Addis Ababa University

College of Education and Behavioral Studies

School of Psychology

Social Skills and Psychological Wellbeing of Adolescents in Monogamous and Polygamous Marriage Structures: The Case of Sidama Community

By

Muse Yonoka

August, 2014

Addis Ababa

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Addis Ababa University

College of Education and Behavioral Studies

School of Psychology

Social Skills and Psychological Wellbeing of Adolescents in Monogamous and Polygamous Marriage Structures: The Case of Sidama Community

By:

Muse Yonoka

A Thesis Submitted to the School of Psychology in the Partial Fulfillment of the Requirement for the Master of Arts Degree in Social Psychology

August, 2014

Addis Ababa

2

Addis Ababa University

College of Education and Behavioral Studies

School of Psychology

Social Skills and Psychological Wellbeing of Adolescents in Monogamous and Polygamous Marriage Structures: The Case of Sidama Community

By: Muse Yonoka

Approval of Board of Examiners

Name Sign. Date

Dr. Moges Ayele ______

Chair, School of Psychology

Ato Daniel Tefera ______

Advisor

Prof. Habtamu W. ______

Internal Examiner

Dr. Meseret A. ______

External Examiner

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Acknowledgements

I would like to thank my advisor, Ato Daniel Tefera, for his devotion of time in giving constructive advice and corrections.

My thanks also go to Ato Solomon Siyoum, the school director of Arbegona, Ato Tariku Baraso, the Vice principal, Bensa-Daye school, Ato Belachew Debesa, the school director of Leku and Ato Gezahegn, the school counselor of Yirgalem Comprhensive School for their genuine cooperation, and my participants for their willingness to participate in the study.

I would like also to thank instructor Samuel Belayneh, Sidama Language instructor at Hawassa Teachers Training College, for his devotion of time and effort in translation process.

Ato Getachew Shanana was also contributed a lot until the end of the study and I am extremely grateful to him for his emotional as well as financial support.

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Abstract

The aim of this study was to examine the difference in social skills and psychological wellbeing of adolescents in monogamous and polygamous families. A total of 160 high school students in Sidama community whose age ranges between 14 and 22 years from both monogamous and polygamous families (80 from each family structure) were included in the study. The data were collected using in-depth interview and questionnaire. The results report that adolescents in monogamous families scored more on both social skills and psychological wellbeing. Monogamous parents are more responsive and caring than that of polygamous parents. Adolescents in monogamous families reflected a feeling of happiness, capable in managing their daily activities, sense of confidence in voicing their opinions, positive self-concept and success in their social relationships. Adolescents in polygamous families, in contrast, were found to receive limited interaction and support from their parents; they developed feeling of unhappiness about their families, and lacked trustful and strong relation with their families and others. The study also revealed that adolescents from these families were found to have lower levels of social skills and diminished quality of psychological adjustment. The findings, therefore, suggest that family marriage structure has relation with adolescents’ social development as well as psychological adjustment.

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Table of Contents Contents Page Acknowledgements………………………..……….………….……………….. i Abstract……………………………………..……..………………………...... ii Table of Contents……...……….…………..……..….………………………… iii Acronyms……………………….…………..……..….………………………… v List of Tables……………………………………………………………………….…… vi Chapter One: Introduction

1.1 Background………………………...……………………..…………. 1 1.2 Problem Statement……………………………………..……………. 6 1.3 Objective of the study……………………………………………….. 7 1.4 Scope of the study…………………………………………………… 8 1.5 Limitation of the study………………………………………………. 8 1.6 Operational definitions………………………………………………. 8

Chapter Two: Review of Related Literature

2.1 Adolescence and related issues ………..……..……….…………….. 10 2.1.1 Adolescence…………………….…………...………………. 10 2.1.2 Adolescent in the family………….…………………………. 11 2.1.3 Adolescent-peer relations……………….………….…….….. 11 2.1.4 Adolescent realized values……………….…………….……. 12 2.1.5 Adolescent-parent connectedness………….….………..…… 12 2.2 Social skills and psychological wellbeing…………….…....…..…… 13 2.2.1 Social Skills…………………………………...…....……….. 13 2.2.2 Psychological wellbeing……..…………………..….……….. 15 2.3 Marriage structure: Monogamy VS Polygamy……….….……...…… 17 2.3.1 Monogamous marriage………….……………..….…...... ….. 17 2.3.2 Polygamous marriage……………………….…….….……… 18 2.4 Family and the wellbeing of adolescents…………….………………. 19 2.4.1 The parent-child attachment………….…….………….…..… 19 2.4.2 Parenting practice……………………….….………………… 21 2.4.3 Parental psychological state…………….….……………..…. 23

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2.4.4 Parental education…………………………………..……….. 24 2.5 Summary……………………………………………….…..………... 24

Chapter Three: Methods

3.1 Design………………………………………………...………………. 27 3.2 Study area……………………………………….…………..……...… 27 3.3 Sample and sampling technique…………………….………...……… 28 3.4 Instruments……………………………………………..………..…… 29 3.5 Procedure………………………………...………..………………….. 29 3.6 Data analysis……………………………………………..………….… 31 3.7 Ethical consideration…………………………………………….…… 32

Chapter Four: The Results and Discussion

4.1 Results of the Study……….……………………………..…………... 33 4.1.1 Socio-Demographic characteristics of respondents and their parents …………………………….…..……....…... 33 4.1.2 Psychological wellbeing results……………..….……...…..… 37 4.1.3 Results of Social skills ……………………….……..….….… 39 4.2 Discussion………………………………………………….…....…… 40 4.3 Summary of the results………………………………………..…...… 44

Chapter Five: Conclusion and Recommendations

5.1 Conclusion…………………………………………….……...... 46 5.2 Recommendation………………………..…………..…………… 47 References…………………………………………….……………….…..… 49 Appendices English Version Sidamic Version

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List of Tables

Table Page

Table 1. The distribution of Participants by School and Grade Level………..……… 28

Table 2. The distribution of respondents by their age and grade...……………… 33

Table 3.The distribution of parents by educational level…………….………….. 34

Table 4.The distribution of parents by occupation………………..…….……….. 34

Table 5.The distribution of parents by parenting style…………….……….……. 35

Table 6.The distribution of respondents by religious affiliation………………… 36

Table 7.The distribution of parents by income……………………….…….…..... 36

Table 8. Psychological Wellbeing Results………………………...... 37

Table 9. Social Skills Results…………………………………………………..……… 39

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Acronyms

CAMHS Child and Adolescent Mental Health Services

DHS Demographic and Health Survey

PWB Psychological Wellbeing

SNNPR Southern Nations, Nationalities and Peoples Region

SD Standard Deviation

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Chapter One Introduction 1.1 Background of the Problem

Adolescence is one of the developmental periods of human life. Though, different scholars view this developmental period differently, one of the most common definitions of adolescence is the definition by Sprinthall and Collins (1988); they defined adolescence as a distinct period of adjustment or a journey to adulthood where teenager has to face rapid physical, cognitive and social changes. Early adolescence includes most of the major physical changes of adolescent, such as changes in appearance, and accompanying changes in relationship with parents and peers. As an adolescent grows older, his/her psychological as well as social maturity will increase.

According to Nurmi (1997), the sources of developmental tasks in adolescent are physical maturation, socio-cultural pressure and personality. These developmental tasks comprise (1) “achieving new and more mature relations with age mates of both sexes, (2) achieving a masculine or feminine social role, (3) achieving emotional independence from parents, (4) preparing for marriage and family life, (5) desiring and achieving socially responsible behavior and so on” (Nurmi,1997, p. 215).

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Bengston and Allen (1993) identified developmental tasks of life based on Piagetian principles including social contexts of school and family. They defined developmental task as “a task which arises at a certain period in life on an individual, successful achievement of which leads to his/her happiness and to success with later tasks, while failure leads to unhappiness in the individual, disapproval in the society and difficulty with later tasks” (p. 263).

The influence of social environments, such as family, peers and school on an adolescents’ development has been investigated by several studies. Bronfenbrenner (1986), for example, pointed out that adolescent’s psychological development needs both cognitive stimulating interaction and emotional support from parents.

