issues Faced by Overseas Male percent. Those in the 45 years and Female Migrant Filipinos and older category consisted of 21.2 percent males and 14.5 The Joint Civil Society percent females. More than half Declaration on Migration nd of the female OFWs (58.8 %) submitted to the 2 Global were in elementary occupations Forum on Migration and while the males were mostly Development in October, 2008 plant and machine operators identifies the serious problems and assemblers workers. faced by over 250 million Elementary occupations include migrants worldwide. It says that housekeeping, cleaning, as many rich countries profit washing, delivering messages or tremendously from migrant goods, simple farming and labor, some of these countries simple tasks connected with have “adopted xenophobic, manufacturing. The differences discriminatory policies that in occupations of female and scapegoat migrants for social ills male OFWs explain the and alleged threats to national 43 variations in the problems they security.” It adds that: have encountered. The adoption of policies that simultaneously “open” low-wage, poorly protected jobs but “close” possibilities for
43 “Joint Civil Society Declaration on http://www.focusweb.org/Philippines/c Migration, Development and Human ontent/view/219/52/ (accessed Rights Submitted to GFMD-Manila, January 5, 2009). October 2008.”
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regularized migration or “North” and the “South”, basic human rights and further secured their protections have economic privilege. increased migrants’ Concerning South-South vulnerability to abuse and migration, the human exploitation by rights situation of employers, recruiters, migrants is of equal organized crimes, and concern. Many corrupt officials. Women governments, in countries migrants, including which are simultaneously migrant domestic countries of departure workers and laborers, are and destination, maintain particularly at risk. an ambiguous and States have tightened schizophrenic discourse, border controls and calling for protection of implemented harsh anti- their own nationals immigrant policies in the migrating abroad, while name of state-centered increasing control and national security, repression of migrants in including in the context of their own territory, as well ‘war on terror.’ Some as failing to provide states have implemented sufficient protections for regimes to detect and asylum seekers and intercept “undesirable’ refugees.“44 migrants even before they reach the borders. In this The problems particular to way “developed” Filipino migrant workers include countries have sharpened among others, exploitation by territorial divisions, illegal recruiters, violation of especially between the
44 Ibid, page 1.
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Timon: The Proceedings of the Philippine Maritime Heritage Forum labor contracts by recruiting accomplishment report, agencies and employers, provided assistance to 997 physical and sexual abuse, illegal Filipinos who were stranded and detention and incarceration due caught in the middle of the civil to use of fraudulent travel unrest in Thailand. It documents and violation of coordinated the release and other laws of the host country. return to the country of 117 In Singapore, an average of 65 Filipino seafarers held hostage in Filipino women get arrested Somalia. Since 2006, the DFA every month for the charge of has negotiated the release or illegal entry or lack of proper imposition of lighter penalty of work documents. These women 68 Filipinos in the death row. are able to circumvent the Twenty five death penalty cases policies on foreign travel and have since been commuted.46 leave the country with the help of unscrupulous recruiters.45 A study conducted by the Action for Health Initiative (ACHIEVE) Some migrant workers have, identified the various problems over the years, also figured in faced by Filipino female overseas kidnapping for ransom and domestic workers. They include experienced work dislocation the violation of the labor due to armed conflicts and contracts (e.g. delayed or non- calamities. The Department of payment of salary, poor working Foreign Affairs, in its 2008 condition), sexual and physical
45 Department of Foreign Affairs, 46 Department of Foreign Affairs. “Highlights of 2008 Accomplishment,” “Highlights of 2008 Accomplishment.” http://dfa.gov.ph/?-2619 (accessed http://dfa.gov.ph/?p=2619 (accessed January 16, 2016) January 16, 2009).
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Timon: The Proceedings of the Philippine Maritime Heritage Forum abuse, emotional and mental or beaten to the point of fainting health issues and reproductive and losing consciousness. The health risks including HIV male migrant workers, on the infection.47 other hand, have also suffered from employer abuse and On the other hand, the reports violation of work contract. coming from the Department of Foreign Affairs (DFA) have Risks and Vulnerabilities of shown the problems faced by Overseas Workers in the female OFWs who were Maritime Industry employed as domestic workers and caregivers. The DFA noted In a study conducted in 2015 on that many of them have suffered Challenges of Filipino seafarers, from physical abuse and the authors described the emotional stress due to lack of Filipino seafarers as reliable and direct communication lines with hardworking. They maintain family and friends. Some of the professional and industrious serious cases of abuse noted by attitude, making them one of the the Philippine embassies abroad most sought-after maritime involved Filipina domestic workers in the world. However, workers being raped, hit with a seafaring has been described as hot iron, scalded with hot water well as a very stressful
47 Action for Health Initiative Chris C.; and Jonna C. Dotimas. “The (2006), Life on the Move: The Sexual Challenges of Filipino Seafarers and Reproductive Health Status and Onboard: Basis for Work Life Balance,” Needs of Filipino Migrant Domestic LPU-Laguna Hournal of International Worekrs. Quezon City: ACHIEVE and Tourism and Hospitality Management, UNFPA, Philippines. Volume 3, No. 1, September 2015, Manalo, Aden Raphael G.; Noriel pages 157-184) R.; Paragas, Donmer F.; TEnorio, Justin
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Timon: The Proceedings of the Philippine Maritime Heritage Forum occupation with long hours of years. While the Philippine work and months of separation government, with the assistance from the family and other loved of some host countries, has tried ones. The researchers said that its best to address many of their the lack of facilities for exercise problems, many issues remain on board, poor nutrition, unresolved. There is no doubt isolation and drinking are among that the income they have been the causes of their poor health. remitting into the country has Other than the aforementioned greatly contributed to national risks of being infected with economic growth. There is a sexually transmitted diseases need, therefore, to strengthen and HIV/AIDs infection, in view the support services given to of their exposure to paid and them by Philippine embassies unprotected sexual relations, abroad and the forging of maritime workers are at risks of bilateral as well as multilateral contracting communicable agreements with host countries diseases like malaria. Sexual to ensure the effective harassment against female implementation of all policies workers are rampant especially and programs that respect and if there are very few of them on protect the human rights of board. overseas migrant workers.
