Collegiate Sport Participation and Student-Athlete Development Through the Lens of Emotional Intelligence

Collegiate Sport Participation and Student-Athlete Development through the Lens of Emotional Intelligence

Gregory Lott1 Brian A. Turner2

1Denison University 2The Ohio State University

A continued debate persists over the place of sport within institutions of higher education. Proponents of sport champion its ability to contribute to a holistic notion of education and develop an array of competencies touted in institutional missions. There is however a dearth of empirical data examining the educational impact of athletic participation at the college level. This paper assessed the educational ability of collegiate sport participation in a unique manner, through the lens of Emotional Intelligence (EI). Student-athletes and students at five NCAA Division III institutions completed online assessments prior to and after the completion of the winter sports seasons. Evidence was produced that participation in a single season of collegiate sport does not develop interpersonal, intrapersonal, and leadership capacities significantly differently from the collegiate experience of students not participating in athletics. Institutions are advised to explore EI interventions as way to maximize the educative potential of sport.

Keywords: athletics, intrapersonal development, interpersonal development, liberal arts, division III

any individuals associated Banaji, 2004) – developing interpersonal with institutions of higher and intrapersonal competencies that Meducation claim participa- better prepare student-athletes for suc- tion in collegiate sport to be an integral cess while enrolled and as postgraduates curricular component of a holistic ed- (Vella, Crowe, & Oades, 2013). Rhetoric ucation (Aries, McCarthy, Salovey, & surrounding sport participation has often

Journal of Amateur Sport Volume Four, Issue Three Lott and Turner, 2018 1 focused on creating leaders through investigation of sport within NCAA the development of specific capacities Division III where, “claims for the edu- such as strategic and tactical thinking, cational value of athletic participation are self-awareness, and an improved under- most clearly and forcefully articulated” standing of interpersonal relationships (Emerson, Brooks, & McKenzie, 2009, p. (Brand, 2006). There exists, however, a 65). lack of empirical evidence to justify such According to the Fulks (2015), 450 proclamations (R. Feezell, 2015). institutions (roughly 40% of the total There are strong proponents of in- NCAA membership) compete in the cluding sport as an integral educational division with member enrollments rang- component of the student experience, ing from 256 students to over 23,000. yet there are also those that malign its NCAA Division III membership consists presence, claiming college sport to be in of both private and public institutions direct contrast with the purpose of high- categorized as baccalaureate colleges, er education. Scholars have addressed master’s universities, and doctoral univer- this distinct disconnect and genuine sities (Rasmussen & Rasmussen, 2003). friction between academic and athletic It therefore becomes quite apparent that units on campuses across the country (T. while Division III members might share Feezell, 2015). The focus of such discus- a similar athletic philosophy, such sub- sions has typically revolved around the stantial intragroup differences prohibit high-stakes nature of NCAA Division I a homogenous set of core beliefs and athletics (e.g., Stancill, 2014). Yet, some institutional missions. If as suggested we have argued that the strain between fac- are to assess sport participation against ulty and athletics is exacerbated within the language of institutional missions (R. the framework of NCAA Division III, Feezell, 2015), it becomes imperative to where many colleges and universities examine a subset of Division III with attempt to field a comparable menu of comparable core objectives. options as Division I institutions, but The researchers identified a partic- with proportionally fewer means (Lytle, ular subset of Division III - residential, 2003). Most attempts to quantify the liberal arts colleges and universities - impact of sport on student-athletes have because of the commonalities between examined metrics such as grade point their institutional missions. The vast average, retention rates, and the average majority of such institutions compete starting salaries of graduates (e.g., Shul- within Division III (National Liberal Arts man & Bowen, 2001). There then lacks College Rankings, 2016). Their mission assessment of whether sport develops statements often discuss communication, participant competencies in a manner ethical reasoning, and self-awareness that specifically pertains to institutional (Knapp, 2013), developing the ability to aspirations. There especially lacks such engage in dialogue with a diverse com-

Journal of Amateur Sport Volume Four, Issue Three Lott and Turner, 2018 2 munity (Lowry, 2014), or strengthening end goal of sport organizations is the the aptitude to lead in a rapidly chang- realization of mission-based objectives. ing and complex world (Durden, 2009). While optimal performance in collegiate A unifying component of institutional athletics is a worthy aspiration, a surfeit missions within the liberal arts is the focus on such serves as the primary root purposeful development of intrapersonal of the aforementioned academic-athlet- awareness and interpersonal skills. ic disconnect at so many institutions of The construct of Emotional Intelli- higher education. gence (EI) encompasses such competen- This research endeavor assessed a cies - touted in the rhetoric surrounding newly conceptualized version of what sport participation, and characterized R. Feezell (2015) termed “the Education as central to the educational missions Argument”. Rather than focus on mor- of liberal arts institutions. Many have al education, physical development, or suggested that EI may be important to life skills, this investigation had a focus the context of sport (Meyer & Fletcher, central to the educational missions of 2007) yet research has focused almost NCAA Division III liberal arts institu- entirely on correlating EI with sport-per- tions. The purpose of this study was formance enhancement, studying the to use the construct of EI to quantify construct to ascertain if an athlete or student-athlete development that occurs coach’s abilities to effectively manage through participation in collegiate sport. both their emotions and those of team Through analyzing the patterns of a members can enhance specific outcomes student athlete’s natural EI development such as overall team wins or improved due to such participation, one can assess offensive statistics (e.g., Crombie, Lom- the validity of the rhetoric surrounding bard, & Noakes, 2009; Sough, Clements, collegiate sport participation. Studies Wallish, & Downey, 2009). showing that certain educative practic- There is evidence that student-ath- es can develop one’s EI (e.g., Boyatzis, letes have higher levels of EI than the Stubbs, & Taylor, 2002; Crombie, Lom- general population (Saur, Desmond, bard, & Noakes, 2011) are crucial to the & Heintzelman, 2013). Such evidence rationale of our exploration. Under- aligns with the supposed outcomes of standing the level of EI development sport participation. Many have argued that currently occurs from participation that all genuine learning comes from in collegiate athletics is vital to ensure experience (Beard & Wilson, 2006) and sports’ potential to be used as part of a sport provides an experience not to be curriculum to foster the holistic develop- duplicated in society (Danish, 1983). Yet ment of an institution’s student-athletes it remains to be tested if participation in and prepare them as leaders for their sport itself leads to the development of communities. An additional aim of this EI. R. Feezell (2015) articulated that the research is to provide data that can help

