BENOY R. SAMANTA HISTORY

Indians of Eastern Woodlands— The Story of Ancient America

BENOY R. SAMANTA

he and Canada were amazing Indian culture that left its mark in home to true civilization long before the form of mysterious earthwork and Tthe arrival of the first Europeans. thousands of earthen mounds. When the first Europeans came to this land, Time moves constantly forward by they discovered a vast, seemingly untouched minutes, hours, and days. Time holds the continent. However, they discovered a land secret of ancient America. We cannot see that had already been discovered. North into the future but, among the mounds the America had been home to millions of Indians built, we can see into the past. Over American Indian people for thousands very long periods, hours, days, months and upon thousands of years. This is the story even years become less and less important. of the first Americans, the Indian people that Then, we measure time by the events that lived and still live here in the United States influence or change our lives. As we look and Canada. into the past, there are many events which Back to when much of North America help us define history and steps along our was locked in the frigid grips of the Ice travel back into time. Age, the precise origin of Native Americans Before the first European explorers, eludes us. Scientific evidence indicates that there was no written history north of the first humans came to the North Mexico. At this point we enter the pre- American continent from northern Asia historic past and our time-line becomes less sometime during the last Ice Ages possibly clear. When Columbus reached the new 12,000 to 20,000 years ago. They walked or world in 1492, in the Ohio sailed along the coast of a land bridge once Valley were already very old. In fact, many connecting Russia to Alaska. The of the mounds were at least 2000 years old. descendants of these immigrants had spread While the Greeks were building temples in across both North and South America. After the old world, monuments of earth were many generations, these people became being erected across eastern North America. natives of the land that had never seen Mounds were part of a legacy of an humans before. They became Native advanced people who built a sophisticated Americans. As they spread out over the vast society and constructed immense continent, the Native Americans adapted to engineering works. And, this was almost living in different regions and hundreds of 2000 years ago. But these people left us different cultures were born. The story of much more than the mounds we now see. Eastern Woodland is the story of one such Beneath the surface of the mounds are

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treasures from the past. Others, the started emerging. Still, by 4000 years ago, Mississippian, would follow in the mound there was no real signs of civilization. building tradition of the Woodland people. Ancient America seemed to be occupied Mounds were still being constructed in the with small bands of hunters and gatherers. fifteen and sixteen hundreds when the first And then something happened in the bayous European explorers ventured across the and backwaters of northern Louisiana over eastern half of the continent. 3500 years ago. , the first All told, some 200,000 mounds once planned community in ancient America was dotted eastern North America. The amount born and it came seemingly out of nowhere. of effort involved in their construction is It was like a bolt of lightning on the pre- staggering. Some archeologists now believe historic horizon. Poverty Point had streets, that the overall work of the residential areas and a central plaza. It was exceeded that of the and the carefully constructed and had a large ancient works of Egypt. But who were the ceremonial mound. mound builders? Where did they come Mounds would become a trademark of from? Why did they build mounds? The Indians in the Eastern Woodlands for the story is entrenched in time and uncovering next 3000 years. Aerial photography the answer requires travelling even further revealed something imperceptible, almost into the past. invisible on the ground. Digitally processed imagery from high altitude research aircraft Russel Cave has produced remarkable evidence of an The archaic people were gatherers and ancient city with streets and residences laid hunters, living off whatever the land could out in the shape of a giant crescent. Six provide. We know that they actively hunted concentric ridges were nearly destroyed such giants as the Ice Age caribous, over hundreds of years of ploughing but mammoths, and other large animals; enough remains to help tell the story. possibly even to extinction. In the Eastern Millions of tons of earth were moved Woodlands, one of the best-preserved basketful by basketful to create six miles of records of the past is to be found in the artificial ridges. They rose 10 feet higher Russel Cave in northern Alabama. For than the surroundings and averaged 75 feet thousands of years, the cave gave shelter to in width. Four avenues pierced the ridges bands of archaic Indians. Carved by a and lead to a 37 acre plot at the heart of the stream which is tunnelled under part of the city bordered by a river. mountains, Russel Cave’s huge overhang has made it a home for the people who may Poverty Point have been the predecessors of the mound Poverty Point remains an unsolved builders. Life was hard due to a constant mystery. There is no evidence that these search for food and survival. people had any agriculture and yet somehow These ancient people had no defined the land supported the concentrated agriculture though they probably population of thousands of people. Poverty experimented with growing some crops. As Point was highly organized with a trade the climate of North America gradually network which extended at least a thousand warmed, distinct Indian culture slowly miles. They received stones and minerals

