Social Science Asia, Volume 6 Number 1, p: 55-63

THE STUDIES OF SOUTHEAST ASIAN WOMEN IN HISTORICAL CONTEXT

Pakdeekul Ratana 1

Abstract

The studies of Southeast Asian women in historical context provides important data for the analysis of how Lan Na and Lan Sang women exploited their privileged positions in accordance with the prevalent social contexts and attitudes of the time. And it helps us to understand the social restrictions that Northern Thai and Lao women experience today as a result of global changes. Women are losing their unique identity. This study aims to show these aspects of women from another angle by investigating women in an earlier period and comparing them to those of today. This should hopefully be beneficial to further studies of women’s issues in the context of gender and multiculturalism.

Keywords: women studies, gender, Lan Na, Lan Sang

1. INTRODUCTION

This study will take a historical necessities. From weaving, to placing view of the special functions of the beaten shallots under pillows to relieve women in these past societies and colds, to working in the fields, the investigate how they were able to adopt woman is responsible for all the family’s and perform these functions with so little needs. Furthermore, she acts as the disharmony. manager of the family, being in charge of The hypothesis of this study is the financial affairs and household that the relationship between women and regulations. the four fundamental elements of shelter, clothing, food, and medicine gives women significant control over a society Historical background of Lan Na and which expects them, in the role of the Lan Sang Kingdoms mother, to provide these elements. This responsibility cannot be denied, but must According to historical and be accepted by the society. The woman archaeological evidences from the is the foundation of the household, thirteenth century to the nineteenth intellectually as well as materially. century, this study examines the Intellectually, because she is responsible significant aspects of Lan Na and Lan for instructing her offspring (and thereby Sang in four important periods: is the source of the gender separation as 1.1 The Period of Independence a matter of custom). Materially, because (1296-1558). During this period Lan Na she provides food and all the household was governed by the Dynasty

1 Pakdeekul Ratana is currently working as a lecturer in the Department of Educational Foundations and Development at Chiangmai University, . Her main interests include historical and philosophical foundations of education and gender studies, E-mail: [email protected] Received: July 1, 2019; Revised: July 20, 2019 Accepted: August 2, 2019

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(1296-1551), while Lan Sang was under maintained contact with each other. This the reign of King Fa Ngum up to the was demonstrated, for example, when reign of Phra Sumangalabodhisatta Burma invaded Lan Na in 1595 and the (1354-1575). Both Lan Na and Lan Sang King of Lan Sang provided an armed were independent but they had diverse force to Phraya Nan to repel the Burmese political and commercial ties through forces. Unfortunately, Phraya Nan was intermarriage, military campaigns, trade defeated and subsequently escaped to by land and a river mail system. In Lan Sang (Souneth, 2001: 6). addition, there was a social relationship, 1.3 The Period of Siamese created by the exchange and Overlordship (1778-1893). Two of Lan intermingling of the arts and of Buddhist Na‟s local leaders, Phraya Ca Ban (Bun and shamanist practices, and the two Ma) and Cao , made a request to kingdoms have shared these cultural the King of Thonburi () to be similarities up to the present day. incorporated into Siam, with the aim of Nevertheless, this dissertation securing an armed force to expel the will centre particularly on the Burmese from Lan Na. In 1775 they comparative study of Lan Na and Lan succeeded. Phraya Ca Ban was Sang in order to understand the social appointed by King Taksin as Phraya strategies employed in creating the social Luangwatchiraprakan Kamphaengphet, roles that interest us. We find that women ruler of Chiang Mai, while Cao Kawila in the upper classes played a significant was consecrated as King Kawila, ruler of role in the government of those (Sarassawadee, 2005: 225). kingdoms: women such as Queen When Siam had a change of rule from the Cirapraphathewi (1545-1546) (Wyatt Thonburi Dynasty to the Chakri and Aroonrut, 1998: 114), the Queen of Dynasty, during the reign of King Rama Lan Na, and Mahathewi (1428-1449), I (King Phraphutthayòtfaculalok), King who was an influential figure behind the Kawila took over the leadership of throne of Lan Sang (Maha Sila, 1997: 65- Chiang Mai from Phraya Ca Ban (1782). 67). This marked the beginning of Lan Na’s 1.2 The Period of Burmese Cao Cet Ton Dynasty. Since then, Lan Domination (1558-1775). Lan Na, with Na has been a part of Siam. Chiang Mai as its capital, was Subsequently, the kingdom of overthrown and ruled over by Burma Lan Sang was divided into the three from 1558 to 1774. Under Burmese rule independent states of Lan Sang Luang the status of semi-autonomous Prabang, Lan Sang Vientiane and Lan (mandala) state was done away with and Sang Champasak. But King Taksin was Lan Na became an integral part of able to prevail over Burma and sent an Burma. It had a female governor, Queen army to conquer and burn Vientiane in Wisutthathewi (1564-1578) (Wyatt and 1778 (the “first victory”). He took the Aroonrut, 1998: 127), who was based in Image of the from the capital Chiang Mai and whose main Vientiane to Thonburi. At the same time, duties and functions were carried out he brought a lot of Lao captives into there. Meanwhile, Lan Sang, after Siam. This led the kings of the three moving its capital from Chiang Thòng states of Lan Sang to accept the status of (Luang Phrabang) to Vientiane during “vassal states” of Siam. Up until the the reign of King Setthathirat, was also reign of King , King Taksin dominated by Burma between 1574 and continued to demand an annual tribute to 1588 (Thòngsüp, 1985: 118). But despite Siam from these vassal states, in being each separately ruled over by accordance with Siamese tradition. Burma, Lan Na and Lan Sang 56