Journal of Amateur Sport Volume Four, Issue Three Lott and Turner, 2018 3 athletics become a collaborative unit in emotion, and regulate emotion in the self student development, rather than an au- and others” (Mayer, Salovey, & Caruso, tonomous element often in conflict with 2000, p. 396). other institutional components. Since, the term has been used to The study examined four central denote quite different conceptualizations questions: of the construct, differing in agreement (1) Is there a difference in Emotion- on key competencies and even defini- al Intelligence between student-ath- tions (Mayer et al., 2011). In fact, many letes and non student-athletes? scholars begin a review of literature on (2) Does Emotional Intelligence the topic by contrasting the seemingly develop over time throughout a col- conflicting conceptualizations of Trait lege student’s experience? EI and Ability EI (e.g. Petrides, Freder- (3) Is there a difference in the devel- ickson, & Furnham, 2004). The ability opment of Emotional Intelligence conceptualization of EI describes one’s between those that participate in col- capacity to deal with emotional infor- legiate sport and those that do not? mation (Caruso, 2004). Instruments that (4) Does the development of Emo- measure this conceptualization are meant tional Intelligence occur differently to gauge one’s actual ability rather than based on the social environment an individual perception of ability. The (leadership, norms, ethos, and con- most pragmatic critique of Ability EI is ditions) of a particular team on that simply possessing ability does little which one participates? to ensure that the ability is consistently used. Additionally, the idiosyncratic Review of Literature emotions of the test-taker cannot be Various scholars have pointed to captured by discerning correct responses Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligenc- (Van Rooy & Viswesvaran, 2007). The es, particularly his discussions on intra- Trait conceptualization is typically de- personal and interpersonal intelligences, scribed as a constellation of behavioral as truly providing the foundation for dispositions and self-perceptions con- the construct of EI (Mayer, Caruso, & cerning emotional information (Petrides Cherkasskiy, 2011; Schutte et al., 1998). et al., 2004). Critics of Trait EI profess Salovey and Mayer (1990) first coined that individual qualities encompassed in the term “emotional intelligence” as a the conceptualization are more closely way to describe one’s capability to inter- aligned with measures of personality nalize and adjust affective information (Mayer et al., 2011). Assessments of EI - defined as “the ability to perceive and that combine specific mental abilities express emotion, assimilate emotion into with personal traits or characteristics are thought, understand and reason with termed mixed models of EI.

Journal of Amateur Sport Volume Four, Issue Three Lott and Turner, 2018 4 Some scholars have recently described EI and Higher Education competing measures of EI more as Various members of a college or complementary dimensions of an overall university community have different construct (Schutte, Malouff, & Bhullar, goals and employ different definitions of 2009). Mikolajczak (2009) professed the success within their units. Yet regardless merits of multiple perspectives and advo- of the focus of an institution, certain cated for a unified model that assesses data (e.g., student retention, scholastic what one knows, what they can do, and achievement, health and wellbeing, em- what they actually do with emotional ployability, and postgraduate success) information. Schutte and Malouff (2013) is universally recorded and has been also proposed a dimensional model of deemed essential to carrying out institu- EI professing that the aforementioned tional missions. perspectives are inter-related compo- According to Lam and Kirby (2002), nents of adaptive emotional functioning. a student’s EI can uniquely explain indi- A validated comprehensive model how- vidual cognitive-based performance be- ever does not yet exist and to date, there yond the level attributed to their general is not a firmly agreed upon definition of intelligence (IQ). Others have provided EI across disciplines. evidence of EI’s discriminant validi- Yet the construct of EI has been ty in predicting academic grades over extensively researched and detailed in measures of Big Five personality, gen- meta-analyses, between EI and leader- eral intelligence, and social competence ship (Mills, 2009), occupational success (Márquez, Martín, & Brackett, 2006). (Joseph & Newman, 2010; O’Boyle, Vela (2007) found that EI scores ac- Humphrey, Polack, Hawver, & Story, counted for a higher degree of variance 2011), overall health (Schutte, Malouff, in first year college achievement than did Thorsteinsson, Bhullar, & Rooke, 2007), SAT scores. and personal relationships (Schutte et Scholarship has related EI to many al., 2001). Such research has served to criterions of student health and wellbe- combine a multitude of studies that have ing. Examining 44 effect sizes that in- examined the construct of EI from all cluded nearly 8,000 participants, Schutte competing perspectives. Regardless of et al (2007) described a positive associ- the field, scholars have generated evi- ation between EI and mental health (r dence in support of the claim that higher = .29), psychosomatic health (r = .31), levels of EI in individuals are directly and physical health (r = .27). The re- related to positive performance and searchers theorized that a person’s ability outcome measures (Schutte & Malouff, to perceive, understand, and manage 2013). emotions determined the extent that they would experience health related issues. Houghton, Wu, Godwin, Neck,