Several theorists (Havighurst, 1972; Hinley 1983; Nurmi, 1997) have agreed that the course of adolescent development also depends on biological, socio- cultural and psychological factors. Social skills, as noted by MacDonald (1975) are the interpersonal behaviors that contribute to the effectiveness of the individual as a part of a large group of individuals. In other words, social skill is the ability to interact with others in given social context in specific ways that are socially acceptable or valued and at the same time personally beneficial, mutually beneficial or beneficial primarily to others.

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Psychological wellbeing, on the other hand, according to Flouri & Buchanan (2003, p. 399) refers to “individuals’ ability to fulfill certain aspects of their lives, such as relationships, support, and work.” As summarized by Huppert (2009), psychological well-being is about lives going well; it is the combination of feeling good and functioning effectively. By definition therefore, people with high psychological wellbeing feel happy, capable, well supported and satisfied with life. Young adults with low psychological wellbeing, according to Amato (1994) may encounter lower levels of happiness, satisfaction and self-esteem.

Rosenberg (1979) pointed out that children’s psychological well-being is most likely developed through interaction with their parents. Interaction in general and role-playing in particular are the basis of the development of an individual’s psychological well-being. Rosenberg (1979, pp. 289) added that adolescents begin building their own self-concept through observing the reactions directed toward them by vital individuals in their lives. These young people desire support and structure from their parents, though they project an indifferent demeanor and challenge the supportive measures of their parents. Gecas (1971) and Wilkinson (2004) also noted that personal experiences that evolve from the parent-adolescent relationship are the initial source of how adolescents will self- evaluate and interact with others. In other words, the type of relationship they experience with their parents is thought to foreshadow their attitudes toward themselves and the quality of relationships they will have with their peers.

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Parental involvement and support of their adolescents’ life as indicated in Goodall (2008) and Jeynes (2007) can directly affect their psychological and social development. Wilkinson (2004, p. 479) posited that young people develop self-esteem and sense of wellbeing when they are raised in a loving environment; if abandoned by either parent, they may feel unwanted or unloved. When attention and praise is withdrawn, young people often respond by becoming anxious or depressed. Monogamous parents, according to Henrich et al. (2002, p. 233), are considered as more responsive and close to their children. Normative monogamy provides dramatic and essential benefits for adults, children and society. They also explained that “monogamous marriage reduces family violence, tends to increase relational quality, increases paternal investment and significantly improves child well-being outcomes.

As noted by Gibson and Jefferson (2006), self-esteem was found to have positive correlation with adolescents talking with their fathers, perceiving their fathers to be interested in their lives, and frequency of family activities, which is absent in most polygamous marriage. Furthermore, Alexandre & Michel (2007) explained that children in polygamous family get less attention and handle life from their parents in the sense that they have no place and attention as appropriate as other children whose parents are always compact.

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The finding by Slicker et al. (2005) suggests that a positive life skill in older adolescents is related to having been reared by parents who are highly responsive. In contrast, adolescents from less responsive parents experience psychological distress and possess many negative personal thoughts or emotions. Similarly, Flouri and Buchnan (2003) stated that adolescents who possess psychological distress may also exhibit characteristics of low levels of happiness and self-efficacy along with high levels of depression.

Moody (2011) explained that children from polygamous homes experience significantly greater amounts of conflict between their parents, violence and family instability than children being raised by monogamous parents. Polygamous marriage is highly practiced in developing countries including African countries. O’Donovan (1995) clearly stated that Africa seems today the continent where the practice is most common. One of the reasons may be that in many traditional African societies, having several wives has been a symbol of power, wealth, and influence for many centuries or having many wives ensures having a large family, which is seen as the way to increase happiness, meaning to life and feelings of security. It is also important for a man in traditional society of Africa, as indicated in Kuper and Adam (1985), to continue his family name into future generations; having several wives usually ensures that he will have many male children to continue his name. Lucia (2000) in her study on African polygamists explained that polygamy may appear to be attractive, especially for those who not only complain sexual dissatisfaction within their own marriage, but also underneath the veil of sex comes many other responsibilities as well.

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Even if the practice is not as common as monogamous marriage, polygamous marriage is practiced in most traditional societies of Ethiopia. African Rights Monitor (2011) reported that the prevalence of polygamy in Ethiopia ranges from 3% (Amhara and Addis Ababa) to 27% in Gambella. DHS data of Ethiopia, as indicated in the same source, shows that the national average of the country was 14% in 2000 and now a day, it has declined to 12%.

Polygamy is one type of marriage in traditional society of Sidama. Though, its decreasing prevalence due to HIV/AIDS and economic reasons, it is now in practice in the society. Polygamous marriage may take place in the community due to various reasons. One of the reasons is complaint in sexual dissatisfaction (it could be due to illness or age gap). Infertility of the first wife may lead a man to marry another fertile woman. Wealth also has positive relation with polygamy in the community; a wealthy man can marry as many women as he can support: he continues marrying beautiful women, even very younger ladies, until his death. In other case, if the first wife successively bears only female children, a man can marry another fertile woman searching for male child.

1.2 Problem Statement

Literatures around the world suggested that family marriage structure impacts the overall development of children and the wellbeing they will have in their later years of adolescence. The type and relationship adolescents experience with their parents, as noted by Wilkinson (2006), for example, is determined by parental marriage structure.

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Polygamous marriage affects the family processes (parent-child relationship, the quality of relationship between parents, increased family conflicts etc.) and this in turn, can indirectly affects the wellbeing of adolescents in these families. With the due consideration of the negative impact of plural marriage on the wellbeing of adolescents, current study aimed at exploring whether parental marriage structure influences the social skills and psychological wellbeing of adolescents or not and tries to answer such general research questions as how family structure affects the social skills and psychological wellbeing of adolescents? And, how are social skills and psychological wellbeing of adolescents in both monogamous and polygamous families described?

1.3 Objectives of the Study

The objectives of the study are: 1) to examine adolescent-parent interactions in both monogamous and polygamous marriage structures. 2) to find out whether family marriage structure affects both social skills and psychological wellbeing of adolescents. 3) to compare and describe the social skills and psychological wellbeing of adolescents in both family structures.

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1.4 Scope of the Study

Even though, adolescents in the community are found at any other settings, the study focused only on adolescent students who were enrolled in four secondary schools in Sidama (Arbegona, Bensa, Yirgalem and Shebedino high schools).

1.5 Limitation of the Study The researcher faced different challenges during the study. Among the challenges, shortage of local reading materials in the area was major problem. Limited time to get participants due to their preparation for national exam was another challenge the researcher faced during the study.

1.6 Operational Definitions

Adolescence is the stage of human development which lies between childhood and adulthood, and a teenager whose age ranges between 12 and 22 years is considered as an adolescent.

Monogamy is the type of marriage among a man and a woman or it is a practice of being married to only one person at a time. Polygamy is the type of marriage which is characterized by having marriage relationship with more than one spouse at a time or commonly recognized as plural marriage.

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Psychological wellbeing refers to the adolescents’ mental adjustment which is a combination of feeling good, capable, purposeful and functioning effectively.

Social skills- refers to the adolescents’ ability to interact with others in a given social context in specific ways that are socially acceptable or valued, and at the same time personally beneficial, mutually beneficial or beneficial primarily to others.

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Chapter Two Review of Related Literature 2.1 Adolescence and issues related to Adolescent 2.1.1 Adolescence

Adolescence, according to Santrock & Yussen (1984) is a transitional period of development which occurs between childhood and adulthood. According to Hall (1904), adolescence is a marvelous new birth, and is a period of marked change in the person’s cognitive, physical, psychological, and social development and in the individual’s relations with the people and institutions of the social world. Adolescence is commonly divided in to three periods; early adolescence (12-14 years), middle adolescence (15-17 years) and late adolescence (18-22 years). Early adolescence is a period of change more rapid than at any other time in human development.