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Lan Na’s and Lan Sang’s relationships to Siam as vassal states were maintained on a social and Lan Na and Lan Sang women in a economic basis. One interesting aspect historical context of this is how both communities used their women to develop these Historically, Lan Na had long been relationships. They established on intimate terms with Lan Sang on affiliations by offering their princesses political, economic and social levels. as consorts to the kings of Siam, as was Since the main aim of this study is to expected from tributary states. The Lan understand the roles played and the status Na princess Cao Si Anocha enjoyed by women regarding both the (Sirirotcana), for example, a sister of similarities and the differences between King Kawila of Chiang Mai, was given communities, Lan Na and Lan Sang to Krom Phrarachawang provide excellent models for Bòwònsathanmongkhon, who was comparison. Historical evidence such as granted the title of Front Palace in 1781 chronicles and annals, including (Damrong Rachanuphap, 1983: 710). specifically those of Lan Na and Lan Similarly, Phra Ratchaya Cao Sang, give us a picture of the Dararatsami, a daughter of King relationships between those two Intharawitchayanon, the seventh ruler of kingdoms. For example, the Chiang Mai, was offered to King Rama tamnan1sources, such as Tamnan V (King Phra Culacòmklaocaoyuhua), Ratchawongpakòn, Tamnan phün müang while the King of Sisattanakhanahut chiang mai (the Chiang Mai Chronicle), (Lan Sang) offered to King Rama I one Tamnan phün müang nan (the Nan of his princesses: she became his Chronicle), and others, tell of the concubine and gave birth to Cao Fa building of the cities and the roles the Kunthon Thiphayawadi rulers played in this, and highlight the (Thipakòrawong, 1988: 104). ancestral relationships of Khun Cüang, 1.4 The period of Western or Phraya Cüang Dhammikarāja whom colonization (1893-1953). When people of Lan Na and Lan Sang and tribal was colonized by France in 1899, the people along the Mekong River regarded relationship between Lan Na and Laos as a cultural hero.2 They also explain the cooled. This was partly due to the fact ethnic and cultural unity of the two that Lan Na was incorporated into the kingdoms. Politically and economically, kingdom of Thailand and the Lan Na and Lan Sang shared bonds communities were forced apart, because through marriage, immigration, Laos had to contact Lan Na through commerce and even the deportation of France while Lan Na had to contact Laos people as captives from wars. They also through Siam. enjoyed religious and cultural