Conclusion
The global demand for Filipino contract workers, especially those in the maritime industry, has continued to rise in recent
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Timon: The Proceedings of the Philippine Maritime Heritage Forum
Ang Pagmamapa ng Pilipinas at Karagatang Pasipiko Bilang Pagbubuo ng Imperyong Español
Jose Rhommel B. Hernandez, Ph.D. Department of History De La Salle University, Manila
Introduksyon sabihing ito ay naaayon sa ung susuriin ang ilan sa pagkakakilala o impresyon ng mga mapang ginawa ng mga tumatahak dito sa K mga Español na mahabang panahon. Kasabay rin naglalarawan ng Karagatang ng paglaking ito ng pagkilala sa Pasipiko mula sa taong 1540 Pasipiko ang pagkakabuo ng hanggang sa taong 1789, Imperyong Español sa bahaging masasabing tila ang Pasipiko. pagkakakilala nila sa nasabing Karagatan ay nagsimula sa maliit Sa panayam na ito’y ibig na hanggang sa lumaki ito tulad sa magsimula ng isang pag-aaral na mga kasalukuyang ilustrasyon. tatahak sa proseso ng pagmamapa at pag-uugnay ng Maaaring maipaliwanag ito ng Pilipinas at Karagatang Pilipinas kakulangan sa modernong kaalinsabay ang pananakop sa pamamaraan at kagamitan, panahong kolonyal. subalit maaari din namang Pangunahing pagtutuunan ng pansin ang naging epekto ng
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Timon: The Proceedings of the Philippine Maritime Heritage Forum paghahanap ng bagong daan tuwid ang Pasipiko yamang ang para sa Kalakalang Galyon (1565- hangin at alon ay patungong 1815) mula pa noong 1613 kanluran hanggang sa Pilipinas. hanggang 1781. Sa rutang ito dadaan ang mga tao’y kalakal sa pagitan ng Ang Ruta ng Galyon Mula 1565 Pilipinas at Nueva España sa mga dantaong 17 at malaking bahagi Ang pagdating ni Miguel Lopez ng ika-18. Gayunman, de Legazpi noong 1565 ay isa nagkaroon ng tila paghina ang ring matagumpay na paglalayag kalakalan pagsapit ng huling ng kanyang Navegador na si bahagi nitong ika-18. Mula sa Andres de Urdaneta na isang katapusan ng unang kalahati ng fraileng Agustino. Nailatag ni ika-18 dantaon, ang kalakalan Urdaneta ang magiging daanan pati na mga awtoridad ay ng mga Galyon na magiging nagsikap na makatuklas ng mahalaga mula sa taong iyon bagong daan upang maging hanggang 1815. alternatibo at mapaikli ang mahabaang panahon ng Sa paglabas ng Pilipinas ay karaniwang paglalakbay. Inaabot karaniwang dinadaanan ang noon ng halos isang taon ang dulo ng katimugang Luzon na paroo’t parito ng mga Galyon San Bernardino. Mula doon ay pabagtas ng Pasipiko. umaakyat hanggang makarating sa Japan at saka sasakay sa along Ang Pagtuklas ng Bagong Daan tinatawag na Kuroshio (Kuro- siwo) na magdadala sa barko Mula 1613, ipinanukala na ng hanggang California. Pabalik “Procurador General” ng naman’y babagtasin ng halos Maynila na si Hernando de los
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Rios Coronel ang unang taon, noong 1740, naging pagbabago. Isa itong daang kapasiyahan ang pagsasagawa babagtas sa kanlurang baybayin ng isang paglalakbay ng ng Luzon paitaas ng hilaga pagsisiyasat na iikot sa kapuluan hanggang sa Lungos ng Bojador ng Luzon upang alamin kung at Engaño at saka tutulak aling daan ang higit na mabuti patungong Pasipiko. papalabas ng karagatan. Ginawa Gayunpaman, walang pumansin ang ekspedisyon sakay ng sa ganitong mungkahi yamang barkong “Nuestra Señora del walang naganap na pagbabago Rosario.” Sina Manuel Correa at hanggang sa pagsapit ng 1730. José Macías ang mga piloto ng Sa taong ito ipinagpilitan ng mga paglalayag. Hindi nila nagawang negosyanteng kalahok sa Galyon ikutin ang Luzon. Bunga ng na siyasatin ang daang pahilaga. panahon, nanatili na lamang sila Pinagsikapan sa pagkakataong sa kanlurang baybayin nito at ito ng batikang pilotong Aleman ilang bahagi ng kahilagaan. na si Enrique Hermann na Naging mahalaga ang mga makapagsagawa ng walong ulit resulta nito mula sa panig ng na paglalayag sa tradisyunal na heyograpiya ng rehiyon, daan. Sa kanyang mga karanasan gayunpaman, nakatitiyak na niya hinugot ang mga nagdulot lamang ito ng higit na pangangatwiran upang maraming pagtanggi sa mabigyan ng pansin ang posibleng pagpapalit ng daan. ipinapanukalang bagong daan. Muling binuhay ang usapin Nagpahayag lamang ng pag- tungkol sa pagpalit ng daang aalinlangan ng mga awtoridad pahilaga sa daang tradisyonal subalit makalipas ang sampung mula sa “cedula real” ng ika-1 ng
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Enero 1771 kung saan ipinag- Mga bagong petsa ang utos ito sa gobernador ng pinagtibay sa dokumento, dapat Pilipinas na si Simon Anda y maisagawa na ang paglisan mula Salazar na nauna nang gumamit sa Mexico sa kalagitnaan ng ng daan sa Hilaga. Hindi Enero upang maiwan ang nasiyahan ang mga “situado” sa Marianas at mangangalakal sa pahayag na ito magpatuloy sa Maynila sa at bilang pampalubag-loob, pamamagitan ng Lungos ng sinabihan silang paghandaang Bojador. mabuti ang pag-iipon ng kanilang mga kalakal at maging Sa harap ng katotohanan ng handa rin para sa kaagad na paglalayag noong 1779, paglalayag. dumating sa gitna ng patuloy na problematikong kalagayan ang Muling pinagtibay ng mapagpasiya, matalino at kinahinatnan ng paglalayag na pulitikal na pag-aasal ni Jose ito ang kapasiyahan ng hari Basco y Vargas nang itatag niya noong 1771 sa pamamagitan ng ang “Consulado del Comercio.” isang bagong “Cedula” na Bumuo siya ng mga takdang ipinahayag sa San Lorenzo de talaarawan na pumayag din Escorial noong ika-25 ng Oktubre naman siyang ipagpaliban sa 1777. Ipinag-utos nito sa harap ng mga naantalang gobernador na sundan ang paglalayag ng mga barko mula sa bagong daanan, at hindi Tsina at mga karatig na pulo. binigyang pansin ang maaaring mawalang kayamanan mula sa Sa huli, itinakda ang paglalayag kalakalang lokal sa gayo’y di ng “San Jose,” na isinailalim sa maisakatuparan ang kautusan. pamumuno ng Tenyente José