Adolescence, according to Santrock (2004) is the stage of life when people experience continuous change mentally, physically, and psychologically. It is a time when individuals acquire important new skills and problem solving abilities. For the adolescent, this period is a dramatic challenge, one requiring adjustment to changes in the self, in the family, and in the peer group.

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2.1.2 Adolescent in the Family

Despite the increasing significance of peers in adolescence, the family remains a critical context for a teenager. According to Hawley and Dehaan (1996), family may serve as an important protective or risk factor for adolescent. As explained by Schickedanz et al. (1994), most adolescents want to maintain intimacy and connection with their families at the same time as they search for increased autonomy and independence.

According to Richardson & McCabe (2001), intimacy with father and mother was to be the most important predictor of adolescent’s psychological adjustment. Furthermore, a number of studies (e.g. Allen et al 1994; Noom et al 1999) suggest that autonomy and relatedness in an adolescent’s family are linked to a range of positive outcomes such as self-esteem.

2.1.3 Adolescent-Peer Relations

As the child goes from childhood to adolescence, peer and romantic relationships become increasingly important to well-being. Thus, as the findings of Engels and colleagues (2001) showed, the child’s attachment experiences with parents affect his or her subsequent functioning in peer and romantic relationships as well as his or her emotional adjustment in his/her later years. Several study findings (e.g. Conger & Peterson, 1984; Lerner 1994; Meeus et al., 2002) also emphasize the importance of peer relations for the developmental tasks of adolescent.

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Laible & her colleagues (2000) showed that both parent & peer attachment served adolescent adjustment such as increasing sympathy & absence of depression.

2.1.4 Adolescent Realized Values

One of developmental tasks of adolescent according to Havighurst (1972) is acquiring a set of values & an ethical system as a guide to behavior. Sattin and Kerr (2001) also suggested that values are especially important in adolescence because this is the time when significant life decisions are being made and goals are set for the future based on their values and motives. Adolescents according to Hamalainen (1999) are influenced simultaneously by several value systems, such as parents, peers and school which reflect the values of a certain era.

2.1.5 Adolescent- Parent Connectedness The most central role for children is being a daughter or son to their parents. Thoits (1991) stated that role identities have the potential to make the greatest impact on psychological well-being. Thus, adolescents’ interactions with their parents probably establish the foundation for their wellbeing, which may have implications for the adolescents’ psychological well-being throughout life. According to the theory of Morgan and Blair (1994), adolescents’ perception of closeness to their parents has an impact on their psychological well-being. The research by Denier et al. (1998) has also indicated that parental attachment affects adolescents’ relational competence and has a direct effect on emotional adjustment.

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Attachment to parents according to Papini and Roggman (1992) is significantly and positively correlated with measures of self-perceived competence and significantly but negatively related to adolescent feelings of depression and anxiety. According to Ancell (2009) and Wyse (2010), the interpersonal relationships in one’s life deals with kinship and family relations that play pivotal role in fostering overall development.

Engels et al. (2001) examined the emotional adjustment utilizing adolescent samples between the ages of 12 and 17. Their research suggests that adolescents who report stronger parental attachments, in comparison to those with weaker parental attachments, have better social skills.

2.2 Social Skills and Psychological Wellbeing 2.2.1 Social Skills

Social skills, as noted by MacDonald (1975) in Fashina (1990), are the interpersonal behaviors that contribute to the effectiveness of the individual as a part of a large group of individuals. In other words, social skill is the ability to interact with others in a given social context in specific ways that are socially acceptable or valued and at the same time personally beneficial, mutually beneficial or beneficial primarily to others. This excludes exploitative, deceitful or aggressive skills which may be of individual benefit.

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Çelik (2007) stated that the children with social skills find more pleasure in activities they participate and can take their decisions on their own. However, the children who lack adequate social skills might be excluded by their friends.

As indicated in Bacanli (2003), social skills are one of the important factors of social and psychological development of a child. Since the children with high level of social skills have more techniques in solving daily interpersonal problems, they are more successful in their social relationships. Atkinson and colleagues (1999) have identified that conflict between parents during childhood have ongoing adverse effects on social functioning, particularly through its negative impact on offspring’s conflict resolution behavior in relationships outside of the family. This adverse effect on social skills and relational competence transmits to subsequent emotional adjustment.

The theories of Westervelt &Vandenber (1997) indicates that adolescents’ exposure to marital conflict has also been associated with anxiety to participate in relationships of their own and with diminished capacity to engage in social interactions outside of the family system. Research by Dadds et al., (1999) and Davies & Cummings (1994) also identified similarities between parents’ conflict-based behavior and offspring’s methods of resolving conflict within their peer and romantic relationships.

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Other finding by Cillessen & Bellmore (2002) also shows that adolescents’ social skills and their ability to effectively resolve interpersonal conflicts are associated with the development and maintenance of peer and romantic relationship. Therefore, better social skills and positive conflict resolution behavior are positively related to relational competence.

Beker (2001) found that the adolescents with high social isolation exhibit significantly lower problem solving, decision making, coping with emotions and coping with stress and also low social competence may be due to the fact that as children experience more social isolation as a negative sanction by the parents at home, children suffer from inferiority, insecurity, helplessness and hopelessness.

2.2.2 Psychological Wellbeing

Wellbeing, in general, according to Steuer and Marks (2008) is a positive physical, social and mental state; it is not just the absence of pain, discomfort and incapacity. It arises not only from the action of individuals, but from a host of collective goods and relationships with other people. It requires that basic needs are met, that individuals have a sense of purpose, and that they feel able to achieve important personal goals and participate in the society. It is enhanced by conditions that include supportive personal relationships, involvement in empowered communities, good health, financial security, rewarding employment, and a healthy and attractive environment. Psychological wellbeing, in particular, according to Flouri & Buchanan (2003) refers to individuals’ ability to fulfill certain aspects of their lives, such as relationships, support, and work.

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The Child and Adolescent Mental Health Services (CAMHS, 2008) reported psychological wellbeing as the formula including; emotional, behavioral, social and cognitive attributes of well-being. As summarized by Huppert (2009) Psychological well-being is about lives going well. It is the combination of feeling good and functioning effectively. By definition therefore, people with high psychological wellbeing report feeling happy, capable, well supported, satisfied with life, and so on.

Young adults with low psychological wellbeing, according to Amato (1994) may encounter lower levels of happiness, satisfaction and self-esteem. Similarly, Flouri and Buchnan (2003) stated that adolescents who possess psychological distress may also exhibit characteristics of low levels of happiness and self-efficacy along with high levels of depression. Some empirical evidence (e.g. Goodyer, 1990; Mechanic and Hansell, 1989) supports this notion; children whose parents show high amounts of affection, acceptance, and support report lower levels of anxiety and depression.

Children’s psychological well-being is most likely developed through interaction with their parents. Rosenberg (1979) explained that interaction in general and role playing in particular are the basis of an individual’s psychological well-being.

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Psychological wellbeing, according to Ryff (1989), is a broader term and it can be measured in terms of six major constructs of human functioning including Self-acceptance(individuals’ positive attitude toward them-selves), Autonomy ( self-determination or independence), Purpose in life(feeling that the present and future have meaning in life), Positive relations (having trusting and strong relationships with others), Environmental mastery (ability or capability to choose or create suitable environments) and Personal growth (the ability to continue to develop one’s potential over the life course).

2.3 Marriage structure: Monogamy VS Polygamy 2.3.1 Monogamous Marriage

Monogamy refers to the practice of having a sexual relation with only one partner or being married to one person at a time. As indicated in Marlowe (2000), monogamy includes strict monogamy and serial monogamy (divorce and remarriage). Although many societies are polygamous, the law in most jurisdictions refuses to recognize plural marriages and recognize monogamy.

Henrich et al (2002) believed that normative monogamy provides dramatic and essential benefits for adults, children and society. These scholars explain that “first and foremost, monogamous marriage reduces sexual competition among men, reducing social violence and crime for many reasons. Second, “monogamous marriage tends to increase relational equality, increasing female influence and standing in the relationship”.

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Third, “monogamy reduces conflict within the home because it doesn’t create competition and jealousy among co-wives, which the authors describe as “ubiquitous” in polygamous homes”. Fourth, “monogamy increases paternal investment, significantly improving child well-being outcomes”.