Journal of Amateur Sport Volume Four, Issue Three Lott and Turner, 2018 5 and Manz (2012) described the collegiate ious scholars would advise a concerted population as one that is particularly effort to develop EI. In short, individuals prone to high levels of stress. Individuals with high EI have been deemed to be with higher levels of EI appear better more employable (Pool & Qualter, 2013) equipped to manage such stress (Arora and more likely to flourish in the work- et al., 2011). Whitney (2010) produced place (Nelis et al., 2011). evidence that High EI students have a stronger support network of “safe EI and Sport adults” to assist with coping and tran- Numerous theories have been pre- sition issues. Song et al. (2010) directly sented and tested related to how athletes related EI to the quality of social interac- deal with emotions and arousal (e.g., tion with peers in a university setting. A Hanin, 2000). It generally follows that negative correlation between EI and vari- emotions play a crucial role in sport per- ous types of maladaptive functioning and formance. The exact nature of emotions deviant behavior (e.g., binge drinking and in sport performance and why individual alcohol dependence) has also been recog- athletes seem to be uniquely impacted nized (Schutte, Malouff, & Hine, 2011). remain less clear (Sough et al., 2009). Overall, substantial evidence indicates Despite the sincere interest in emotions that EI helps with holistic student-adjust- and sport performance, the construct of ment to higher education. EI has only been studied in the context Studies (e.g., Qualter, Whiteley, Mor- of sport on a few occasions (Stough, ley, & Dudiak, 2009; Schutte & Malouff, Saklofske, & Parker, 2009). Theoretically 2002) have utilized an intervention em- advocating for the inclusion of studying bedded into a transition course to im- EI in sport psychology, Perlini and Halv- prove student EI. Schutte and Malouff erson (2006) stated, “[elite sport] requires implemented specific curriculum for the effective management of stress, toler- incoming freshman in a semester-long ance of frustration, regulation of mood, course. Qualter et al. applied a short- and exercise of emotional restraint, er-term transition course (one week in within public purview and scrutiny” (p. duration) in the summer prior to the 3). However, like many other scholar- start of the academic year. In both cas- ly disciplines, researchers in sport have es, development of EI occurred in the lacked a standardized approach to inquiry experimental groups and retention of the with inconsistent conceptualizations of students partaking in the EI curriculum EI and different assessment procedures was significantly higher than a control (Meyer & Fletcher, 2007). Without sub- group. stantial expertise in EI, researchers in If a student was concerned about sport performance and psychology have obtaining employment and having strong likely been stymied in their exploration earning potential after graduation, var- of EI’s utility.

Journal of Amateur Sport Volume Four, Issue Three Lott and Turner, 2018 6 Crombie et al. (2009) fist examined their students - which includes educating the relationship between EI and winning students outside of the classroom - de- in a team environment. They assessed termining if sport is currently educating the EI of individuals on six cricket teams student-athletes in such a manner is par- competing in the South African national ticularly important at such institutions. cricket competition over two consecu- The sample consisted of all winter tive seasons establishing Team EI to be sport athletes (i.e., Men’s and Women’s a significant predictor of sports perfor- Basketball, Men’s and Women’s Swim- mance. Due to the demonstrated positive ming & Diving, and Men’s and Wom- relationship, Crombie et al. (2011) im- en’s Indoor Track and Field) from five parted an intervention designed to devel- liberal arts institutions that participate op EI among elite Cricketers. Similarly, in a like-minded athletic conference of Ajayi & Fatokun (2008) employed an EI academically selective liberal arts colleges intervention to amateur athletes in vari- and universities. Member institutions ous Nigerian national programs. Results share a similar mission, strong academic of both interventions indicated that EI focus, and similar institutional character- training has potential to be effective in istics. The 5 institutions comprising the a population of elite athletes. To date, study sample represented half of the 10 there have not been any studies that have institutions with conference membership. examined whether or not EI is developed Each institution within the study sample through participation in sport. fit into the definition of a liberal arts college (Blaich, Bost, Chan, & Lynch, 2006; METHOD National Liberal Arts College Rankings, Sampling Method and Subject 2016). Description In order to secure support from sam- The population of interest to the ple institutions, the researchers contacted researchers were selective, residential, all Athletic Directors within the confer- liberal arts institutions that participate in ence to discuss the study proposal and NCAA Division III. The outcomes from gauge interest. Five Athletic Directors participation in sport in this environment expressed interest in participation. After affect a sizable portion of the student electronic correspondence and phone population. Emerson et al. (2009) ex- conversations, the researchers completed plained that with an average enrollment site visits at the five interested institu- of 2,250, as much as a third or more of tions. In each case, Athletic Directors the students at liberal arts colleges are pledged support as far as informing and listed on a varsity roster. Because liber- encouraging coaching staffs under their al arts institutions claim distinction in direction to promote participation among holistically developing competencies of student-athletes. Athletic Directors were continuously informed with the study

Journal of Amateur Sport Volume Four, Issue Three Lott and Turner, 2018 7 progress so that reminders to coaches voluntary or captain- led workouts, and and student athletes could be generated participate in team activities (e.g., bonding internally as well as coming directly from activities and community service). Such the researchers. important aspects of sport participation In total, the student enrollment at could potentially develop EI. Since non the 5 participating institutions was 9,409. winter-sport athletes would be receiving Based on team rosters available on insti- aspects of the natural intervention during tutional websites, approximately 3,000 the timeframe of the research, their expe- students were classified as varsity athletes, rience would not fit into either the control 750 having participated in winter sports group (non-athletes) or the experimental the previous year (experimental group). group (in-season athletes). There were 776 individuals that completed the initial instrument, representing Instrument all five institutions, the aforementioned This research utilized a pre-estab- winter sports, and all four class years. (See lished instrument – the Assessing Emo- Table 1 and Table 2). The posttest was tions Scale (AES). Schutte’s AES has completed by 336 individuals. Participa- been referred to in literature by addition- tion in the competitive season served as al names: The Emotional Intelligence the natural intervention for this research. Scale (EIS), The Self-Report Emotion- It was therefore determined that non-win- al Intelligence Test (SREIT), and the ter sport athletes should be excluded from Schutte Emotional Intelligence Scale the analysis. These athletes, while not (SEIS). Unlike many instruments of EI, technically “in-season”, would still have the AES is not property of a consulting contact with their coaches and teammates, group and is considered public domain complete pre-season and post-season for scholarly purposes with permission

Table 1

Pretest Responses by Institution Institution Emails Sent Responses Response Rate Percent of Sample 1 577 129 22.4% 16.6% 2 843 29 3.4% 3.7% 3 964 175 18.2% 22.6% 4 863 114 13.2% 14.7% 5 1722 329 19.1% 42.4% Total 4969 776 15.6% 100%

Journal of Amateur Sport Volume Four, Issue Three Lott and Turner, 2018 8 Table 2