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from Missouri which they fashioned into and social advancements among the people tools. Skeletal remains from subtropical of eastern North America. The first mound birds indicate trading ties with Florida. was built around 750 BC. About the same These birds and pelicans were probably used time, the Greek civilization was blossoming, for their colourful plumages and large one distinct group of Woodland People we feathers. The bayous and rivers linked now call the Hopewell, constructed large Poverty Point with other trading geometric earthwork in Central and communities in a society that stretched from Southern Ohio. the Gulf of Mexico to the confluence of the The Hopewell culture had three major Mississippi and Arkansas Rivers. centres. The first was on both sides of the In the scope of its achievements, Ohio River at Portman. Today only a small Poverty Point stood alone in the year 1500 fraction of that complex earth work BC. Altogether, at least 30 million basketfuls remains. The second centre was within the of earth were moved to create the present city of Newark just east of settlements. Poverty Point was foremost in Columbus. There the Hopewell constructed massive engineering works of the time. A several large geometric figures and huge mound constructed just outside the connected them with miles of parallel ridges rose to the height of 70 feet. For a embankments. The third great centre was in thousand years from 1500 to 500 BC, these the Scioto River Valley. Here the Hopewell isolated communities successfully stood the constructed some two dozen major test of time. Even when Poverty Point enclosures in the shapes of squares, circles started to wane, the tradition of mound and octagons. Yet, we do not know why the building would be passed on. The flame of Woodland People built these structures. mound building did not die out with Poverty Beyond their earthen architecture, the Point. It was rekindled far to the north in the Woodland People acquired wealth through Ohio River Valley. trade; copper from the southern shore of Many Indian cultures have left little Lake Superior, silver from East Central more than footprints behind but one culture Canada, obsidian from the eastern shore was to leave a dramatic and unique mark on region of Wyoming, mica from the Blue the land. By 3000 years ago, the climate in Ridge mountains, and shells from warm the Ohio River Valley had changed. Instead water of the Gulf of Mexico. The trade of the cold of the Ice Age, the climate was network of Woodland People extended very similar to that of today. The people of across the eastern half of North America. Central Ohio had ample food supplies. It But the essential question remains. Why did took perhaps only three hours of labour each they build mounds? And for what purpose? day to get enough food to survive. Because of the wealth of the land, something was Why did they build mounds? available here that not many Indian people The mounds were constructed for a elsewhere in America had; free time. variety of reasons. We know that many Everything was favourable for something to contained burials and were constructed for happen and it did. 3000 years ago was the religious and ceremonial purposes. Some beginnings of what Archeologists call the may have been constructed for political or Woodland period; a long period of technical economic reasons. Moreover, some of the

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Hopewell sites appeared to have been When the Roman empire fell, the Romans constructed as astronomical observatories did not die off or move away. We believe with calendar to mark changes as occurring the Woodland people also remained. Though with the seasons. Archeologists have not now, like the Romans, they changed the found any evidence of written language and way they did things. They displayed no there is no other way of looking into the overall unity for constructing old minds of these people. Yet, just the monuments. Mounds are the most obvious existence of the mounds tells us that they signature of the Woodland People, but had an organized stable society and one mounds take many forms. Most were capable of undertaking construction projects conical burial mounds. Some had almost of monumental scale. With nothing more vertical sides and were up to 50 feet high. than wooden digging sticks, stone hoes, Also, these ancient engineers built long, clamp shells and baskets, the Hopewell ridge-topped mounds; earthen constructed not just mounds but miles upon embankments; mote-like trenches and miles of embankments moving thousands of magnificent geometric earthwork. There tons of soil. Mound City near Scioto Valley were other shapes also. After the year 500, of Ohio was a very special place. Although it effigy mounds in the shape of animals were is smaller than most Hopewell sites, it also constructed. One, the great serpent contains more mounds than most of the mound in Ohio, takes the form of a huge other earth works. The purposes behind snake almost a quarter mile long. In almost mound city are not clear. It was not the all cases, mound-builders were very precise heart of a pre-historic city, though many and detailed in their work, creating complex people lived in the surrounding areas. The monuments and large-scale replicas of Hopewell People had a semi-nomadic animal forms. But the fundamental question lifestyle. This was a civilization built on remains. Why did they build mounds? hunting and gathering where people had to Most effigy mounds could only be fully be mobile enough to follow food sources. seen and appreciated from the air. These As one area was gradually depleted of its mounds were more than just burial places. natural food supply, families or clan group They probably had religious significance. would migrate to other areas. They are statements on earth which have survived the centuries. In fact, mound Edina culture building became an obsession in Eastern Still, the Hopewell People were not alone North America for almost 3000 years. in building mounds. For 700 years, the Edina Construction took place in river valleys on culture built tall conical mounds throughout bluffs and in some cases, fortress-like the Ohio River Valley. The Edina probably earthen moulds in enclosed hilltops, perhaps had close ties with the Hopewell. By 400 AD for defensive purposes or for ceremonies. in Europe, the Roman empire was We simply do not know. But we do know weakening and so too was the Woodland that by far the largest and the most culture in Eastern North America. The impressive earthwork was built across the mounds were no longer being built. What Mississippi River from present day St. happened to these people? They did not Louis. Emerging from the mist of centuries, migrate to distant parts of the country. they stand as a sentinel of the lost