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Emparán, sa ika-29 ng Mayo. timog na kilala bilang Dalawang linggo lamang itong “Embocadero.” nahuhuli sa petsang itinakda ng “real cedula” na kalagitnaan ng Bunga ng pagkabigo ng daang Mayo. Naging mabilis ang pahilaga ay napilitan si paglalayag dito hanggang Gobernador Anda y Salazar na makarating sa Lungos ng Engaño paglayagin ang Galyon “San sa loob ng labinlimang araw, Carlos” noong 1773 gamit ang matapos na hindi tumulong ang nakagawiang daan upang hangin at ulap sa pagpapanatili matiyak na maayos ang ng ganitong bilis at hanggang sa paglalakbay nito. Gayunpaman, Marianas pabalik na halos isang hindi siya nagpasiyang nag-iisa. buwan. Ang iba naman, ang Kinausap din niya ang mga pagbagtas sa hilagang Pasipiko naglalakbay na paham, ang mga hanggang sa California ay mabilis opisyal ng barkong “Venus” alyas kung ihahambing sa iba, “Santa Brigida” na nasa daungan dalawang buwan at kalahati. mula sa siyentipikong paglalakbay nito. Ang Daan sa Timog Nasa kamay ni Juan de Langara y Sa kaunting taon na Huarte ang pamamahala ng magpapatuloy pa ang mga barko at kasama sa kanyang mga paglalayag ng Galyon, hanggang tauhan ang Tenyente Jose de 1815 sa opisyal na larangan at Mazarredo. Siya ang nagpakilala ekstra-opisyal hanggang 1821, sa kanyang mga kasama habang bumalik lamang ang paglalakbay naglalayag sa “pamamaraan ng nito sa dating daanan, ang nasa mga distansyang lunar upang malaman ang kahabaan sa
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Timon: The Proceedings of the Philippine Maritime Heritage Forum dagat...” at ito ang isa sa Consolacion Hanggang sa Isla de mahahalagang katangian ng Guajan (Mula ika-4 ng Abril paglalakbay ng “La Venus.” hanggang ika-20 ng Hunyo 1781.) Mula sa Isla ng Guam Sunod-sunod na nagkaroon ng (Guajan) hanggang sa San Blas. mga paglalakbay na nagmapa sa (Mula 20 ng Hunyo hanggang 27 iba’t-ibang lugar na hindi pa Septyembre 1781). nadaanan ng tradisyunal na daan ng mga Galyon. Ang Paglalayag Konklusyon ng “Nuestra Señora de la Consolacion” Alyas “Buen Fin.” Ang proseso ng pagtatatag ng Nagsimula noong Enero 1773 malayong kolonya ng Pilipinas ay mula sa Maynila at nakarating sa kasabay rin ng pagkilala ng San Blas noong ika-26 ng Hulyo Espanya sa Karagatang Pasipiko ng taon ding iyon. Ang bilang kanilang teritoryo. Hindi Paglalakbay ng “Nuestra Señora lamang nagsilbing daanan ng del Rosario, La Marinera,” Alyas iba’t-ibang produkto ang “La Princesa,” 1780-1781. Kalakalang Galyon (1565-1815) Nagsimula 21 Agosto 1780 kundi nagsilbi rin itong hanggang 21 Nobyembre 1780. kasangkapan sa pagpapalawak Mula Maynila hanggang Sisiran. ng kasakupang Espanol. Kakabit Mula 21 Nobyembre 1780 nito, ang Kalakalang Galyon din hanggang 27 Pebrero 1781. ang nagtulak upang tumuklas pa Sisiran patungong Tonga. Sa ng mga madadaanang higit na Kapuluan ng Tonga at Hanggang mabilis subalit higit ring sa Dulong Katimugan (mula ika- maraming pulo. Mga pulo na 27 ng Pebrero hanggang ika-4 ng maaaring mapagkunan ng mga Abril, 1781) Mula sa Islas de la
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Timon: The Proceedings of the Philippine Maritime Heritage Forum probisyon at posibleng potensyal na maidudulot nito sa produktong panluwas. imperyo. Sa huli, natigil na ang lahat ng ito. Anumang nais pa ng Sa pagnanais na tumuklas ng Espanya sa Pilipinas o sa Pasipiko mga daan, lumawak din ang ay hindi na natuloy bunga ng pagkilala dito sa pakahulugang Himagsikang 1896. heyograpikal bukod pa sa mga
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The Saga of a Maritime Nation sans Maritime Doctrine
Joefe B. Santarita, Ph.D. Asian Center, University of the Philippines Diliman
Abstract
The Philippines is undeniably a maritime nation. Being an archipelago with 7,641 islands, the country is facing all sorts of ocean related opportunities and challenges for decades. This maritime nature, however, was and is not apparently complemented most of the time by the collective actions, actuations, and activities of the Philippine government and its apparatuses. This condition is further exacerbated by the absence of a doctrine that will focus all concerns that are ‘at and from the sea’. A document that will provide conceptual framework for devising such a plan or strategy seeking to develop and employ maritime capacity/power in pursuit of national objectives and interests.