Pretest Responses by Sport Athletic Team N Percent of Sample M Basketball 40 5.1% W Basketball 20 2.6% M Swim/Dive 24 3.1% W Swim/Dive 35 4.5% M Track 33 4.3% W Track 36 4.6% Other (Non-Winter Sports) 204 26.3% No Varsity Sport (Control) 383 49.4% Total 776 100% from the author. The AES is one of the loading on the first factor at 0.40 or most commonly used measures of EI in above. The 33 items that loaded on factor scientific literature (Schutte et al., 2009) one represented all portions of the con- and was employed in some of the very ceptual model utilized in the instrument few studies that have measured emotion- creation (Schutte et al.). Because of the al intelligence in the context of sport strength of factor one and the adherence (Lane, Thelwell, Lowther, & Devonport of the 33 items to the components of 2009; Thelwell, Lane, Weston, & Green- the conceptual model, the researchers lees, 2008; Zizzi, Deaner, & Hirschhorn elected to use the 33 items for the final 2006). With the scale so frequently used, version of the scale (Schutte et al). While substantial psychometric information is others have suggested the scale contains available. Additionally, multiple studies multiple factors of EI (Lane et al., 2009; have demonstrated that EI, established Petrides & Furnham, 2000), the instru- through the AES, can be developed over ment authors contended that based on a time and through interventions (Qualter, factor analysis, the AES measures a single et al., 2009; Schutte & Malouff, 2002). general EI factor (Schutte, et al., 2011). Schutte et al. (1998) initially generated Shutte’s 33-item self-report scale is a pool of 62 test items based on Salov- unique in that it that does not present ey and Mayer’s (1990) theoretical model ability and trait conceptualizations of of EI. They then completed a princi- EI as mutually exclusive alternatives, but pal-components, orthogonal-rotation, rather complimentary dimensions of the factor analysis of participant responses. construct (Schutte et al., 2009). Schutte The study authors reported a first-factor (2014) detailed her conceptualization eigenvalue of 10.79 with 33 scale items of EI of consisting of four branches:

Journal of Amateur Sport Volume Four, Issue Three Lott and Turner, 2018 9 (1) perceiving emotions - recognizing composite score, Cronbach’s Alpha was emotional cues in the self and others; (2) tested on all scale items of the AES in understanding emotions - the knowledge both the pretest and the posttest data. of the causes and complexities of emo- A commonly cited recommendation of tional experience in the self and others; “good internal consistency” is a Cron- (3) managing emotions - being able to bach’s Alpha score of at least .80 (Hen- effectively regulate emotions in the self son, 2001). Such a score presents strong and others; and (4) harnessing emotions evidence that it is justifiable to interpret - drawing on emotion to achieve goals, scores that have been aggregated togeth- such as solving problems. er (i.e., The Total AES Score). Cronbach’s The AES asks participants to judge Alpha on the 33-item AES for the pretest themselves on a five-point Likert scale. data (N = 776) was .83. Posttest data For example, “I know when to speak to revealed a Cronbach’s Alpha of .85 on another person about my problems”, rat- the sample size (N = 335). Similar with ed from 1 (never) to 5 (consistently). The the pretest data, the inter-item correlation total EI score is derived from summing matrix provided evidence that all scale up item responses. According to Schutte items should be included. et al. (2009), respondents require an average of five minutes to complete the Data Collection scale with scores ranging from 33 to 165. The research was approved by In- Higher scores indicate a more developed stitutional Review Board (IRB) at the level of EI. researchers’ host university, as well as the The present study included additional IRBs of each research site. Due to addi- questions designed to capture demo- tional ongoing research at Institution #1, graphic information such as a partici- the Director of Institutional Research pant’s institution and sport participation. decided that only a random sample of Those that reported playing a winter students would be solicited for the con- sport were placed in the experimental trol group (500 students). Similarly, Insti- group, while those that did not were tution #3 allowed for a randomly generat- placed in the control group. Fall and ed pool of approximately 900 students to spring-sport athletes were not included in serve as a control. In each case, an email either the experimental or control group. distribution of the random sample was provided to the researchers for solicita- Instrument Reliability tion. At Institution #2, Institution #4, The composite AES score, a mea- and Institution #5, the Director of Insti- sure of uni-dimensional EI, is derived tutional Research provided the research- from 33 scale items. In order to test the ers with an email distribution list of the internal consistency associated with the entire student body.

Journal of Amateur Sport Volume Four, Issue Three Lott and Turner, 2018 10 An initial contact email was generat- two non-repeated factors (institution and ed to all students that were to partake in sport + control). To address Research the research at each sample institution, Question #2, it was necessary to look at informing students about the nature of all student-athletes that participated in the the research and the amount of time experimental group as a single group com- needed to complete both the pretest and pared to the control group (non-student posttest. A follow-up email was transmit- athletes). Data was therefore recoded for a ted to the distribution list five days later Two-factor Split-plot Repeated Measures officially inviting students to participate ANOVA. in the research. The email contained a Results link to the AES loaded on Qualtrics. Pretest Data Students were ensured confidentiality but Descriptive data was taken on each were made aware that an identifier would subject to differentiate their institution be needed to be able to compare pretest and their athletic affiliation. The numbers posttest scores. Two reminder emails of students contacted, response rates, were sent to prospective participants in and the percentages of the total sample one-week intervals with a final reminder associated with the categorical variable sent 24 hours before the closing of the Institution are represented in Table 1. study survey. The survey was closed at Table 2 displays frequencies for the cat- each institution prior to the official start egorical variable Sport. All descriptive of the competitive winter sport seasons. data discussed and represented in forth- All participants that completed the coming tables was already cleaned; miss- pretest were then contacted after the ing data had been imputed and univariate winter sports seasons with a link to the outliers had been removed. The total rate posttest. Identical follow-up email pro- of response for this study was 15.6%. cedures were followed for the posttest. The sample distribution was relative- The timing of the pretest and posttest ly evenly split between athletes (50.6%) allowed for a five-month natural inter- and non-athletes (49.4%). Roughly half vention of sport participation to occur. of the varsity athletes that responded to the survey (24.3% of total respondents) Data Analysis could be placed in the experimental Two separate forms of data anal- group based on their affiliation with ysis were conducted, both categorized Men’s and Women’s Basketball, Men’s as Repeated-Measures ANOVA. The and Women’s Indoor Track, and Men’s model used for Research Questions #1 and Women’s Swimming and Diving. The and #3 was a Three-factor Split-Plot remainder of the responding varsity ath- Repeated-Measures ANOVA, which letes (26.3%) identified with a non-winter included one repeated factor (time) and sport. Only athletes participating in one