2.3.2 Polygamous Marriage

As described by Nancy (2005), the successful marriage is one where the couples have sex regularly with each other. Beside this, there is a custom of polygamy in the form of polyandry (being married to more than one husband) as well as polygyny (being married to more than one wives) in the tribal people.

The word polygamy comes from Greek word: polygama, which means plural marriage or being married to more than one spouse at the same time. As indicated in Bediru Hussien (2002), polygamy has been found among many races-Fuegians, Australians, Negritos, Indians, Americans, Indians, and Africans. A polygamous society is thus one that permits this practice to take place.

Polyandry is a form of polygamy in which one woman is married to several men. As explained by Kapadia (1986), its occurrence is rare and assumes a specific concentration in the Himalayan areas of South Asia. However, it is sporadically distributed in Africa, Oceania, and Native America. Two forms have been recorded by Ramu (1977): fraternal polyandry, in which a group of brothers share a wife; and non-fraternal polyandry, in which a woman’s husbands are not related or real.

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Fraternal Polyandry is common and sanctioned social norm in district of Kinnaur of Himachal State in India. It is still in practice in this society where sharing of one wife among real brothers. In this district, as indicated in Raha & Commar (1987), there are approximately 92.05% brothers those have a single common wife, while in only 6.82% cases are of single wife. In this type of marriage, the eldest brother is recognized as the social father of all children.

Segraves (1980) posited that polyandry is instituted in areas where difficult physical environments or high populations impose extreme pressures on agricultural systems and it is also associated with sibling solidarity. Some theorists such as Linda & Miller (2005) suggest that this institution more often occurs in societies in which women hold relatively high social status. Polygyny is another form of polygamy which one man is married to more than one wife. Hussien (2002) in his ethical study stated that most polygamous societies are polygynous: that is, they allow men to take additional wives but do not permit women to have more than one husband.

2.4 Family and the Wellbeing of Adolescent 2.4.1 The Parent-Child Attachment Adolescents who experience the security of loving parents and have strong attachments to their parents during their childhood are better able to reach out to relate with others. According to the attachment theory of Maccoby (1993), adolescents who enjoy a secure attachment relationship with their parents and caregivers use this relationship as a support to venture out and explore their environment.

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Ainsworth et al. (1978) suggested that adolescents’ development of social skills is affected by the nature of their family. Children find love and security and form attachments with people who protect and care for them. In the family, children become socialized through interactions with parents, siblings and close relatives. Therefore, adolescents who have had a strong attachment to a nurturing figure during their childhood see themselves as sociable and experience less difficulty adjusting to the social system of the school or more likely to learn from experience in social interaction.

The lack of parental involvement was found to place children at risk for developmental disorders (Farber & Egeland, 1987), and the most damaging form of maltreatment is psychological unavailability. Absence of family support and warmth plays a risk factor in the development of childhood stress (Garmezy, 1983). The association between polygamy and child abuse also appears to spill over to related indices of educational adjustment.

Cherian (1994) argued that the level of conflict, hostility and aggression in polygamy families is higher than monogamy families. Moody (2011) explained that children from polygamous homes experience significantly greater amounts of conflict between their parents, household violence and family instability than children being raised by monogamous parents. As explained by Alexandre & Michel (2007) children in polygamous family get less attention and handle life from their parents, in the sense that they have no place and attention as appropriate as other children whose parents are always compact or monogamous.

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The research by Engels et al. (2001) suggests that adolescents who have stronger parental attachments, in comparison to those with weaker parental attachments, have better social skills. They also found that poor social skills interfered with the development of good relationships with friends and romantic partners.

2.4.2 Parenting Practice

Parenting may either protect children from life circumstances or make them more vulnerable to adversities. The quality of parenting plays an essential role in adolescents’ social competence as well as psychological wellbeing. Researches around the world (e.g. Thornton, Orbuch, & Axinn , 1995), show that parent-child relationships have been consistently associated with children's development, adjustment and well-being. They are considered to be the core of family life because parents provide their children with a) social capital for achieving long term goals and outcomes, b) orientations toward interpersonal and social relationships, c) social support and understanding in challenging times such as the adolescent stage.

It is through the parent-child relationships that children develop personalities and life sustaining skills that will champion the course of their lives. According to Robins, & Morrison (1991), parent-child relationship centers on parenting and parental practices which include discipline and control that form part of the strategies that are used to build socio-emotional and cognitive competence in children.

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Slicker et al. (2005) surveyed older adolescents’ perceptions of their parents’ parenting behaviors and their perceptions of their own life skills development. Their finding suggests that positive life skills development in older adolescents, for example, is related to having been reared by a parenting style high in responsiveness.

Chucksmith et al. (1995) observed that authoritative parenting style is associated with fewer symptoms of Psychological distress among teenagers, whilst neglectful parenting is associated with raised level of psychological stress. Similarly, Rönka & Poikkeus (2005) suggested that warm parenting with high involvement & autonomy granting was related to fewer depressive symptoms among adolescents.

It is observed that high permissiveness leads to high critical thinking, may be because children who are permitted to express their views freely and act according to their wishes not being restricted by their parents at home get ample opportunities to become more inquisitive and explorative, and self-determining. This finding was supported by study findings by Linares et al. (2002) where they mentioned that both adolescents perceiving their parents as permissive and as authoritative obtained the highest scores in perceived social competence and self- esteem.

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According to Coley (1998), the nature of parent-child interaction is also related to a child’s development of social skills. Children, who are raised in democratic families, where reasons are given along with the rules, are more likely to be socially active and open-minded. These parents are more likely to have children who cooperate, share, and initiate social activities. On the other hand, (Dorsey, 2003), parents who are more authoritarian, who demand obedient, conforming, and dependent offspring, may have children who are never really comfortable exploring the world for themselves. Often, these children fail to develop the ability to relate effectively with others throughout their life.

2.4.3 Parental Psychological State

Parental psychological disturbances such as mental health problems and drug/alcohol use have also been linked to a variety of behavioral, socio- emotional and cognitive problems in children. Ford and colleagues (2007) stated that many of these disorders co-exist and therefore it is often difficult to disentangle their effects on children. For instance, drug-abusing parents also tend to report a higher degree of psychological disturbances. Parental psychological disturbances interfere with interpersonal relationships within the family, as well as compromising family functioning in which daily tasks are not accomplished. These aspects of impaired functioning may be the pathways through which problems persist into adulthood.

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2.4.4 Parental Education

Parental education influences the wellbeing of the whole family. Low parental education according to Gutman and Feinstein (2008), for example, is a risk factor for children‘s cognitive and social development. There is no doubt that children in uneducated families have less opportunity to go to schools or get better education.

2.5 Summary

Adolescence is a very critical period of development where various changes in different aspects of the adolescents’ wellbeing take place. These changes include adjustment in psychological wellbeing and the achievement of new and matured relationships with others. As an adolescent grows older, his/her psychological as well as social maturity will increase. The influence of social environments, such as family, peers and school on an adolescents’ development has been investigated by several studies. Bronfenbrenner (1986), for example, pointed out that adolescent’s psychological development needs both cognitive stimulating interaction and emotional support from parents. Rosenberg (1979) stated that adolescents begin building their own self-concept through observing the reactions directed toward them by vital individuals in their lives and they desire support and structure from their parents.

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Wilkinson (2004) stated that young people develop self-esteem and sense of wellbeing when they are raised in a loving environment; if abandoned by either parent, they may feel unwanted or unloved. When attention and praise is withdrawn, young people often respond by becoming anxious or depressed and as a result, they experience lower level of PWB. Therefore, the quality of parenting plays an essential role in adolescents’ social competence as well as psychological wellbeing.

Adolescents’ interactions with their parents (Thoits, 1991) probably establish the foundation for their wellbeing, which may have implications for the adolescents’ psychological well-being throughout life. In other words, adolescents’ perception of closeness to their parents has an impact on their psychological well-being. The finding of Engels et al. (2001) also suggests that adolescents who report stronger parental attachments, in comparison to those with weaker parental attachments, have better social skills.