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civilization. These mounds stood at the heart years, it was the major centre of culture that of a great city. Today, we call it . spread across the central and southeastern This was the metropolis of ancient America, North America. Cahokia was the most the largest city in the United States before it unique Indian settlement in North America, was the United States. While Europe was north of Mexico. It was during the mired in the Dark Ages, the people of the Mississippian period, the Cahokia developed, were making rapid became prosperous and eventually declined. cultural and scientific advancements. Today, we build monuments to our Cahokia was a city of thousands of people civilization, such as sky scrapers and the St. and also a city of grand monuments. This Louis gateway arch, but a 1000 years ago, civilization created some of the largest the ancient Mississippians were also building earthworks in the ancient world. Their trade monuments, not of glass and steel, but of network extended over much of the earth. The most dramatic monuments of continent. It was a centre of art, commerce, Cahokia that survive today are the mounds. power and wealth. But who were these From 900 to 1400, Cahokians constructed people? They obviously had an advanced more than 120 earthen mounds, moving society organized on a massive scale and over 55 million cubic feet of earth. Nearly all capable of both immense engineering works the mounds excavated at Cahokia were built and refined artistic expressions. The fate of in stages and appear to have been enlarged this great city and its occupancies are not and modified over time. Quite often clear but the legacy they left behind is an structures were erected upon flattop intriguing and fascinating look into the past. platform mounds. Archeological excavation Cahokia was near the confluence of the suggests that these buildings were temples, Mississippi Missouri and Rivers. It is dwelling of the elites, counsel lodges, and in the centre of an expansive and fertile charnel houses used in burial ceremonies. flood plain, today known as the . The rivers, lakes, sluice and Monks Mound marshes provided habitat for many species Piercing Cahokia’s horizon is Monks of fish, waterfowl and aquatic plants. These Mound, as high as a ten storied building. It extensive waterways were actually is easily the most massive work of mound highways giving access to distant hunting building and its pre-history is equivalent to grounds. The rivers were also trade routes that of a sky scrapper. Situated in the middle where goods were exchanged, and ideas of the city, this is the largest pre-historic flowed as steadily as the water. earthen structure in the Western By 800 AD, the Mayan declined in Hemisphere. Cahokia’s leaders conducted Central America and Europe was in the ceremonies and governed the city from the midst of the Dark Ages. However, in the top of this massive man-made mountain, a heartland of North America, conditions were . It covers over 14 acres ripe for the flowering of a great civilization. and rises in four terraces to a height of Out of the Woodland culture, another most over 100 feet. highly advanced people were to emerge. For Mound construction is not simply the the Mississippians, Cahokia was their process of piling up earth. These ancient crowning achievement. For several hundred engineers used soils of various textures to