Journal of Amateur Sport Volume Four, Issue Three Lott and Turner, 2018 11 of the aforementioned winter sports duct a one-sample t-test. Student-athletes were placed in the experimental group. had a mean AES Total Score of 128.06 Initial Differences. The researchers (SD = 12.53), while non-athletes had a were interested in whether there were mean score of 125.65 (SD = 15.47). The initial differences in population means. one-sample t-test was statistically signif- The researchers conducted a two-factor icant (t = 2.38, df = 737.34, p = .017). ANOVA to determine if there was a This provided evidence to suggest that mean difference in the Total AES Scores the mean AES score of student-athletes between students at the five institutions was significantly higher than that of and between the sports in which they non-athletes on the pretest. While the participated. Descriptive statistics of the effect size was considered small (.20), a dependent variable can be seen in Table post hoc power analysis was 1.00. 3. There was no main effect for either

independent variable (FInstitution = .495, Posttest Data df = 4,743, p = .739; FSport = 1.376, df = Participants that completed the pre- 7,43, p = .212). Nor was there an inter- test instrument were invited to retake the

action effect (FInstitution*Sport = 1.439, df instrument approximately five months = 20,743, p = .096). For example, male later, after winter sport athletes had com- basketball players did not have a signifi- pleted their competitive season. Identical cantly different mean AES Total Score procedures were followed in the collec- than female swimmers, non-athletes, etc., tion of the posttest data. Approximately nor was there a significant difference 43% of pretest respondents completed in mean AES Total Score between any the posttest as well (N = 336). The ex- institutions. Finally, there lacked a joint perimental group of winter sport athletes effect of both factors on the dependent had a posttest completion rate of 45.8% variable. Without a statistically significant (n = 86), while the control group of omnibus ANOVA F test, a post hoc anal- non-student athletes had a 47.3% com- ysis was not necessary. pletion rate (n = 181). According to Saur et al. (2013), there Posttest data was scanned for uni- is evidence that subpopulations of stu- variate outliers. Z scores were generated dents (i.e., student-athletes and students and examined in accordance with the involved in Greek Life) have higher levels three-sigma rule (Tabachnick & Fidell, of EI compared to the general popula- 2013). No univariate outliers for the tion of students. Because the researchers variable Total AES Score were present in were foremost concerned with whether the posttest data. Survey data of varsity or not sport can develop EI, there was athletes of non-winter sports (n = 68) interest in examining such claims. Data was removed leaving a final sample for was recoded to combine all student-ath- analysis was 267. Descriptive data is rep- letes into one group (N = 392) to con-

Journal of Amateur Sport Volume Four, Issue Three Lott and Turner, 2018 12 Table 3

Descriptive Statistics of the DV: Total AES Score (Pretest) Current Team Institution Mean SD N M Basketball 1 132.50 10.247 4 2 126.27 17.182 11 3 95.00 - 1 4 131.06 9.833 17 5 122.43 11.928 7 Total 127.48 13.621 40 W Basketball 1 130.14 15.356 7 3 125.75 13.401 4 5 130.22 10.918 9 Total 129.30 12.503 20 M Swim/Dive 1 128.18 11.902 17 3 125.00 13.077 3 4 128.00 - 1 5 131.33 5.132 3 Total 128.17 10.877 24 W Swim/Dive 1 122.08 12.638 12 3 128.75 20.457 8 5 127.93 11.75 15 Total 126.11 14.266 35 M Track 1 121.43 7.323 7 3 140.20 10.378 5 4 122.86 14.491 14 5 130.00 9.238 7 Total 126.7 12.97 33 W Track 1 131.19 13.561 16 3 128.50 11.085 14 5 121.00 11.454 6 Total 128.44 12.496 36 Other 1 133.29 8.915 17 2 135.67 18.009 3 3 128.52 12.139 65 4 124.54 14.043 26 5 128.55 11.941 93 Total 128.53 12.227 204

Journal of Amateur Sport Volume Four, Issue Three Lott and Turner, 2018 13 Table 3 Continued Current Team Institution Mean SD N No Varsity Sport 1 126.04 15.793 49 2 120.27 14.733 15 3 122.85 15.458 75 4 126.66 14.836 56 5 127.10 15.217 188 Total 125.80 15.313 383 Total 1 127.72 13.616 129 2 124.14 16.162 29 3 126.12 14.429 175 4 126.38 13.939 114 5 127.52 13.781 328 Total 126.94 14.009 775 resented in Tables 4 and 5. Sample sizes, effect, or practical significance. Research means, and standard deviations of Total Question #3 was principally concerned AES Score by Institution and Current with differences in EI development be- Team are represented in Table 6. tween specific athletic teams. ANOVA Results of the Three-factor Split-plot results demonstrated the following: (1) Repeated Measures ANOVA indicated A lack of interaction effect between a significant main effect for the within Time and Team (F = .873, df = 6,246, subjects, or repeated factor of time (F p = .516); and (2) A lack of interaction = 6.503, df = 1,246, p = .011). Pertain- effect between Time, Team, and Current ing to Research Question #2 - whether Institution (F = .420, df = 10,246, p = students develop EI throughout their .936). Each interaction, however, lacked college experience - the significant main sufficient power (Time*Current Team = effect for time suggests that there is a .343 and Time*Institution*Current Team mean difference in Total AES Score = .217). The lack of power indicates a between the pretest and posttest. Suffi- possibility of a larger sample producing cient power (.719) was observed (Lomax a significant interaction effect (Lomax & & Hahs-Vaughn, 2012). The effect size Hahs-Vaughn). Testing for contrasts of was however small (Partial η2 = .026). the within subject factor through Multi- Cohen (1988) explained that a small ple Comparison Procedures (MCPs) was effect size (Partial η2 <.06 when using not necessary because there were only ANOVA) demonstrates a minimal overall two levels of the factor. The significant