Parenting may either protect children from life circumstances or make them more vulnerable to adversities. The quality of parenting plays an essential role in adolescents’ social competence as well as psychological wellbeing. As noted by Gibson and Jefferson (2006), self-esteem was found to have positive correlation with adolescents talking with their fathers, perceiving their fathers to be interested in their lives, and frequency of family activities.

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Similarly Richardson & McCabe (2001) stated that intimacy with father and mother was to be the most important predictor of adolescent’s psychological adjustment. Parental involvement and support of their adolescents’ life can therefore, directly affect their psychological and social development. Beside this, as explained by Alexandre & Michel (2007), children in polygamous family get less attention and handle life from their parents in the sense that they have no place and attention as appropriate as other children whose parents are always compact.

Monogamous parents, in contrast, (Henrich et al. 2002) are considered as more responsive and close to their children. Monogamy provides dramatic and essential benefits for adults, children and society. It reduces sexual competition among men, increases relational equality, increases female influence and standing in the relationship, reduces conflict within the home because it doesn’t create competition and jealousy among co-wives, increases paternal investment and improves child well-being outcomes.

Parental psychological disturbances interfere with interpersonal relationships within the family, as well as compromising family functioning in which daily tasks are not accomplished. These aspects of impaired functioning may be the pathways through which problems persist into adulthood. Parental education also influences the wellbeing of the whole family. Low parental education according to Gutman and Feinstein (2008), for example, is a risk factor for children‘s cognitive and social development.

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Chapter Three

Method 3.1 Design

Since the goal of the study was the examination of social skills and PWB of adolescents in monogamous and polygamous family structures so as to know whether marriage structure contributes to the adolescents’ behavior, the information should be gathered using quantitative approach. Even though, manipulating psychological wellbeing qualitatively is difficult task, describing the behaviors to be studied in the respondents’ perspective is needed and therefore, the former approach was supplemented by qualitative data gathering tools of measurement.

3.2 Study Area

The study was conducted in Sidama zone, which is found in Southern Nations, Nationalities and Peoples Region. The area is located in the southern part of Ethiopia, with notable geographical location that shares a border with Oromiya in South-West and North-west, Gedeo in the South and Wolaita in West side. The capital city of Sidama, Hawassa, which is also the capital city of SNNPR, is located 275kms south of Addis Ababa.

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3.3 Sample and Sampling Technique

The study consists of 160 students from four secondary schools in Sidama Zone, whose age ranges between 14 and 22. The adolescents were proportionally selected from both monogamous and polygamous families and 40 students from each grade including equal number from both sexes.

The participants were purposively selected from grades 9 through 12, from high schools in Arbegona, Bensa, Shebedino and Yirgalem respectively, on the basis of their family structure, age and sex and simple random sampling technique was also used. The selection criteria in the sampling process includes family marriage type, age of participants, and sex, and only four woredas out of 21 woredas in the zone were purposively selected in order to include participants from the areas in the community that have slight difference in lifestyles & some social values from one another. The following table shows the participants’ information in terms of their number, schools where they were selected from and their grade level.

Table 1. Distribution of Participants by School and Grade Level

No. of Students School Monogamous Polygamous Grade School Location (N=80) (N=80) Nine Arbegona Arbegona 20 20 Ten Bensa-Daye Bensa 20 20 Eleven Leku Shebedino 20 20 Twelve Yirgalem Comprhensive Yirgalem 20 20 School

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3.4 Instruments

The collection of data was carried out by the development of in-depth interview guide, which consists of open-ended questions, and the questionnaire. The questions in the tools of measurement were adapted from some popular tests of Psychological Wellbeing and Social Skills Assessment Inventory.

For measuring Psychological Well-Being, Ryff’s (1989) Scale of PWB which measure six constructs including autonomy, environmental mastery, personal growth, positive relations with others, purpose in life and self-acceptance was used. The scale consists of a total of 39 items. The Social Skills Assessment Inventory consists of 18 items used to measure social competence of the respondents and the score ranges from 18 to 72. Respondents who scored high on this area considered as adolescents who have high social competence whereas adolescents who score low in this area considered as individuals with low social skills. The scores of both scales were rated on four point scale.

3.5 Procedure The data collection process was started by securing the prior permission from the school authorities. The objective of the study and significance of participation of the respondents in the study were clearly explained and the data gathering process took place in different sessions in the regular classroom situation. Before the administration of test for the final data collection, the questions were pilot-tested on 30 individuals so as to ensure the effectiveness of tools in providing intended information, and the degree to which it was understood by the sample participants.

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The pilot study helped the researcher make necessary decisions on certain aspects like the time test requires, the way assistants perform as needed, and the language modification (i.e. substitution of vague statements or difficult concepts with easily understandable words) was made.

Previous studies in other population with languages different from English, for example, Chinese (Cheng and Chan, 2005) and Swedish (Lindfors et al, 2006) estimated the internal consistencies of Ryff’s PWB scale with the six dimensions; Cheng and Chan reported (α= .71,.68,.78,.77,.80,.71 for Autonomy, Self-acceptance, Positive relations with others, Environmental mastery, Purpose in Life and Personal growth, respectively) and suggested that all the scales had good reliabilities. Although the instruments adapted were developed for the samples of other population, the internal consistencies of the scales for current sample yielded the Cronbach’s alpha coefficients between .72 and .79, which was recommended by the authors as good reliability. In most cases, as noted by Cortina (1993), an acceptable value of Cronbach’s alpha for Psychological constructs is expected to be .7.

Based on the pilot study, ten items (1 item of autonomy, 1 positive relation with others item, 2 purpose in life items, 2 environmental mastery and 4 social skills items) were eliminated. The items eliminated included those items that have repetitive ideas, irrelevant items and those items which showed low internal consistency. For instance, an Autonomy item “I have confidence in my opinions, even if they are contrary to the opinions of others” has similar idea to the item no. 1&4 and cancelled.

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Another two social skills items- “I introduce myself to new people” which is similar to the item number 6 i.e. “I introduce people who haven’t met before to each other” and “I know how to disagree without starting a fight or argument” which is similar to the item number 17, were deleted.

The other item of positive relation “People would describe me as a loving person, willing to share my time with others” which has similar meaning to item no. 5 i.e. “Most people see me as loving and affectionate” also deleted. The rest of the items were deleted due to their low internal consistency. The deletion of the personal growth item no. 4, for instance, increased the reliability coefficient of the subscale from .68 to .723. All the questions in the test were clearly translated in to Sidamigna by language experts and the researcher and, finally, a total of 57 items were used in the main study.

3.6 Data Analysis

Data analysis was carried out using simple statistical techniques like percentage, mean, and Cronbach’s alpha. Both Psychological wellbeing and social skills questionnaires were rated on 4-point scale where high scores reflect the respondents’ better PWB and more adaptive social skills functioning. The scoring for negatively worded items of PWB test was reversed whereas social skills items were not altered. The results in each variable were analyzed using the means and standard deviations and the scores were determined based on the rate of agreement and considered as high and low doing the statistical test of difference between the scores.

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3.7 Ethical Consideration

Before and during data collection, the researcher had taken notice of the following ethical rules:  Participants were informed that their participation is voluntary.  Participants were informed that the information they provide will not be used for any purpose other than research.  Confidentiality of information and anonymity of respondents had been ensured.  The role of respondents and the benefit of taking part in the research were clearly explained.

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Chapter Four

The Results and Discussion

The results of the study are presented and discussed in two parts. The first part presents the results and the second part presents the discussion of the results obtained.

4.1The Results of the study 4.1.1 Socio-demographic characteristics of the respondents and their parents

This section presents the age, and grade level of the respondents and educational level, religious affiliation and monthly income, occupation and parenting style of their parents with respect to both marriage structures.