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build different parts of the mounds in order 2-mile long arcade. The mysteries of to provide proper drainage and structural Cahokia have been uncovered in many integrity. Monks Mound was enlarged ways. Some clues to the puzzle were not several times over a period of 300 years, visible on the ground. Early aerial from 900 to 1200, then modified slightly photographs taken at fields near Monks over the next 100 years. Mound in 1922 revealed linear-like strips Cahokia was a true city and buildings that might have been soil disturbances from covered its landscape. By far the most an ancient wall. Excavation confirmed what common buildings at Cahokia were single the photographs suggested. However, it was family dwellings. The Cahokians erected a not just one wall but a series of four large number of structures for communal enclosures built one after another over a 150 purposes. These include counsel lodges and years period from 1100 to 1250. It was an open-air summer houses, both used for extra-ordinary task. Each wall required neighbourhood meetings. Elevated granaries 15,000 to 20,000 logs, one foot in diameter and other food storage buildings and sauna- and 20 feet tall. The timber may have been like sweat lodges where people, mostly men, covered with clay to protect against fire in went to purify their bodies and spirits. The the element. Undoubtedly, the wall created most impressive building at Cahokia was a an impressive deterrent. To a degree, the temple of religion and government. The wall may have served as a social barrier, 5000-square-foot home of the great chief on separating the elite insiders, the privileged top of the Monk’s Mound was large even by class and the leaders from those on the today’s standards. outside who the commoners. However, The Mississippians were accomplished three telltale indicators lead archeologists to and prolific builders. Among their most believe that it was primarily a defensive intriguing works was the astronomical sun structure. The great height of the , calendar, which served as a giant computer the presence of evenly placed bastions from to keep track of the changes within the where the archers shot arrows and finally seasons, the solar equinoxes and solstices. the portions of the wall that were built Enormous sets of post served as markers, through the residential area, indicate that as points on the campus to track the dangers were imminent. For those trying to movement of the sun and possibly the moon piece together the past, this brings us and stars. A firepit was located near one several questions. Was Cahokia, this winter solstice post. Fire may have burned unrivalled metropolis, the centre of wealth here to encourage the sun’s return from the and power, in danger from outside forces? south to re-warm and rejuvenate the earth Were other Indian people also organized on for another annual cycle. A ceramic vessel such a massive scale as to present a real recovered at the solstice post is decorated threat to this powerful city? The very with the symbol of the sun and may have presence of this stockade indicates this may been used during their solstice ceremony. have been the case. We now know that Cahokia was a Scattered throughout Cahokia were fortified city. Surrounding the heart of this plazas, open expanses of parched clay ancient metropolis was an impenetrable trampled to the consistency of concrete.

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Like shopping malls in America today, activities, children playing, women ancient American craftsmen may have grounding corn and all the comings and established shops here and this is where goings of daily life. The only quiet time was day-to-day exchanges of information and in the dead of the winter when they lived ideas would have taken place. By far, the and worked mostly indoors, patiently largest of these town squares was to be waiting spring’s return. found in front of Monks Mound. The There was not one city to rival Cahokia. central plaza probably had an open-air This city was the great capital of politics, market clustered on the edge and a field religion, commerce and art. It was unique where games were played, and people among all Mississippian communities. Were assembled. Archeologists also discovered all of these communities linked and part of a that much of the plaza area was intentionally great pre-historic Indian Nation with filled and levelled to form a large flat Cahokia as its capital, or were they expanse. Perhaps the most impressive separated and independent simply trading feature of Cahokia is that this huge ancient goods and ideas? There is no doubt that expansive metropolis was built entirely by Cahokia was a cohesive organized society. hand. There was no beast of burden as in None of these grand monuments could have the old world and amazingly, no Indian been built any other way, nor could they civilization developed the wheel. But even have been built without well-tended fields, more amazing is the organization and sheer capable of feeding the population of tens of manpower necessary to build Cahokia. thousands. To feed this population required Thousands upon thousands of trees had to massive amounts of corn on a daily basis. be chopped down with stone axes and While they raised several varieties of corn, transported miles by laborers just to create they also cultivated squash, pumpkins, the stockade. sunflowers and other plants. A typical meal In 1150, with the estimated population for Mississippians most likely consisted of of some 20,000 people, Cahokia was one of corn served in varieties of ways, meat and the great urban centres of the world. It was portions of vegetable stews made primarily larger than London and most other European of squash, nuts, pumpkins, and seasoned cities of that time. In fact, it will not be until with salt and herbs. Those with higher the year 1800 before another American city, status probably had more meat in their diet. Philadelphia would surpass Cahokia’s Ironically, their great success with corn had record. The orderly layout of Cahokia long term negative effects. suggests that this was a planned city in the With all the population growth, nutrients shape of a diamond with Monks Mound at by stable corn crops eventually led to the its centre. It was a very crowded city and depletion of the soil as well as other vital much more crowded than practically any natural resources. Yet, despite its obvious American city of today. But as in modern disadvantages, Cahokia was undoubtedly a cities, people lived in neighbourhoods and magnet in the same way as the cities are the basis of neighbourhood and community today. There was an elaborate hierarchy organization was the family. These there that gave life a rigid structure and neighbourhoods bustled with outdoor direction. The supreme power of the chief