Hence, this paper investigates if the Philippines has a clear concept of a maritime nation since its establishment as a republic. Moreover, this paper also documents if the said concept has been succinctly translated into actual operationalization by state apparatuses.
Keywords: Maritime, Nation, Archipelago, Philippines
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Introduction
he Philippines is protection of its sovereignty, undeniably a maritime shipping and commerce, T nation. Being an navigation, and naval affairs, archipelago with 7,641 islands, including the contribution of the the country is facing all sorts of maritime industry to the ocean related opportunities and international economy. challenges for decades. This maritime nature, however, was This paper, as a preliminary and is not apparently study, will look at the concept of complemented most of the time a maritime nation and how this by the collective actions, fact sinks in into the Philippines’ actuations, and activities of the consciousness as manifested Philippine government and its perhaps in the mechanisms and apparatuses. This condition is pronouncements of the further exacerbated by the country’s leaders. absence of a doctrine that will focus all concerns that are ‘at Concept of Maritime Nation and from the sea’. It is observable that people A document that will provide began to increasingly use the conceptual framework for term “maritime nation’ in their devising such a plan or strategy discussion but it is also noted seeking to develop and employ that there is a dearth of clear maritime capacity/power in definition about it especially pursuit of national objectives from academic sources. The only and interests. These include the available definition is provided
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Timon: The Proceedings of the Philippine Maritime Heritage Forum by a stub in Wikipedia which elements include independence defines maritime nation as any (de cure or de facto); autonomy, nation which borders the sea economy, politics and culture and is dependent on its use for based essentially on navigation majority of the following state and maritime exchanges; the activities: commerce and possession of a fleet of navy transport, war, to define a ships; being born and territorial boundary, or for any constituting itself as city-state, maritime activity (activities using only to eventually expand the sea to convey or produce an further; the presence of end result). The stub also Mediterranean ports of own mentioned about the use of the fondachi (warehouse) and term in the history with consulate; the presence in its reference to thalassocracy such own port of warehouses and as Carthage and Phoenicia but its consulates in cities and foreign usage is greatly associated countries; the use of a proper during the medieval period with currency accepted throughout the existence of maritime the Mediterranean and its own republics of Venice, Pisa, Genoa maritime laws; presence of a and Amalfi (Wikipedia). In the government with republican work of G. Benvenuti’s Le character; and participation in Repubbliche Marinare (1989), the Crusades and/or repression he identified the 9 elements for of piracy. a polity to be considered as maritime republic. It should be The said elements are noted that the term maritime undoubtedly of 19th century republic was coined from the description of a maritime nation 19th century historiography. The but many of these elements are
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Timon: The Proceedings of the Philippine Maritime Heritage Forum observably applicable to lands surrounded by water contemporary times. The case of (Santarita, 2018). Given this the Philippines reflects on these reference from Indians, the elements but the concept may mere use of this term even cover the most obvious significantly reinforces marker - the geographical nature contemporary understanding of of the country. Looking at the the geographic nature of the documents written during pre- Philippines as a maritime nation. colonial times, the Philippines appeared to be maritime polity. Aside from Indian reference, Such geographic condition is Chinese also had made notably observed by early sailors reference to the archipelagic or and traders and is reflected in island nature of the Philippines various Chinese annals and or parts of it in the 1000. Sung Indian documents. In particular, Shih has documented the early Indians particularly traders trading connections with Mai/ and geographers made Mait or present day Mindoro. In reference to these islands as fact, an edict of 972 indicates Panyupayana. In the Survey of that Mindoro was part of the Indian History by K.M. Panikkar, Sung Dynasty trade (Scott). an interesting map of Greater India is included which covered Aside from the historical the whole Southeast Asia and documents, this paper also tagged with ancient names made a survey of the occurring in Indian literature. constitutions and proclamations Remarkably, the early Indian done through the years since the geographers referred to the Philippines establishment as a Philippines as Panyupayana or republic. The constitutions of