Chiang Mai are given the name Tamnan 1 The term tamnan (ต านาน) and its counterpart’s Ratchawongpakòn. phün (พ้ืน) and ratchawongpakòn (ราชวงศ์ปกรณ์ or 2 dynastic history) mean “history”, the Lan Na See studies of the concept of culture heroes like language calls them “chronicles”. Grabowsky Khun Cüang in the academic research papers of (2008) states that tamnan in a narrower sense are Prakhòng Nimmanheminda (1987), An Analysis also known by the genuinely Northern Thai term of the Thao Bacüang Epic, and Doungdeuane phün. Sarassawadee (2005) notes that phün and Boonyavong and Othòng Khaminchu (1991) in tamnan are often used interchangeably and are Hit (ฮีต) and Khòng (คอง): Tradition in the Thao sometimes even combined, as in Tamnan Phün Hung Thao Cüang Epic. Müang Chiang Mai and Tamnan Phün Müang Nan; and some versions of Tamnan Phün Müang 57

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similarities. Theravāda was more, though the majority of their work the major religion, and a belief in spirits still deals with the period after was widespread, so they had many colonization rather than before it. customs and rituals in common. Despite their increasing popularity, the Documents concerning are Lan Na studies of women from Lan Na and and Lan Sang women fairly scattered. are as yet not They have not been systematically filed numerous enough for further study to and archived or promoted. Nor is there give an adequate comprehension of any clear analytical study of the origin women’s conditions. It is therefore and development of their particular crucial that we research the history of social roles, and none that sufficiently women and other relevant aspects of Lan explains them by considering the Na and Lan Sang for an insight into the historical conditions in the various social contextual relationship of those women contexts. The present study attempts to and their societies. re-evaluate and portray the privileged When historians research into Lan roles of Lan Na and Lan Sang women Na women they frequently centre on the and to aid in the understanding of how women from Chiang Mai because that the social roles of Northern Thai and Lao was the capital of the Lan Na kingdom. women changed in relation to the social Consequently, we have great quantities context. of documents and data about this city. Studies of Lan Na and Lan Sang On the other hand, other important cities women have enjoyed a different such as Lampang, Nan, Phayao and popularity from each other and appear in Phrae have left fewer archives and varying quantities. Those from women’s resources, and most of those were academic circles in Laos are, however, transliterated. Because most of those on an elementary level. Studies of Lao documents were initiated by the women from the past are rare because so Government, the side of women that we many historical documents were lost or see is usually that of the upper class. An damaged following the periods of example is to be found in Khattiyani Si colonization in the nineteenth century Lan Na (Lan Na royal women) (2004), and the national revolution in 1975. The edited by Wongsak Na Chiang Mai, study of women’s issues is further which deals with upper-class women inhibited by the education provided by from Chiang Mai in the Mangrai the government, which generally Dynasty. Queen Cirapraphathewi and promotes only those aspects of women Queen Wisuthithewi exercised political that are associated with the revolution of influence in their positions as sovereigns 1975, such as the foundation of the Laos of Chiang Mai. Similarly, the marriage Women’s Union and the empowerment of Princess Yòt Kham Thip of Chiang of women in the social and political Mai to King Phothisarat of Lan Sang development of Laos. Private built up a stable relationship between the organizations and academics have tended two kingdoms. This is seen explicitly in to produce fewer studies on women than the example of their son, Prince Upayao, on other issues such as political history, who later became King Setthathirat and economics, social change, etc. governed both kingdoms.3 Nevertheless, Lao academics are Moreover, several upper-class awakening to this subject more and women in the Cao Cet Ton Dynasty,

3 King Setthathirat was King of Lan Na from 1546 to 1547 and King of Lan Sang from 1548 to 1571, after the death of his father. 58