Journal of Amateur Sport Volume Four, Issue Three Lott and Turner, 2018 14 Table 4

Total Responses by Institution Posttes Percent of Institution Pretest N Final N Response Rate Sample 1 129 72 55.8% 27.0% 2 29 11 37.9% 4.1% 3 175 62 35.4% 23.2% 4 114 38 33.3% 14.2% 5 329 84 25.5% 31.5% Total 776 267 34.4% 100.0%

Table 5

Total Responses by Team Posttest Percent of Current Team Pretest N Final N Response Rate Sample M Basketball 40 9 22.5% 3.4% W Basketball 20 12 60.0% 4.5% M Swim/Dive 24 8 33.3% 3.0% W Swim/Dive 35 18 51.4% 6.7% M Track 33 15 45.5% 5.6% W Track 36 24 66.7% 9.0% Control 383 181 47.3% 67.8% Total 571 267 46.8% 100.0% Note: Pretest N in this chart is smaller because non-winter sport athletes were removed from the total pretest sample of 776.

F statistic could therefore only indicate was no interaction effect between Insti- a difference between Time 1 and Time 2 tution and Current Team (F = .502, df (the pretest and posttest). = 10,246, p = .888). By examining the The results from tests of be- pairwise contrasts of independent vari- tween-subject effects (non-repeated ables, substantial overlap can be observed factors) showed the main effect of Cur- within their 95% Confidence Intervals. rent Team was non-significant (F = .904, Similar to results of the within-subjects df = 6,246, p = .492). Additionally, there test, power was not sufficient (Current

Journal of Amateur Sport Volume Four, Issue Three Lott and Turner, 2018 15 Table 6

Descriptive Statistics Institution Current Team Mean SD N Pretest 1 W Basketball 125.60 15.566 5 M Swim/Dive 129.29 14.986 7 W Swim/Dive 120.83 10.167 6 M Track 121.83 7.935 6 W Track 132.77 12.584 13 Control 123.97 13.906 35 Total 125.75 13.374 72 2 M Basketball 120.00 21.783 5 Control 125.50 12.161 6 Total 123.00 16.492 11 3 W Basketball 122.67 14.572 3 M Swim/Dive 140.00 - 1 W Swim/Dive 126.00 21.954 6 M Track 120.50 10.607 2 W Track 129.90 11.14 10 Control 119.58 16.232 40 Total 122.37 16.000 62 4 M Basketball 129.00 7.071 4 M Track 119.14 18.28 7 Control 127.07 14.09 27 Total 125.82 14.437 38 5 W Basketball 126.5 9.983 4 W Swim/Dive 131.83 14.261 6 W Track 127.00 - 1 Control 124.41 15.568 73 Total 125.07 15.163 84 Total M Basketball 124.00 16.688 9 W Basketball 125.17 12.503 12 M Swim/Dive 130.63 14.382 8 W Swim/Dive 126.22 15.917 18 M Track 120.40 13.244 15 W Track 131.33 11.578 24 Control 123.69 15.138 181 Total 124.65 14.809 267

Journal of Amateur Sport Volume Four, Issue Three Lott and Turner, 2018 16 Table 6 Continued

Institution Current Team Mean SD N Posttest 1 W Basketball 130.20 11.278 5 M Swim/Dive 130.71 14.009 7 W Swim/Dive 124.50 11.131 6 M Track 126.33 6.439 6 W Track 136.62 16.566 13 Control 126.17 13.644 35 Total 128.65 13.714 72 2 M Basketball 123.60 15.726 5 Control 128.50 12.470 6 Total 126.27 13.536 11 3 W Basketball 125.33 5.033 3 M Swim/Dive 154.00 - 1 W Swim/Dive 125.67 16.367 6 M Track 123.50 9.192 2 W Track 128.50 9.312 10 Control 120.20 16.929 40 Total 122.97 15.717 62 4 M Basketball 129.75 18.679 4 M Track 126.00 11.776 7 Control 129.78 12.945 27 Total 129.08 13.066 38 5 W Basketball 136.25 12.659 4 W Swim/Dive 130.67 18.151 6 W Track 125.00 - 1 Control 124.03 15.712 73 Total 125.10 15.781 84 Total M Basketball 126.33 16.279 9 W Basketball 131.00 10.660 12 M Swim/Dive 133.63 15.362 8 W Swim/Dive 126.94 14.822 18 M Track 125.80 9.010 15 W Track 132.75 14.001 24 Control 124.60 15.296 181 Total 126.18 14.860 267 Note. Only those that completed both the pretest and posttest are included in the table.

Journal of Amateur Sport Volume Four, Issue Three Lott and Turner, 2018 17 Team = .356, and Interaction = .259). 2.047, df = 1,265 p = .154). Low power All pairwise comparisons as calculated was observed (observed power = .297). through Tukey Honestly Significant Dif- ference (HSD) were also non-significant. Discussion In order to address Research Ques- The foremost aim of our research tion #3 - whether or not there is a sig- was to gain insight on whether participa- nificant difference in the development tion in collegiate athletics - in the context of EI between athletes and non-athletes of the selective, residential, liberal arts - data was recoded with all student-ath- - is serving to fulfill institutional mis- letes from the experimental group placed sions, missions that are distinct within into a single group. The final sample higher education (Seifert et al., 2008). consisted of 86 winter sport athletes The interdisciplinary nature and focus and a control group of 181 (students on holistic student development at these that do not participate in varsity sport). institutions necessitates an educational A Two-factor Split-plot Repeated Mea- contribution from athletic participation. sures ANOVA was executed. Descriptive If student-athletes are not enhancing statistics are displayed in Table 7. The their emotional and social competencies, ANOVA provided evidence of a signif- a primary reason for sport’s presence is icant main effect of sport participation not supported. regarding Total AES Scores (F = 4.707, Bouchet and Hutchinson (2011) ex- df = 1,265, p = .031), with medium pow- plained that financial resources are lim- er (observed power = .580) and small ited; a comprehensive athletics program effect size (Partial η2 = .017). However, requires a substantial commitment from results indicated the interaction effect the institution, and the operating costs of between time and the whether or not doing so are continuously rising. Between one was a student-athlete (experimental 2004 and 2014, Division III institutions versus control) was non-significant F( = added an average of between 53 and