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1899, 1935 and 1943 did not made in the 1987 constitution. mention about the territory In article 1, it states that the specifically the Philippines as a national territory comprises the maritime entity. It was only in Philippine archipelago, with all 1973 Constitution under Section the islands and waters embraced 1 that a clear description of the therein, and all other territories national territory has been over which the Philippines has made. It states that the national sovereignty or jurisdiction, territory comprises the consisting of its terrestrial, fluvial Philippine archipelago, with all and aerial domains, including its the islands and waters embraced territorial sea, the seabed, the therein, and all the other subsoil, the insular shelves, and territories belonging to the other submarine areas. The Philippines by historic or legal waters around, between, and title, including the territorial sea, connecting the islands of the the air space, the subsoil, the archipelago, regardless of their sea-bed, the insular shelves, and breadth and dimensions, form the submarine areas over which part of the internal waters of the the Philippines has sovereignty Philippines (1987 Constitution). or jurisdiction. The waters Furthermore, in article XII, around, between, and Section 2 of the Constitution connecting the islands of the further states that the State shall archipelago, irrespective of their protect the nation’s marine breadth and dimensions, form wealth in its archipelagic waters, part of the internal waters of the territorial sea, and exclusive Philippines. A more updated and economic zone, and reserve its comprehensive description use and enjoyment exclusively to about the national territory is Filipino citizens (PN 316).
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There is no doubt that the Operationalization Philippines is a maritime nation because of its geographical As a republic, the Philippines in nature. However, as Marites pursuit of its national interests Vitug has observed, this fact has has established several agencies yet to sink in into our country’s that are mandated to protect its consciousness. There is a need of territory including maritime retooling the conventional concerns as well as maintain its mindsets that focused on land suzerainty. These offices include and internal threats (Danguilan- the Department of National Vitug). She further lamented Defense, Department of Foreign that “we don’t hear our leaders Affairs, the Armed Forces of the talk much about the Philippines Philippines particularly its Navy, as a maritime nation” Department of Interior and Local (Danguilan-Vitug). This ‘not Government particularly its sinking in’ should not be police, Philippine Coast Guard, misconstrued, however, as the Maritime Authority (MARINA) total absence of mechanisms to among others.m Past and forward the interest of the present administrations have Philippines as maritime nation. issued various proclamations to There are agencies that were protect the maritime and marine created and several policies that interest of the country. were drafted to advance the interests of the state but their These proclamations, however, actions and consequences may are done on piecemeal basis and not necessarily be motivated by do not constitute acts that are the quest of a maritime nation. directed to contribute collectively to the grand vision, if
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Timon: The Proceedings of the Philippine Maritime Heritage Forum there is one, of a maritime Enforcement, Area nation. Nonetheless, these Development and Conservation, proclamations are better to and Maritime Security. Although nothing since they to some bereft of a legal mandate NMP is extent served their purpose for a in consonance with the national certain period of time and of a interests. particular interest. Foremost is Proclamation 866 (s. 1996) as the Proclamation 176 (s. 1963). amended, declared the last It declared the third week of Friday of September of every October of every year as “Fish year as “National Maritime Day” Conservation Week” to promote for the purpose of focusing the the importance of fish and other public’s attention on the vital aquatic products to the people’s role of the maritime industry in well-being and the country’s development in global shipping economy (PN 316). (PN 316).
Recognizing the archipelagic and Proclamation No. 316 (s. 2017) maritime nature of the country, declared the month of then President Fidel V Ramos September of every year as the issued in 1994 the National Maritime and Archipelagic Marine Policy (NMP) to guide Nation Awareness Month (Mana various stakeholders in the Mo). This instrument also maritime community, especially harmonizes, integrates and those in government, in synchronizes programs and managing the “blue economy.” activities that will raise national The policy contains four key consciousness on maritime and areas: Politics and Jurisdiction, archipelagic issues and policies Area Regulation and (PN 316).