Table 2. The Distribution of Respondents by Age and Grade

Adolescents in Characteristics Monogamous Polygamous Families (N=80) Families (N=80) N % N % Age 14 -16 years 19 24 21 26 17 -19 years 35 44 32 40 20 -22 years 26 32 27 34 Grade Nine 20 25 20 25 Ten 20 25 20 25 Eleven 20 25 20 25 Twelve 20 25 20 25

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As table 1 show, the respondents were distributed in three age groups (14-16, 17-19 and 20-22 years). Majority of respondents from both marriage types fall between the age of 17 and 19.Respondents from all grades are proportionally distributed by sex and number (i.e. 40 students from each grade and both sexes).

Table 3.The Distribution of Parents by Educational Level

Monogamous Polygamous Parents’ Education N % N % Illiterate 34 42 44 55 Read and write 22 28 23 27 Secondary /12 complete 13 16 11 14 Diploma & above 11 14 11 14

Adolescents from the two family compositions reported their parents’ educational status differently. Majority (i.e. 55 %) of adolescents from polygamous parents reported their parents as illiterate. Those from monogamous families whose parents were uneducated comprise 42 % whereas read and write 28 %, 12 complete 16% and diploma and above comprise 14 %.

Table 4.The Distribution of Parents by Occupation

Monogamous Polygamous Parents’ Occupation N % N % Farmer 32 40 43 54 Merchant 26 32 20 25 Government/NGO employee 11 14 5 6 Other 11 14 12 15

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As can be seen from the table 4, 40 % of monogamous and 54 % of polygamous parents were farmers. It also shows that those parents whose occupation was merchant comprise 32 % of monogamous and 25 % of polygamous families. Those parents who were government or non-governmental organization workers include 11 % and 6 % from monogamous and polygamous family structure respectively. There are also parents’ whose occupation is categorized under ‘other’ which include retired and unemployed parents together comprise 11 % and 12 % from monogamous and polygamous families respectively.

Table 5.The Distribution of Parents by Parenting Style

Monogamous Polygamous Parenting Style (N=80) (N=80) N % N % Authoritative/ Democratic 45 56 10 12.5 Authoritarian 12 15 20 25 Permissive 21 26.5 6 7.5 Neglectful 2 2.5 44 55

In Table 5, the highest number of participants (45 or 56 0%) from monogamous families brought up in authoritative/democratic parenting style. The least number of participants in this family structure are found under neglectful parenting style. Majority (55%) of respondents who were from polygamous families, in contrast, fell under neglectful parenting style. The next in number is authoritarian parenting style in which 25 % and 15 % of respondents came from polygamous and monogamous family respectively.

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Table 6. The distribution of respondents by religious affiliation Monogamous Polygamous Religious Affiliation (N=80) (N=80) N % N % Protestant 48 60 9 11 Orthodox 14 17.5 4 5 Catholic 8 10 5 6.5 Muslim 4 5 14 17.5 No religion 6 7.5 48 60.0

Among adolescents from monogamous family structure, majority (60%) of them reported their parents as protestant. This category of individuals comprise 17.5 % orthodox, 10 % Catholic, 5 % Muslims. As the table presents, adolescents in polygamous parents reported their parents as Protestant, Orthodox, Catholic and Muslims include 11%, 5%, 6.5%, and 17.5 %, respectively. Surprisingly, among the adolescents from parents who have no religion, almost all (60 %) of them were from polygamous families and only 2 % of respondents were from monogamous families.

Table 7. The distribution of parents by Income. Monogamous Polygamous Monthly Household Income (N=80) (N=80) N % N % < 150 ETB 21 26 20 25 150 – 500 ETB 26 32 30 37 501 – 1000 ETB 20 25 23 29 1000 and above 13 17 7 9

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The table above shows that 25 % of polygamous and 26 % of monogamous parents have monthly income less than 150 birr. There are also parents whose monthly household income from 150 – 500 ETB. This category of parents includes 32 % and 37 % from monogamous and polygamous marriage structure respectively. There are only 13% (monogamous) and 9 % (polygamous) parents whose monthly income is 1000 ETB and more. Majority of parents from both family structures have monthly household income 150 – 500 birr.

4.1.2 Psychological Wellbeing Results

The following table presents the results on the six constructs of PWB. Adolescents who exhibit strength in each and every of these areas are considered to be in a state of good psychological well-being, while adolescents who struggle in these areas will be in a state of low psychological well-being.

Table 8. The Mean Scores of Adolescents from Monogamous and Polygamous Families on PWB Questionnaire

Mean and Standard Deviations Construct Monogamous Polygamous Mean SD Mean SD t-value Autonomy 26.25 1.097 20.15 3.028 16.943 Positive Relations 27.01 1.131 21.34 1.929 22.704 Purpose in Life 19.5 1.125 18.43 1.524 5.075 Self-Acceptance 17.4 .894 14.04 1.141 20.742 Personal Growth 13.16 1.307 12.66 1.055 2.663 Environmental Mastery 22.23 2.00 19.31 1.327 10.853 α = .05, sig. (2-tailed), df=158

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Table 7 illustrates that the two groups of adolescents scored differently on PWB dimensions. To compare the mean scores of adolescents, the students’ t-test was applied and the difference between the scores is statistically significant at 5% level of significance. The results indicated that there is significant difference between the mean scores (monogamous 26.25 and polygamous 20.15) on autonomy dimension with computed score of t=16.943, p=.05. This can justify that adolescents in monogamous families scored more and are more likely autonomous than that of adolescents in polygamous families.

The results of positive relations also emerged significant difference between adolescents of the two groups (t= 22.704, p=.05). The difference in scores indicates that adolescents in monogamous families have trusting and strong relation with others than those who are from polygamous homes.

The students from monogamous families scored high not only on the above mentioned constructs, but also on purpose in life. The difference between the scores of both groups is significantly different (t=5.075, p=.05) and therefore, adolescents in monogamous families seem live purposeful life or feel that the present and future have meaning in their life than that of adolescents in polygamous families.

The self-acceptance scores of adolescents also vary from one another with value of t=20.742, p=.05. Adolescents in monogamous families scored more on this dimension. Therefore, they are more likely having positive attitude towards themselves than adolescents in polygamous family type.

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Adolescents in monogamous families scored high on environmental mastery. The differing score of the two group is emerged from result obtained (t=10.853, p=.05) and the students from monogamous homes seem have more ability to create suitable environment than that of adolescents in polygamous. There is also the significant difference (t=2.663, p=.05) in the scores of the two groups on personal growth dimension. Adolescents in monogamy family are more likely develop their potential over the life course.

Hence, the adolescents who raised in monogamous marriage types scored more on all dimensions of psychological wellbeing; the results support the assumption that adolescents who score high on these variables have better psychological adjustment and therefore, we have an adequate evidence to say that they have better psychological adjustment than that of adolescents in the corresponding group.

4.1.3 Social skills result

The mean scores of adolescents from both family structures are presented in the table below: Table 9.Mean Scores and SD of Social Skills Questionnaire

Marriage Structure Mean Scores Standard Deviation t-value Monogamous 63. 43 2.036 13.104 Polygamous 51.01 2.379

p=.05, sig. (two tailed), df=158

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The mean score of adolescents from monogamous families was 63.43 with the standard deviation of 2.036 and the average score of adolescents in polygamous families was 51.01 with the standard deviation of 2.379. In order to develop confidence that the results obtained were not due to chance, the difference was tested at 95% confidence interval, two-tailed, and the test statistic obtained is 13.104.

Hence, statistically significant difference was observed, the result supports the notion that social competence scores of adolescents in monogamous and polygamous families differ. Therefore, we can draw conclusion that those adolescents in monogamous families are more socially competent or successful than that of adolescents in adolescents in polygamous families.

4.2 Discussion

This study revealed that the family marriage structure contribute to the adolescents’ PWB and Social competence. There is no doubt that the nature of the family and the experience adolescents gain from their family may affect their wellbeing. Adolescents brought up in monogamous and polygamous families have shown differing scores in social competence and dimensions of PWB. As the finding shows, adolescents in monogamous families scored more on all dimensions of Psychological wellbeing. The autonomy result of adolescents in monogamous families, for instance, is more and they reflected their strong agreement on most items of this construct.