Table 7

Descriptive Statistics -Student-Athletes Versus Non-Athletes Mean SD N Pretest Athlete 126.66 13.963 86 Non-Athlete 123.69 15.138 181 Total 124.65 14.809 267 Posttest Athlete 129.49 13.386 86 Non-Athlete 124.60 15.296 181 Total 126.18 14.860 267

Journal of Amateur Sport Volume Four, Issue Three Lott and Turner, 2018 18 90 new student-athletes (depending on ing the development of EI within institu- the presence of a football program) and tions of higher education have employed increased the average cost per athlete by very brief EI interventions, thus not roughly $6,000 (Fulks, 2015). Significant assessing a control group for an extended program expenditures from colleges and duration (e.g., Qualter et al., 2009). Three universities become more difficult to jus- studies in the field have however assessed tify when accounts of positive benefits to the development of EI through an inter- the educational mission and development vention over a duration comparable to of students are strictly anecdotal and the present research (Clark, Callister, & unsupported with empirical evidence. A Wallace, 2003; Nelis et al., 2011; Schutte rift between academic and athletic units & Malouff, 2002). In each case, only the throughout higher education, especially experimental groups demonstrated a sig- at academically rigorous institutions, has nificant improvement in EI; each control been noted (Aries et al., 2004; T. Feezell, group’s EI remained static. 2015; Lytle, 2003). Not coincidentally, Students in the present study popu- there has lacked assessment of whether lation as a whole increased their level of sport develops participants in a manner EI over a five-month time-period. Such that specifically pertains to institutional findings appear to be the first to provide missions. evidence that a student might develop In order to address the challenge, the EI through their educational experience, researchers employed the construct of even over the course of a single semes- EI; competencies that are encompassed ter. It is important to note that the study in the construct are central to the educa- population consisted of a group of rel- tional missions of such institutions. Pre- atively comparable, selective, residential, vious scholarship had yet to explore the liberal arts institutions. The context of theoretical linkages between the rhetoric inquiry therefore becomes quite import- of student development through athlet- ant in the explanation of the unique re- ic participation, EI, and the educational sults. Scholarship has demonstrated that missions of the selective, residential, social environments can affect the devel- liberal arts. This investigation has there- opment of EI (Schutte, 2014). Both the fore examined the educational impact of mission and the environment at selective, participation in collegiate athletics in a residential, liberal arts institutions has unique manner. been shown to be quite different from The ability to develop EI through that of most institutions of higher edu- unique curriculums and pedagogies (e.g., cation, producing distinctive outcomes Boyatzis et al., 2002) and specific inter- (Seifert et al., 2008). The present study ventions (e.g., Crombie et al., 2011) is provided empirical evidence pertaining well-documented. Yet most forms of to the efficacy of the liberal arts - that systematic experimental research examin- such institutions are in fact fulfilling their

Journal of Amateur Sport Volume Four, Issue Three Lott and Turner, 2018 19 academic missions through the facilita- experiential learning must be purposeful. tion of intrapersonal and interpersonal Due to various internal or external barri- development. ers, not all experiences lead to new in- Results also indicated that EI develop- sights or new learning (Beard & Wilson). ment occurs in a similar manner between Jarvis (1987) even included non-learning both student-athletes and non-athletes. pathways in his model of experiential There was no indication of an additive learning. While participation in collegiate effect of sport participation. Blaich et al., athletics might provide a powerful and (2006) explained that one of the ten- emotional experience (Botterill & Brown, ants of the liberal arts experience is high 2002), it is quite feasible that student-ath- participation in extracurricular activities. letes are not transforming their experi- Brand (2006) equated the educational ences in a way to generate the develop- experience of collegiate athletics with ment of EI on a consistent basis. that of the performing and studio arts While sport’s capacity to facilitate the (i.e., music, theatre, and dance). Based on development of EI among its partici- the study environment, it is reasonable to pants has not previously been studied, assume that participants were afforded many have attempted to discern the re- a plethora of opportunities to engage in lationship between athletic participation activities with the potential to facilitate and other forms of development (e.g., EI development. One could then claim life skills, competencies, and positive that the experience of participation in character). In short, literature has indi- collegiate athletics might not uniquely cated that other types of development develop students compared with oth- are not “caught” through participation in er experiences available in this context. athletics but must be “taught” (Danish, However, according to Danish (1983), Petitpas, & Hale, 2007). Similar to schol- “Sport provides an environment which ars of experiential learning, researchers is more personal, concrete, time-limited, that have examined various forms of and intense than the rest of society” (p. personal development through sport par- 238). If the experience of sport is truly ticipation (Gould & Carson, 2008) have unique, another explanation could involve served to elucidate our findings. Without how student-athletes are engaging in the someone (e.g., an administrator, a coach, experience of sport participation. or leadership team) in place capable of One has to be predisposed to, or be- facilitating the transformation of emo- come open to, truly learning from their tionally related experiences achieved experiences (Beard & Wilson, 2006). through sport participation, consistent Kolb (1984) defined learning as a pro- EI development within student-athletes cess of knowledge acquisition generated is not likely to occur. through the transformation of the experi- According to Gilbert and Trudel ence (emphasis added). The process of (2001), coaching knowledge and tech-