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an aircraft carrier like Thailand, Despite the Philippines’ and of having a single submarine maritime nature, the total naval just like Indonesia and Malaysia. assets are pale in comparison to The Army has more combat other countries (global fire tanks and armored fighting power). This is observable in the vehicles than the Navy’s frigates table below, wherein the and patrol ships (Danguilan- Philippines appears to have Vitug). In an interview with limited assets in terms of total Rappler, former defense naval capabilities among the 5 secretary Orlando Mercado has founding members of ASEAN. It urged the military to address is understandable that evolving threats, including Singapore, on the one hand, may beefing up maritime security to have small number of assets stave off threats such as considering of its territory size. terrorism, human trafficking, The maritime or archipelagic smuggling, piracy, and external nature of the Philippines did not aggression translate to a need of acquiring (Danguilan-Vitug).
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Comparative Data on Naval Capability of 5 Southeast Asian Countries
Philippines Singapore Indonesia Thailand Malaysia
Total Naval 119 40 221 81 61 Assets
Aircraft 0 0 0 1 0 Carriers
Frigates 4 6 8 7 3
Destroyers 0 0 0 0 0
Corvettes 10 6 24 7 6
Submarines 0 6 3 0 2
Patrol Vessels 35 11 74 32 41
Mine Warfare 0 2 12 7 4
Source: Global Fire Power, 2018.
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Attempts Towards a Maritime Recognizing the archipelagic and Doctrine maritime nature of the country, then President Fidel V Ramos Is a maritime doctrine issued in 1994 the NMP to guide necessary? So far, few countries various stakeholders in the in contemporary times have maritime community, especially crafted and adopted such those in government, in instrument. South Africa has managing the “blue economy.” adopted this instrument in 1994, The policy contains four key India in 2009, Australia in areas: Politics and Jurisdiction, Area Regulation and 2010, Indonesia in 2014, Enforcement, Area Pakistan in 2016, and Russia in Development and Conservation, 2017 among others. One may and Maritime Security. ask why these countries decide On politics and jurisdiction, the to adopt such document? In the new Baselines Law of 2009 survey of these doctrines, the (RA9522) incorporating the instrument appears to serve as areas defined by PD1596 guide to understand the distinct (Kalayaan Island Group) and nature of the respective PD1599 (EEZ) established our country’s navy’s contribution to national identity as an the national security and how archipelagic state and defined the Navy goes about its business. our maritime boundaries in accordance with UN Convention The Philippines has attempted in of the Law of the Sea. Three 1994 with its National Marine years later the UN recognized Policy (NMP) to be put in place. the country’s extended
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Timon: The Proceedings of the Philippine Maritime Heritage Forum continental shelf in the agency and convergence actions Philippine/Benham Rise area in Palawan and the community- thereby expanding the based initiatives in other archipelago’s maritime zone by localities to protect selected some 30,000 square kilometers. marine areas contribute a lot in In 2016, the government formed regulating the utilization of a National Task Force West marine resources. In Cebu, the Philippine Sea to coordinate local government organized a policy on South China Sea. These system to monitor water quality gains in defining the extent of and set measurement territory are threatened by the parameters for chemicals to brewing WPS/SCS conflict, the prevent pollution. The modest continuing Sulu Sultanate claim, gains in this area may increase the absence of ASEAN Code of once the stakeholders address Conduct in WPS/SCS, and the the issues of fragmented impractical local maritime zone implementation, enhance legal limits that consider only physical and administrative procedures boundaries rather than and hasten the transfer of economic resource knowledge, skills and resources. management. These are some of Integration and coordination are the challenges that need more central in regulating and attention, and are worthy to deal enforcing the various issuances with. as regards to the use of maritime zones and resources. In terms of maritime area regulation and enforcement, the On area development and focus is on the protection of conservation, the main priority is marine ecology. The inter- the management of the marine
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Timon: The Proceedings of the Philippine Maritime Heritage Forum economy and technology to island provinces with the major balance demands for utilization centers of the economy. and conservation. This involves MARINA’s development plans fisheries, seabed resources and led to the country’s elevation to ports and shipping. The concept top 5 among world’s of Integrated Coastal Zone shipbuilding nations in terms of Management has taken roots. tonnage and in many ways DENR, PPA, PCG and MARINA are improve coastal and maritime jointly working on abatement tourism. The several challenges and control of marine pollution faced by this priority area to truly while other agencies continue to harness the potential of the conduct research and country’s marine economy are: assessment on marine resources weak development planning that to help in poverty alleviation and is predominantly landward livelihood development. looking, poverty in coastal Authorities have established communities, inadequate port marine protected areas (MPAs), facilities and shipyards, mandated seasonal fishing and mismanaged MPAs and crafted policies and strategies to improper valuation of damaged mitigate the impact of climate marine resources like reefs and change. BFAR and marine corals. scientists have started to explore the fishery, aquatic and seabed On maritime security, the recent resources in Philippine/Benham acquisition of naval, air force and Rise for food, energy and coast guard platforms income. The nautical highway strengthened the country’s initiated by PPA and MARINA ability to confront low-intensity some years back now links the conflicts in the maritime domain.