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For example, majority of respondents from this category (62 out of 80) showed their strong agreement on item no. 6 “I am competent and capable in the activities that are important to me”. 58 of 80 showed again their strong agreement on the item no.2 “I have confidence in my own opinions, even if they are different from the way most other people think.” These individuals scored high not only on this dimension, but also on other constructs of PWB. The total PWB score highlights that adolescents who were brought up in monogamous families seem capable in their activities, feel confident and good about their lives, better adjust to their environment and having positive attitude towards themselves than that of adolescents in polygamous families.

It is also observed that adolescents in both family structures scored differently in social skills. Adolescents in monogamous families scored high in social skills than adolescents in polygamous families. They seem more socially competent than adolescents from polygamous families. This category of individuals are more friendly, communicate effectively with others, best understand others and in turn understood by others, share what they have with others and in general, they are more likely to be active in their social activities than that of adolescents from polygamous families.

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Some of the descriptions of the interviewees on plural marriage presented as follows: 17 years old respondent from polygamous family stated that being born or raised in polygamous family is the worst and shocking. I love my father as long as I am his daughter, but he gives no love to me and my mother. I guess that he never know even my existence. My mother was his first wife. He left us 10 years ago and lives with other wife in the city in other area. We (my mother and my younger sister) live in country side. He visits us not more than twice a year. My mother shoulder all the responsibilities in home and covers all our educational expenses, even though, she have no enough income. She always worries about how to lead our life. If you are a child of a polygamist family, you live an incomplete life and lose some important portion of your life. The impact is serious to wife. In short, I hate polygamous life!.

Another respondent (19 year old boy) in polygamous family said that no one is born from one parent; as far as he/she born from mother and father, he/she need love, support and approach from both parent. This is absent in polygamous family. The impact is not only on children, but also on co- wives; they feel inferior or superior among each other. They are always opposite to each- other and minor conflicts arise between them. The resource in that home cannot be equally shared and insufficient when compared to monogamous families. My father has three wives (including my mother) and 13 children. They see each other as enemies and the same is true for their co-children. Polygamy if harmful practice and should be avoided from every society, he said.

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The other respondent from polygamous home stated that polygamist father cannot be completely your biological father. He always thinks only as he is the head of our home. But he is not responsible enough. He is not equal for all of his children. He always yells at my mom. It irritates me all the time. My step mom never sees me as even a member of a family. I was the first in rank for consecutive 3 academic years and won an award. I remember that she was unhappy with my good result that I have scored more than her son who have completed grade 10 with me last year. What I have understood from polygamous home is it is the setting where family trust and peace is absent.

Most adolescents in polygamous families feel dissatisfied with their family functioning. This idea is supported by an earlier study by Mills and Gramsmick (1992). They believed that dissatisfaction with family has negative impact on adolescent’s Psychological makeup which resulted in behavior problems. Majority of adolescents from polygamous parents reported their parents as illiterate.

Even though, individuals practice both monogamy and polygamy irrespective of their education, majority of polygamous parents in this study were those with lower education. As can be observed from the results obtained, polygamous parents seem to be neglectful. Among the respondents reported their parents’ parenting styles as neglectful, majority of them were from polygamous families. This may be due to the reality that polygamous fathers fail to give adequate attention and time to stay with their children in favor of one wife to the other and their children.

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Adolescents from polygamous families tend to have not only low psychological adjustment; the effect is also on their social functioning. They experience difficulty adjusting to social system of the school and less likely to learn from experience in social interaction. They also made less effort to make new friends. This is consistent with the finding by Dekovic and Meeus (1997) who explored adolescent-parent and adolescent-peer relationships. They found that adolescents who have a more fulfilling relationship with parents had healthier relationships with peers.

4.3 Summary of the results

As the results of the study show, majority of respondents from both marriage types fall between the age of 17 and 19. Majority of adolescents from polygamous parents reported their parents as illiterate. Majority of respondents who were from polygamous families fell under neglectful parenting style. Most of participants from monogamous families were brought up in authoritative/democratic parenting style.

Adolescents in the two family types reported their parents’ religion as Protestant, Orthodox, Catholic, Muslims, and non religious. Among the adolescents from parents who have no religion, obviously, almost all of them were from polygamous families and only 2 % of respondents were from monogamous families.

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The results also indicated that there is significant difference between the mean scores of adolescents in monogamous and polygamous families on both PWB and Social skills. There was a significant difference between the groups of participants on autonomy dimension (t=16.943, df=158, α = .05, two tailed), positive relations with others ( t= 22.704, df=158, α = .05, two tailed ), purpose in life(t=5.075, df=158, α = .05, two tailed), self-acceptance (t=20.742, df=158, α = .05, two tailed ), environmental mastery(t=10.853, df=158, α = .05, two tailed), personal growth (t=2.663, df=158, α = .05, two tailed) . The results clearly justify that adolescents in monogamous families have better psychological wellbeing i.e. they are more likely to be autonomous, have trusting and strong relation with others, live purposeful life, have positive attitude towards themselves and are able to create suitable environment than that of adolescents in polygamous families.

The mean score of adolescents from monogamous families was 63.43 with the standard deviation of 2.036 and the mean score of adolescents in polygamous families was 51.01 with the standard deviation of 2.379. There was also statistically significant difference observed in social skills among adolescents in the two families (t=13.104, df=158, α = .05, two tailed). This evidence shows that adolescents in monogamous families are more socially competent or successful than that of adolescents in adolescents in polygamous families.

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Chapter Five Conclusion and Recommendations

5.1 Conclusion

Based on the results obtained, the following conclusions were drawn:

Because monogamous parents are more responsive and caring, adolescents get adequate attention and support, regardless of their families’ economic status. As a result, they feel good about their families, unlike adolescents in polygamous homes who perceive their parents as neglectful. The result highlights that adolescents in monogamous families scored high in Psychological Wellbeing. Thus, they seem more competent, capable of managing their daily activities, feel confident in voicing their opinions, and having positive self concept than adolescents in polygamous families. Adolescents in monogamous homes scored higher on social skills; they are more successful in their social skills. They are more successful in their social relationships and find more pleasure in activities they participate. In contrast, adolescents in polygamous homes experience lack of warmth and trustful relationships with others (i.e. spend less time with peers or made less effort to make new friends and they often experience loneliness). In addition, adolescents in polygamous families experience difficulty adjusting to social system of the school and less likely to learn from experience in social interaction.

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5.2 Recommendations

The quality of parenting plays an essential role in adolescents’ social competence as well as psychological wellbeing. Adolescents who have got adequate care and support by their parents in their childhood show better developmental outcomes during their later years.

Marriage, as a social relation, requires ideal form of shared life among spouses. Each child in the family also needs closeness and affection of parents. In polygamous families, each man has many wives so that it is difficult for him to give adequate care and support equally for all children and wives. Polygamy has also negative impact on house hold economy. Even if the economy is sufficient to support family, they fail to distribute the resource and time to each of them equally. If adequate care and support as well as closeness are absent, children in these homes may experience unpleasant outcomes in their social as well as psychological development. Therefore, polygamous husbands should be responsive, treat wives and their corresponding children equally so as to build

The impact of polygamy is not only limited to the family level; its impact grows to the community. Therefore, by considering its negative impact on youth, community should recognize the importance of customs of monogamous marriage and discourage plural marriage. Therefore, it is essential to educate individuals at individual level, family level and community level by taking the notice of the negative impact of plural marriage on personal wellbeing as well as social wellbeing of adolescents. It is recommended that parents, especially mothers should be included in the future researches in the area.

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APPENDICES

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Appendix-A Addis Ababa University

College of Education and Behavioral Studies

School of Psychology

Dear respondent, first of all, I would like to extend my thanks to you for your willingness to participate in this study and helping me giving factual information. Next, be informed that the information you give is basic and main input to this study. Please, note also that the information you will give is secured and used for the research purpose only. So, feel free to respond what comes to your mind when you answer the questions.

Thank you for your cooperation!