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emanated from a belief in his divine focus on fertility. This is very unusual in the affiliation with the supreme power of the Eastern United States where warfare is Sun God and the resulting control he generally depicted in symbolism. wielded over the food surpluses. His priestly The Cahokian’s belief in after-life advisors were an elite class that directed moved them to bury their honoured dead community leaders and heads of family with elaborate rituals and lavish trappings of clans to design and supervise agricultural the life they had led. The dramatic extent of and building projects. Commoners toiled in this came to light with the excavation of a the fields and borough pits and small obscure mound, , just 6 feet manufactured the goods needed to support high. Archeologists mapped and numbered the lifestyle of the ruling classes. Status, all the mounds. This bridge top mound was gender, age and kinship, all determined each overlooked on many early maps in the area. person’s precise role in life. As in many But later, archeologists who plotted it were cultures, men and women had distinctly intrigued by its unique diagonal axis and different roles. Men made tools, hunted and position. After years of investigation, mound fished, while women carried out all the 72 yielded tens of thousands of artifacts of domestic and child-rearing duties, cultivated the remains of 272 burials. Among the crops, and made pottery and clothing. Those burials was an early leader resting on a of higher status were probably less blanket of 20,000 shell beads. Around him burdened. The monuments and artifacts that were six attendants and nearby cashes of we see are as important as in defining the mica, rolled sheets of copper and more than culture. Are there things we cannot see? It 800 perfectly sharp projectile points. is their beliefs. The beliefs and symbols gave Most of the population of Cahokia and life meaning and purpose and explained their of other settlements were buried in grand scheme of existence. Like many cemeteries, not mounds. Like many other Indian cultures, the Mississippian recognized ancient cultures, understanding the full the natural order to the universe and extent of their beliefs, remains a mystery. attempted to live in harmony with it. Mississippians had no written language or records, and our knowledge of their beliefs Cahokia symbolism was acquired in bits and pieces. We assume Archeologists studied bones and that the Mississippians enjoyed music, songs arrowheads to reconstruct the life of this and dance and based on observation of pre-historic people but, with symbolism left historic tribes, they regularly engaged in behind, they could not get into the minds of games of chants and skills. Music was these people. According to archeologists, the created through the use of rattles, drums, Mississippian world was one of opposing and flutelike instruments or whistles. forces; light and dark, order and anarchy, Dancing was probably symbolic, like a and good and evil. At Cahokia, the upper weaving line of people mimicking a snake. classes appeared to have used symbolism to Like Native Americans of the Southeast, manipulate the activities of the lower they may have also played a stick and ball classes. One of the highly unusual aspects game, similar to Lacrosse. But the premier of the Cahokia symbolism was the extreme sports for the Mississippian was .