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BFAR also enhanced its complement the current needs capability to enforce fishery of a maritime nation. laws. But these government Contemporary times expects agencies and transiting initiatives beyond navy’s merchant ships are constrained concerns to include matters by ill-defined sea-lanes, weak related to trade, blue growth mapping of the EEZ and development, etc. To be a existence of lawless groups that maritime nation, the Philippines prey on commercial vessels. The must exhibit that level of vastness of the sea areas enables confidence on its people’s ability illegal, unregulated and to achieve national objectives by unreported fishing to harvesting the rich marine proliferate. The number of resources and optimizing the patrol ships for maritime zone is benefits that the seas provide. short of the required to prevent, Moreover, the realization of a deter and suppress maritime maritime nation requires violations. The protection of inclusivity to cover all future marine-based energy stakeholders such as the fisher sources will need a stronger folks, seamen, and boat builders navy, air force and coast guard among others. (Marayag). Conclusion The NMP’s provisions are ideal and are essential to the the There is no doubt that the development of a maritime Philippines is an archipelago and doctrine. It is unfortunate that it is indeed a maritime nation. did not push through into a full There is a recognition in more blown instrument to recent years by the government
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Timon: The Proceedings of the Philippine Maritime Heritage Forum that the Philippines is a maritime embrace a maritime doctrine? entity. Despite such recognition, The answer is yes. It is very the government’s apparatuses important that the Philippines as are not working in unison to an archipelago should have a behave at least like a maritime concrete platform where all its nation. Some agencies have agencies are interlinked and embraced some mechanisms guided in order to move forward leading to such thinking but it did in coherence with the national not reach to the point where all interest. The Maritime doctrine stakeholders are synchronously is necessary in order to guide rowing together as a maritime various agencies of the state. In the discussion, there government to work in the were attempts from the past protection of the sovereignty of leaders of developing policies the country and also the towards the realization of a preservation of natural maritime nation but they fall resources. short from such initiatives leading to the development of a Stakeholders must be engaged maritime doctrine. A framework and their inputs must be that will bring the country with a seriously considered in the clear trajectory not definitely as review of maritime institutions, a maritime power but also in the legislation and regulations and development of a holistic policies. The government must protection of the marine and actively lead by adopting a maritime resources. comprehensive national maritime policy that defines the Hence, one may ask if it is still long-term strategic direction for imperative to develop and Maritime Philippines (Pimentel).
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The absence of such document in the long run is already a clear lapse of the government if it remains to have fall short from expectation given the vivid recognition of its geographical configuration yet continue to exist without a well thought doctrine that will guide its trajectory as a maritime nation. Hence, the formulation of this document albeit late will indeed spare the Philippines from further embarrassment to be included among maritime nations sans its own maritime doctrine.
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References
Santarita, Joefe B. Panyupayana: The Emergence of Hindu Polities in the Pre-Islamic Philippines. S. Saran (ed.) Cultural and Civilisational Links Between India and Southeast Asia. Singapore: Palgrave Macmillan, 2018.
Scott, William Henry. Filipinos in China Before 1500. Asian Studies Journal.
Marayag, Emilio. National Marine Policy Review: Gains and Gaps. THE MARITIME REVIEW. July 2018.
Pimentel, Brenda. Is the Philippines a maritime nation? The Manila Times. 14 July 2017. https://www.manilatimes.net/philippines- maritime-nation/338445/
Danguilan-Vitug, Marites. We are a maritime nation but…. Rappler. 9 August 2018.
Global Fire Power. Philippines Military Strength. www.globalfirepower.com/country-military-strength- detail.asp?country_id=philippines#navy.
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Brief Biographies of the Contributors
Ma. Teresa G. de Guzman, PhD
Professor De Guzman is an Anthropologist, Professor in Anthropology and the Chairperson of the Department of Behavioral Sciences of the University of the Philippines, Manila. Among her research interest include: (a) Cultural Anthropology and Anthropological Linguistics; (b) Indigenous peoples; (c) Gender Studies; (d) Ethnoarchaeology and (e) Educational Anthtropology. Some of the fieldworks she had conducted are the following: Manobo Ethnolinguistic groups of Agusan del Sur in 2011; Talaandig Ethnolinguistic groups of Bukidnon in 2010; Alangan Mangyan Ethnolinguistic groups of Victoria; Oriental Mindoro in 2008; Tadyawan and Bangon Mangyan Ethnolinguistic groups of Sablayan, Occidental Mindoro in 2007; and Sambal Ayta Ethnolinguistic groups of Botolan, Zambales in 2007.
Celestina P. Boncan, PhD
Professor Boncan holds a PhD in History from the University of the Philippines Diliman. She is co-author of the book The Filipino Saga: History as Social Change.She received two international research scholarships --- the first from the Fulbright Program of the U.S. State Department in 2002 and the second from the Rockefeller Foundation in 2003 which enabled her to do research at the Library of Congress in Washington D.C. and the Rockefeller Archive Center in Sleepy Hollow,
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New York. Among the awards that she received are the following: UP Manila Centennial Faculty Grantee (2008), UP Manila Outstanding Faculty for Extension Service (2007), College of Arts and Sciences UP Manila Outstanding Faculty for Teaching (2003 and 2006).She is a member of the Pi Gamma Mu, the international honor society in the Social Sciences.She served as president of the Philippine Historical Association, the honorand professional association of historians of the Philippines. She was former Chief of the Research, Publications & Heraldry Division of the National Historical Institute (now the National Historical Commission of the Philippines). Her research interests include social, economic and urban history of the Philippines from the 17th to the 19th centuries and education, public health and governance from 1900-1935. At present, she is a full professor at the College of Arts and Sciences of the University of the Philippines Manila.