Journal of Amateur Sport Volume Four, Issue Three Lott and Turner, 2018 20 niques are predominately developed types of institutions throughout higher through the observation of other coach- education. es. It is therefore quite likely that a high The timeframe in which the study was degree of variance in pedagogy will be conducted limited the scope of the proj- found among coaches based on their ect. Ideally, pretest data collection would influences and exposures. The individual have occurred as the academic year EI of a particular coach might also mat- commenced in the fall. Obtaining a base- ter. Lillis (2012) provided evidence that line at this juncture would have allowed the EI levels of persons in the role of an the posttest assessment to include EI advisor influences behaviors of students. development that could have occurred Regardless of the sport, student-athletes through team interactions outside of the are heavily engaged in both mentoring competitive season such as community and being mentored by coaches and service projects and other team social teammates (Sauer et al., 2013). Schutte activities. The timeframe also precluded (2014) determined that the composite EI the inclusion of fall and spring sports. level of peer groups and learning-com- Generating data on additional groups of munities influence student EI develop- athletes would have added to the under- ment. standing of what was transpiring. Regardless of the potential differenc- The non-significant finding pertaining es in both the environment of a partic- to the EI development of student-ath- ular team and various teaching pedago- letes on a particular team was adversely gies of which a student-athlete could be impacted by the response rate of the exposed, current study findings did not posttest. Because some teams were rep- indicate that participation on a particu- resented by small n’s, less than adequate lar team influenced the development of power was realized. There was therefore participant EI. However, the response a low probability of finding a significant rate of particular teams within the study result even if one was present. Study affected the analysis of this relationship results lacked the ability to clearly deter- (see study limitations below). mine if a particular team was facilitating the development of EI more effectively Study Limitations than any other one. Many instruments to measure EI are available. Using alternate instruments Principal Implication and could therefore influence results. The Future Directions present study was conducted in the rath- Empirical data generated from the er unique environment of the selective, present study has indicated that the residential, liberal arts. It is unlikely that experience of participating in collegiate the result pertaining to the development athletics is not consistently and unique- of EI over time is generalizable to other ly facilitating the institutional mission

Journal of Amateur Sport Volume Four, Issue Three Lott and Turner, 2018 21 of the selective, residential, liberal arts. interventions that substantially differed Sport participation does not appear to be in program duration. Commonalities of enhancing the emotional and social com- interventions need to be explored so that petencies of student athletes more so it can be determined what pedagogies than their collegiate experience at large. can consistently enhance EI. Researchers Some have argued that coaching effec- can advance our understanding of the tiveness must be centered on maximizing process by inserting EI interventions into an athlete’s learning outcomes (Côté & collegiate athletics settings and measuring Gilbert, 2009). Collegiate sport must be short-term and longitudinal changes in operationalized in a manner that reflects EI against a control group. The utility of institutional missions (R. Feezell, 2015). such work could provide suggestions and In the environment of the selective, resi- procedures for collegiate athletic depart- dential, liberal arts, institutional missions ments. If institutions can demonstrate and the associated student athlete learn- the development of intrapersonal, inter- ing outcomes are clear. These colleges personal capacities of student athletes and universities must therefore make on a consistent basis, they will be able to concerted efforts to help student athletes both better justify current expenditures more fully utilize the potentially pow- on athletics as well as work to lessen the erful experience of sport participation aforementioned academic/athletic rift to enhance their EI and the associated present on many campuses. The liberal capacity to lead in a dynamic and rapidly arts will be best served if all institutional changing world. components are working in concert to Much work remains to be done to maximize student development in line ascertain how best to use sport participa- with stated missions. tion to develop participant EI. There is a stated need for more systematic empiri- References cal research examining the development Ajayi, M. & Fatokun A. L. (2008). Ef- of EI through interventions in general fect of a six-week emotional intel- (Schutte & Malouff, 2013). While two ligence programme on the sports projects have engaged in such research performance of amateur athletes within sport populations (Ajayi & Fa- in oyo state of nigeria. Retrieved tokun, 2008; Crombie et al., 2011), no from http://sircretriever.ca/africare- one has attempted to introduce an EI in- searchaward/documents/Effectof- tervention into a college sport program. Six-WeekEmotional.pdf EI interventions in other contexts - as Aries, E., McCarthy, D., Salovey, P., & well as pedagogies that have been shown Banaji, M. R. (2004). A comparison to develop EI - provide a starting point. of athletes and non-athletes at highly These experiments have utilized differ- selective colleges: Academic perfor- ent approaches to training and employed mance and personal development.

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Journal of Amateur Sport Volume Four, Issue Three Lott and Turner, 2018 27 & Parker, J. (Eds.) Assessing emotional National Forum of Applied Educational intelligence, (pp. 119-135). New York, Research Journal, 20(1), 80-94. NY: Springer Publishing. Vella, S. A., Crowe, T. P., & Oades, L. G. Tabachnick, B.G. & Fidell, C.S. (2013). (2013). Increasing the effectiveness of Using multivariate statists (6th ed.). Pear- formal coach education: Evidence of son. a parallel process. International Journal Thelwell, R. C., Lane, A. M., Weston, N. of Sports Science and Coaching, 8(2), 417- J., & Greenlees, I. A. (2008). Examin- 430. doi: 10.1007/s11136-015-1214-1 ing relationships between emotional Whitney, C. (2010). Social Supports intelligence and coaching efficacy. among college students and mea- International Journal of Sport and Ex- sures of alcohol use, perceived stress, ercise Psychology, 6(2), 224-235. doi: satisfaction with life, emotional intel- 10.1080/1612197X.2008.9671863 ligence and coping. Journal of Student Van Rooy, D.L. & Viswesvaran, C. Wellbeing, 4(1), 49-67. doi: 10.21913/ (2007): Assessing emotional intelli- JSW.v4i1.588 gence in adults: A review of the most Zizzi, S., Deaner, H., & Hirschhorn, popular measures. In Bar-On, R., Ma- D. (2003). The relationship be- ree, J.G., & Elias, M.J., Educating People tween emotional intelligence and to be emotionally intelligent, (pp. 259-272). performance among college bas- Westport, CT: Praeger Publishers. ketball players. Journal of Applied Vela, R. H. (2007). Emotional intelli- Sport Psychology, 15(3), 262-269. doi: gence: An education-based approach 10.1080/10413200305390 to improve student achievement.

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