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such as Cao Si Anocha and Cao who worked for a lord. Two parts to the Thipkesòn, played significant roles one who was a trader. Five parts to the behind the throne from the beginning of one who entered a monastery. Six parts the dynasty. Cao Ubonwanna had an to the daughter who ministered to her important part to play in commerce and parents.” foreign affairs at that time. Also, Cao Alternatively, according to the Dararatsami, the royal consort of King laws of the division of property, Rama V, developed the relationship properties other than those obtained after between Lan Na and Siam during his a couple’s marriage would be divided reign. The most significant aspects that into three parts, two for the wife and one these studies present to us are of upper for the husband, if the wife was caring class Chiang Mai women who had close for any offspring. However, if the ties with politics. Because of this husband misbehaved, abused his wife, or emphasis on the upper classes, studies of showed a lack of respect for his wife’s ordinary women tend to be mingled with parents, he would be expelled from the records from folklore, such as courtship house and all his property would be songs, nursery rhymes, and folktales.4 expropriated, even that obtained after the A further role that women from marriage (Lamun, 1993). Northern Thailand filled came from a The above examples show that, local belief in the “ancestral spirits”5 even in this male-dominated society, Lan which required that women should Na women enjoyed a high degree of become mediums in offering tribute to protection from the law. In A Study of the spirits and performing the necessary Women's Status in Ancient Lan Na Law rituals in the family. When the medium (Atcharaporn, 2005). Atcharaporn died, the next female in line, preferably Cansawang points out that the status of the eldest daughter, would take over. Lan Na women in the law of that time This spiritual role is a good example of was very high compared with women in the significance of women’s influence at neighbouring kingdoms such as the level of the family, (Adisorn, 1996: Ayutthaya. Studies of this subject among 44) and is evidence of a further facet of Lao academics are unfortunately not the power that they held. systematic, and a program of promotion For an analytical study of Lan Na and support to encourage further studies women’s status we can also consider would be desirable. This would also aid early laws, such as in the Mangraisat, in the fostering of women’s rights. which provided considerable protection Present day studies of Lan Sang to women, especially those who cared and Lao women are rare, and do not for their parents, and ensured that they distinguish between ordinary women would profit in their inheritance more and the upper class, but rather treat the than other offspring. To illustrate, where subject holistically. The seminal study a deceased person left three sons and a Lao Women: Yesterday and Today by daughter the endowments would be Mayoury Ngaosyvathn (Mayoury, 1993: divided as follows: “Two parts to the one 120) looks at the inequalities of women

4 Of interest here are The archives of Lan Na 5 For further information on how Lan Na local tales (1984); A Comparative Study of shamanism influenced northern Thai women’s “Kham u bao u sao Lan Na” and “Phaya kiao roles and status, see Chalatchai Ramitanon isarn” (Songsak 1989); Simplicity Teaches the (2002) and Spirit Cults and the Position of World: an Analysis of Lan Na Didactic Women in Northern Thailand (1984). Literature (Prakhòng 1991); Lan Na Folktales (Thitinatda and Warapha 2004); etc. 59

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and men from a political, economic, area of career advancement. In her study social and cultural point of view: men are the writer offers ideas as to how national given rights and opportunities and policy could help in Lao women’s social unqualified power, while women have development, in the expansion of become “the second sex”, treated as a educational opportunities to women in product to be used for reproduction. An rural areas, and in the support of studies interesting aspect of this work is which might enhance our understanding expressed in the idea that the of the women of Laos. establishment of Buddhism in the Lan A wider review of the sources Sang polity resulted in the role of women dealing with the women of Lan Na and being reduced from their previous Lan Sang brings some very interesting powerful position to that of a social features to light. Many tend to consist of mainstay.6 portrayals of women through female Especially now, in these times of characters in literature and are chiefly change around the globe, this has led Lao concerned with feminine beauty and women to adhere strictly to new women’s place in the social order. A expectations from a government policy remarkable feature of this literature is which has been endorsing women’s that most of it is derived from stories of social development since 1975. The the earlier incarnations of Buddha in the Laos Women’s Union was founded to Non-Canonical Jātaka and treats similar encourage its members to participate in themes to those in, for example, the the country’s development, in stories of Sang Sin Sai 7, Cao suwat 8, observation of the new policy. However, Campa si ton 9, Canthakha 10 and Hong women were still expected, because of hin 11. social norms, to uphold conventional Female characters in these kinds of customs as mothers and wives whose work fall into two groups. The first duty it was to look after their families. comprises those who are virtuous: they Practically, women have always been tend to suffer at the beginning but disadvantaged in relation to men in the overcome their suffering through