Ligaya S.P. Lacsina, PhD
Dr. Lacsina began her career at the National Museum of the Philippines as a Museum Researcher at the Archaeology Division in 2004. This year, she was appointed as Museum Curator I of the Maritime and Underwater Cultural Heritage Division. She earned her MA in Archaeology from the University of the Philippines in 2009, and PhD in Archaeology from Flinders University in 2016. Her main research interests lie in ancient Philippine boat construction, particularly of the lashed-lug boats.
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Jose Rhommel B. Hernandez, Ph.D.
Si Ginoong Jose Rhommel B. Hernandez ay kasalukuyang Associate Professor at Graduate Program Coordinator sa Departamento ng Kasaysayan, De La Salle University, Maynila. Nagtapos siya ng kanyang Masterado at Doktorado sa Kasaysayan mula sa Unibersidad ng Pilipinas, Diliman. Partikular niyang interes ang panahong kolonyal na Espanyol at nakapaglathala na ng mga artikulo at pag-aaral tungkol sa Himagsikan, relihiyon, wika, historiyograpiyang Pilipino, araling Rizal at mga pagsasalin sa Filipino mula sa Espanyol ng Historia de la Insureccion Filipina en Cavite ni Telesforo Canseco at ng Nuestra Prision en Poder de los Revolucionarios Filipino ni Ulpiano Herrero.
Carolyn I. Sobritchea, PhD
Dr. Sobritchea obtained three degrees from the University of the Philippines Diliman, A PhD in Anthropology in UPD in 1987, a master’s degree in Asian Studies with Southeast Asia as area of specialization in 1973, and a B.A. Anthropology in 1968. From 1979 to 1980. She completed 24 units of coursework for a Fullbright Doctoral Enrichment Studies in Anthropology at the State University of New York.
She served as director of the UP Center for Women’s Studies (2000 to 2007) and as its deputy director for Training and Extension Service (1991 to 1999). She worked as project leader of numerous national and Asian regional studies including the study Enhancing the Capacities of Women NGOs and Networks to Monitor the Implementation of CEDAW through
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National, Regional and Local Policies and Programs sponsored by the UCWS Foundation and UNIFEM.
She is a member of the editorial board of Asian Women, a biannually journal of the Research Institute of Asian Women (RIAW), Sookmyung Women’s University, Seoul, Korea. She is also a member of the editorial board of advisers of Gender, Technology and Development, a refereed journal of the Asian Institute of Technology of Thailand.
Joefe B. Santarita, Ph.D.
Joefe B. Santarita is currently the Dean and an Associate Professor of the University of the Philippines’ Asian Center (AC). He is also a faculty affiliate of the UP Open University ASEAN Graduate Studies Program as well as the UP Diliman Tri-College Ph.D. Philippine Studies Program. Dr. Santarita has completed his doctoral degree in South Asian Studies from the National University of Singapore, his master’s degree in Asian Studies at the AC and his bachelor’s degree in History and Community Development from UP Visayas (UPV).
His research interests and publications focus on Indian Studies, Migration Studies, Philippine Culture and Society, Maritime History, and Southeast Asian Political Economy. His most recent publications include “Panyupayana: The Emergence of Hindu Polities in the Pre-Islamic Philippines” in Cultural and Civilisational Links between India and Southeast Asia: Historical and Contemporary Dimensions (Palgrave Macmillan forthcoming 2018); "Beyond the Indian Ocean: India and its Blue Economy Partnerships in the South China Sea." ASEAN-India
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Relations: A New Paradigm. Delhi Dialogue. Institute for Defence Studies and Analyses (IDSA), 2018. "Challenges to Implementing Mutual Recognition Arrangements (MRAs): Effects on Human Capital Mobility in Southeast Asia" in CIFAL Philippines Discussion Paper (Centre International de Formation des Autorités et Leaders-Philippines 2018); and “Development of the Inter-Asia Cultural Studies' Summer School in the Philippines" in Philippine-Iran Relations: 50 Years and Beyond (Asian Center/Iran Embassy 2017). Moreover, Dr. Santarita is also recipient of several awards and grants both in the Philippines and abroad such as the Fulbright Scholar-in-Residence Program, the German Academic Exchange Service’ sponsored International Deans Course, Southwest Pacific Dialogue Art and Culture Scholarship as well as Japan-ASEAN Youth Fellowship among others.
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THIS IS A CONFERENCE PROCEEDINGS PUBLISHED BY THE OFFICE OF THE PRESIDENT - SPECIAL PROJECT OFFICE OF THE ASIAN INSTITUE OF MARITIME STUDIES OR AIMS
Copyright © 2020 by AIMS Museo Maritimo
All rights reserved. Published in the Philippines by Daryl Lorence P. Abarca for the Office of the President of the Asian Institute of Maritime Studies
www.aims.edu.ph
Title: Timon: The Proceedings of the Philippine Maritime Heritage Forum, Volume I
Description: First Volume | Pasay, AIMS, 2020
Identifiers: ISSN 2719-1389
doi.org/10.6084/m9.figshare.13325342.v1
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Museo Maritimo Team
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