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In a way, it was their national pastime. Mississippians seem to have emerged into Basically, any number of players participated prominence on their own. Time and on either of the two teams, though it was elements have, for the most part, destroyed usually just one-on-one. A small stone disc all traces of clothing, baskets, animal skins was rolled down from one starting point and and other fragile items. Yet, miraculously the opposing team would throw spears to some of their extremely fine woven clothes the area at which they thought the disc have remained preserved by copper salt so would end up. Spreading to much of the charred by fire. But one tool changed their Native Americans of the Southeast, chunkey life. Large hoes made corn cultivation is believed to have played a major role in efficient and, without efficient agriculture, joining the different tribes together. Each neither Cahokia nor any of the large tribe had unique rules, but the spirit of the Mississippian cities could have developed. game was essentially the same. The sport The most abundant artifacts found are the was taken so seriously, and gambling was fragile remains of pottery, mostly made so ingrained in the culture of chunkey, that from local clays and formed through the losers would even commit suicide in some coiling process. Over the years, cases, because they have wagered all of Mississippian pottery became more refined their possessions. and artistic. They also made large thick- Apparently, tattooing and body-painting walled pans for salt production and stump- were used by both Mississippian men and ware, whose three, stump-shaped legs were women to enhance beauty and indicate probably used to support the pots over fire. social standings. For centuries, forests around Cahokia were Following established trade routes, sources for the tremendous quantities of Mississippians travelled by foot and canoed wood essential to life there. They had to vast distances in all directions, acquiring have wood every day for firewood for such things as copper from the upper Great thousands of people and for hundreds of Lakes, mica from Southern Appalachians, years. They were basically depleting the and seashells from both the Gulf of Mexico resources of forests around the area. and the Atlantic seaboards. Well-crafted Though deforestation may not have tools and food surpluses were traded for affected small Mississippian towns, it other highly prized raw materials. Copper probably was a contributing factor in from the north was shaped into implements, Cahokia’s eventual demise. The but most often hammered into sheets from Mississippians made full use of the animals which effigies and ornaments were cut. they hunted. Turtle shells became bowls and Through their extensive trade network, the combs, feathers were used in necklaces, Mississippians imported tens of thousands headdresses and capes, skins were used for of exotic marine shells used for clothing, bags and blankets. By far, the most ornamentations. Trade and ideas flowed important animal was the white tail deer. during the Mississippian zenith. But despite Besides being the major source of meat, striking similarities to cultures in Mexico and antlers and bones were used for arrow elsewhere, there is no evidence of direct points, tools, and ceremonial headdresses. contacts with any Mexican culture The The inner bark of cedar trees was made

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into fine baskets and fabrics. Weavers spun centuries in isolated villages and city states animal hair and silky fibres from animals and such as Natchez, Mississippi. plants into threads which they then finger- The world changed in 1492. wove into sashes and other fabrics. Undoubtedly, the advances of the Europeans Rawhide, incredibly strong, was used to lash would not have been nearly so rapid if the tools to handles and braded to make bow first explorer would have encountered the strings. Mississippians had managed to build powerful organized Mississippians. We now a true civilization based on corn and a simple know positively that Columbus was not the digging tool, the hoe. They embroidered first European to discover the Americas. their civilization with art and wealth of trade Five hundred years earlier, the Vikings had items. Yet, even while they continued to not only discovered America, but they had build their earth and monuments, it was the actually colonized it. Passed down for beginning of the end. In the 1200s, at the hundreds of years, the Viking’s oral history, same time the crusades were ending in the sagas, told of their sailing ventures to a Europe, the decline and eventual new unknown land. Today, their villages can abandonment of Cahokia began. To date, no be seen at lands and meadows in sign of epidemic or invasion or natural Newfoundland, Canada. That settlement was disaster has been uncovered. Why then did located on rocky, rugged shores near this people of unparalleled wealth and power streams. The sturdy reconstructed stud- move away? Strangely, Cahokia’s very homes of the north-explorers suggest that success is what probably led to its downfall. the Vikings intended to stay. It all happened This huge city over-exploited the natural around the year 1000. The Vikings also left resources around it. Because agriculture was behind buttons, broaches and many other so successful, it led to overpopulation, signs of their cultures. They brought with pollution, poor sanitation and an increase in them their newly adopted Christian religion contagious diseases. The gradually cooling but there was probably no attempt to spread climate affected food production and the gospel. We do not really know why the surpluses declined. Cahokia’s political and Vikings abandoned their settlements, but economic control waned. Disillusioned and their sagas tell of their hostile encounters dwindling masses likely rebelled but there is with the native people. It may have been the no clear evidence of warfare. This ancient first battle in the long war that would begin metropolis simply faded away as its people again with Columbus in 1492. Only in this slowly left. By the year 1400, it was all over. case the Vikings did not have the advantage What became of this people is unknown. We of guns. The odds were more even, and this can only guess who their descendants might possibly was the first fight the ancient be. The Mississippian culture survived the Americans won. 

REFERENCE A Documentary on Indians of Eastern Woodlands—ancient cities and mound builders of the east.

* An engineer by profession, in his own right, Benoy R. Samanta is also a contemplative writer who champions universal values.

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