8 6 Lao academic, Dr. Mayoury Ngaosyvathn This is also an oral traditional folktale whose expressed her opinions on Buddhism and main plot is the story of Buddha. The character here women: Buddhism treats women as inferior to who becomes the Buddha is Cao Suwat. He falls in men in that women are forbidden entry to love with Nang Buakham and their story is like a monasteries for a Buddhist education; in a game of hide and seek, as they become separated

Buddhist temple it is obligatory for women to from each other and are later reunited. stay behind the boundary markers of an ubosot 9 Campa si ton is an early literary work found in (ordination hall) where monks perform religious various versions both in Lan Na and in Lan Sang. rituals; and women are not permitted to The story, by an anonymous author, is based on that participate in religious activities to the same of the Buddha in the Jātāka. Four princes, who are extent as men. Consequently, women act merely persecuted by their step-mother, try to avenge as contributors in giving offerings or services to themselves. monks. 10 Canthakhat chadok is an early work based on the 7 This is an oral traditional folktale which relates to Buddhist Jātāka. It is a didactic tale popular in Lan the story of Buddha. It is the story of Sang Sin Xai, Na. People employ it as an instructional guide for who becomes the Buddha. It centres on good and their offspring on morals and gratitude. bad behaviour in the main characters and the impact of their actions. 11 The story of Hong hin is influenced by the Buddhist Jātāka. The main plot concerns a prince

who is persecuted by his father’s second wife and her sons. In the end, he defeats them and replaces his father as King.

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tolerance and honesty, and eventually Women’s Union, which has since attain happiness and prosperity. The become part of the political system. others are those who are wicked: they An article on Lao women in tend to be jealous and malicious, and are literature “A Study of Lao Women’s defeated in the end. These concepts Status in Early Lao Society through reflect society’s ideological expectations Literature” by Douangdeuane of women to be rational rather than Boonyavong (2004: 349-371) analyzes emotional, exercise wisdom and the roles of Lao female characters in courtesy, exhibit beauty of body and three stories: The Epic of Thao Hung, or mind, preserve their virginity and remain Thao Cüang, The Story of Wetsandòn (a faithful to their husbands and care for previous incarnation of the Buddha) and them, just as the literary heroines do. The Story of Sang Sin Xai. The article These heroines provide the role model of argues that, when comparing the social the upright woman, and offer a contrast positions and freedoms of Lao women in to the depraved woman, who is vengeful, literature with those in reality from the envious, idle and promiscuous and past to the present, one finds that women wholly unsuitable for marriage. are actually well placed socially. They In Valuable Images of Female also form part of the cultural dynamic, as Characters in Lan Sang Literature evidenced, for example, in the freedom (Amphònlak, 1998). Amphornlak Lao women enjoy in marriage (witness Inthawong describes three characteristics the long khuang (ลงขว่ ง) courtship of the Lao female character. The first is a tradition) or in the collecting of forest national characteristic: women exhibit flowers to decorate temples in the Thai beauty and preserve customs and New Year Festival (songkran). The traditions. The second is a universal situation changed when Hinduism and characteristic: women display courage, Buddhism became more influential in generosity and honesty. Finally, in a the lifestyles of . That historical characteristic, women are resulted in the decline of women’s roles benevolent, tolerant and courteous as and their decision-making within well as being the upholders of the marriage, as well as their political customs and traditions of respectability. significance, as we see in the character of Lao women in the feudal society before Nang Ngòm Muan in the Epic of Thao the national revolution nevertheless had Hung, or Thao Cüang. This work was to tolerate an inferior status to men. presumably written during the fourteenth Women were the weak sex; they were and fifteenth centuries, before Hinduism basically servants and lacked any liberty and Buddhism were fully introduced into within the family. They were even Lao society (Doungdeuane, 2004: 252). treated as a gift or a tribute, “an In it, Nang Ngòm is able, on the one extraordinary present for a lord”, as hand, to openly make contact with and exemplified in the case of Phraya Müang display her relationship to Thao Cüang, Kasi, the father of Nang Butsadi. He and, on the other, to send an armed force gave his daughter to Thao Suriyakhat for to assist him in battle. successfully treating her for a poisonous Nang Matsi, however, in The Story snakebite. Since the revolution, women of Wetsandòn, a Lan Sang poetic work have had equal or superior roles and written in 1504 in the reign of King status to men in every aspect including Visun (when Buddhism was on the rise marriage. Additionally, the Government and exerting considerable influence on was made acutely aware of women’s the lives of Lao people), was not in a issues by the foundation of the Laos position to make decisions in important matters. Her role was restricted to that of 61

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the faithful and desirable wife and and without disrupting the holistic mother providing for her family for societies they belonged to. The cultures seven months in the woods. of Lan Na and Lan Sang were very Nevertheless, although Lao and similar, and their comparison in terms of Southeast Asian women’s status is lower the economy, society and politics should now than it was in the past, it is still throw light on the social processes that considerably higher than that of Indian enabled the coexistence of, and the women (Hall, 1968: 35). development of equal power structures between the sexes. 2. CONCLUSION It should also aid in promoting women’s self-esteem as well as their The premise of this study is that general social development, since a women in thirteenth to nineteenth common appreciation of women’s century Lan Na and Lan Sang enjoyed a values and natural rights and the role higher status and played a more they have to play will further the prominent role in the economy and cultivation of women’s policies in all politics of their society than they do cultures. Further to this, it should today. This was the result of a social reinforce those strategies employed in process that allowed women in Lan Na the past, and necessary now and in the and Lan Sang to adopt appropriate future for attaining those goals functions and to participate with the men in the society in a harmonious way. The REFERENCES privileges that Lan Na and Lan Sang women enjoyed were an indication of Adisòn Saksung. 1996. Women in the their position of authority. They were Chiang Mai society in the period of able to work in many areas: for example, the Chüa Cao Cet Ton Dynasty. in politics they might rise to the throne M.A. thesis, : and govern states or regions; in the area Sinlapakorn University. of jurisprudence they might become Amphònlak Inthavong. Images of judges; in medicine they might work as women characters in Lan Sang midwives. In addition, they were granted literature. B.A. thesis, Vientiane: benefits in the form of property and land National University of Laos. following divorce. Interestingly, the methods women adopted to create these Atcharaporn Cansawang. 2005. A Study privileged roles for themselves had some of Women's Status in Ancient Lan form of social paradigm behind them, Na Law. M.A. thesis, Chiang Mai: that is, they had a vision of what they Chiang Mai University. desired and made a conscious effort to Damrong Rachanuphap. Prince. 1983. achieve it. The Royal Chronicles of As a consequence of Rattanakosin: King Rama II. investigating the women’ roles of these past communities used to enhance their Douangdeuane Boonyavong. 2004. The social status, this study should be of identity of Lao women in benefit to any studies concerning women literature. Chiang Mai: Woman’s today and help create policies for studies, Chiang Mai University. women’s development in the future. I Hall, D.G.E. 1968. A History of South expect this study to enhance the East Asia. London: Macmillan. knowledge and understanding of the background to those women’s efforts, Lamun Canhòm.1993. Lan Na Women who created their roles spontaneously in the ancient time: a study from 62

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law. Chiang Mai: Rajabhat Institute. Maha Sila Viravong. 1996. [. Bangkok: Matichon. Mayoury and Pheuiphanh Ngosyvathn.1988. Cao Anu: an old story but a new problem. In Sinlapa-watthanatham [Art and Culture], Vol. 9, No. 11, (September), pp. 3-4. Sarassawadee Ongsakul. 2005. History of Lan Na. Chiang Mai: Silkworm Books. Souneth Phothisane. 2001. “The relations between Lan Na and Lan Sang: from a historical perspective”. In The relations between Lan Na- Lan Sang: a case study of the art work in Chiang Mai and . Cirasak Wongdetya (editor). Chiang Mai: Social Research Institute, Chiang Mai University. Thipakòrawong, Cao Phraya. 1988. The Royal Chronicles of Rattanakosin: King Rama I. Thòngsüp Suphamak. 1985. The Chronicle of Laos. Bangkok: Khurusapha. Wyatt, David K. and Aroonrut Wichienkeeo. 1998. The Chiang Mai Chronicle, Second edition. Chiang Mai: Silkworm Books.

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