Part One: Socio-Demographic information. Direction: In this section, you are required to provide the information about you and your family which is useful in the study. So, give your responses to all questions genuinely and freely. i. Respondents’ information 1. Age ______2. Sex ______3. Grade ______4. Ethnic group: Sidama______Other ______

64 ii. Parents information 5. Religion: A. Orthodox B. Protestant C. Catholic D. Muslim E. Other ______6. What is your family’s marriage structure? A. monogamous B. polygamous

7. If your answer for the question # 6 is B, how many step mothers do you have? A. two B. three C. four D. five E. six or above 8. Among the following, which one best describes your father? More than one answer is possible! My father is:

A. Loving and caring B. Demanding and controlling C. Warm and responsive . D. Uninvolved or passive E. Restrictive and punitive F. Other, specify______9. What is your parents’ Educational status?

A. Illiterate B. Read & Write C. 12 complete

D. Diploma & above E. Other______

10. What is your parents’ occupation? Father’s occupation ______Mother’s occupation ______

A. government employee B. farmer

C. merchant D. other______

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11. What is your family’s monthly household income in Birr?

A. < 150 ETB C. 501 – 1000 ETB

B. 151 – 500 ETB D. Above 1000

iii. Interview Questions

12. Would you tell me about your whole family? 13. How did your mother interact with your step mother/s, if you are from polygamous family? 14. How do you interact with your father and other family members? 15. How often did your father stay with you in a week? 16. When you compare your family with other family type, which do you believe is better for family life? 17. Children in polygamous families, even if they born from different mothers are viewed as brothers and sisters. But, they give less love or affection to those who are not born from their mother. The same is true for mothers. What is the reason behind this reality? 18. Are you satisfied with your life?

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APPENDIX- B

Part-Two: Questionnaire Items

Direction: Here are the questions which you are required to fill in. It has two parts. The first is PWB test which consists of six sub-scales and the second is social skills test. Please be informed that all the items would be rated on four scales (SA = Strongly Agree A= Agree DA= Disagree SDA= Strongly Disagree). So you are supposed to show to what extent you agree on each item on space provided in right side of each item. Put the tick mark ( √ ) on the space provided under four alternatives of your agreement.

I. PWB Questionnaire Below are statements with which you may show your agreement or disagreement. Indicate your agreement in the space provided in the right side of each statement under four alternatives.

S.N Description SA A DA SDA

Autonomy Items 1 My decisions are not usually influenced by what everyone else is doing. 2 I have confidence in my own opinions, even if they are different from the way most other people think. 3 I often change my mind about decisions if my friends or family disagree. 4 I am not afraid to voice my opinions, even when they are in opposition to the opinions of most people. 5 I judge myself by what I think is important, not by what others think is important. 6 I am competent and capable in the activities that are important to me. 7 Being happy with myself is more important to me than having others approve of me. 8 I tend to be influenced by people with strong opinions. Positive relation Items 1 I actively contribute to the happiness and well-being of others. 2 I don't have many people who want to listen when I need to talk. 3 I enjoy personal and mutual conversations with family members and friends. 4 I often feel lonely because I have few close friends with whom to share my concerns. 5 Most people see me as loving and affectionate. 6 I know I can trust my friends, and they know they can trust me.

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7 Maintaining close relationships has been difficult and frustrating for me. 8 I felt that people dislike me. Self Acceptance Items 1 I am a good person and live a good life. 2 When I compare myself to friends and acquaintances, it makes me feel good about who I am. 3 In many ways, I feel disappointed about my achievements in life. 4 When I look at the story of my life, I am pleased about how things have turned out. 5 I like most aspects of my personality. Purpose in Life Items 1 I lead a purposeful and meaningful life. 2 I enjoy making plans for the future and working to make them a reality. 3 I am an active person in carrying out the plans I set for myself. 4 I don't have a good sense of what I'm trying to accomplish in life. 5 I used to set goals for myself, but that now seems like a waste of time. 6 Some people wander aimlessly through life but I am not one of them Personal Growth Items 1 I am not interested in activities that will expand my horizons.

2 I have the sense that I have developed a lot as a person over time. 3 When I think about it, I haven't really improved much as a person over the years.

4 I think it is important to have new experiences that challenge how I think about myself and the world. 5 I don't want to try new ways of doing things - my life is fine the way it is.

Environmental Mastery Items 1 I am engaged and interested in my daily activities. 2 The demands of everyday life often get me down. 3 I am quite good at managing the responsibilities of my daily life.

4 I do not fit very well with the people and community around me.

5 I have difficulty arranging my life in a way that is satisfying to me.

6 I generally do a good job of taking care of my personal finances and affairs. 7 In general, I feel I am in charge of the situation in which I live.

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II. Social Skills Questionnaire The following statements are the statements with which you may show your level of agreement or disagreement. Indicate your agreement or disagreement in the space provided in the right side of each statement that describes the social skills.

S.N Description SA A DA SDA 1 I try to cheer up someone who is feeling sad. 2 I listen carefully to what other people say to me. 3 I’m good at finding fair ways to solve problems. 4 I try to control my temper when I feel upset. 5 It’s easy for me to say things in a friendly way. 6 I introduce people who haven’t met before to each other. 7 I offer to share what I have with others. 8 I say thank you when someone does something nice for me. 9 I apologize to others when I have done something wrong. 10 It is easy for me to say no to someone who is asking me to do something that might get me in trouble. 11 I let others know how I am feeling in a positive way. 12 I ask questions about things I don’t understand. 13 I talk with other people about things that interest both of us. 14 I know how to ask for help when I need it 15 I let people know when I feel a friend has not been treated fairly. 16 I try to understand what other people are feeling. 17 I try to figure out ways other than fighting to handle a situation. 18 I try to compliment people when I like something they have done.

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Addis AbabuYuniveriste

Rosunna Akatu Kolleje

Sayikooloojete Rosi Mine

Baalunkunni balaxexiinxallote fajjo’ne leellishshinoonniehuranna assitinannierira baalaho galateemmo’ne. Hakkiinnino sae mashalaqqe uyitinannieti rosu xiinxallo hajora hossannota ikkase egensiiseemmo. Uyitinanniti mashalaqqe hawa gede fultannota ikkitinoikkihura mittoreno huluullantiniikkinni dawaro’ne garunni dawarre.

Fajjo’nera galateemmo!

Umi Gafa: Afuu Xa’mo

Mayimmate mashalaqqe

Faasho: Tenne afuu xa’mo umi’nenna mini’ne maate mashalaqqe gamba assaikkinohura xa’muwa huwattine dawarre.

i. Meessi mayimma mashalaqqe 1. Diro ______2. Koo/Tee ______3. RosuKifile______4. Ga’re: Sidaama ______Wole______ii. Mini maate mashalaqqe

5. Amma’no : A. Ortodokise B, Pirotestaante C. Kaatoolike D. Islaama E. Wole,______6. Annikki galte gara woy me’’e galte nooro? A. Mitte B. Duuchcha 7. 6KKI xa’moradawarokki “b’ ikkitinoro, me’’e? A. 2 B. 3 C. 4 D. 6nna ale 8. Amakki ginuwu ledo hiitto hasaabbanno woy mimmito hiitto la’anno? 9. Atina? Wole mini maate ledo? 10. Annikki ledo lamalatenni me’e higge xaadatto? 11. Konni woroonni noori giddo anakki hiikku xawisanno? A. Baxannonna kaa’lanno b. Shaqqdohonna tumora hotenni qolanno C. Qorichchishannoho D. Qorqoranno E. Sammiyaanno.

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12. Annikkinna amakki rosu deerri? A. Dirosino B. Borreessanna nabbawa dandaanno C. 12kifile gudino D. Dippolomanna hakkuyi ale E. Wole______

13. Annikkinna amakki loosu dani? Annikkihu______Amakkihu______A. Mangistete loosaasincho B. Baatto loosire galinoho

C. Daddalaanchoho D. Wole______

14. Annikkinna amakki aganu eo mageeshshaati? A. 150 birri woroonni B. 150-500 C. 501-1000 D. Kumu birr aleenni 15. Ginuwate ooso roduuwa ikkiturono duuchcha yanna giwantanno,mimmito dibaxxanno woy roduuwugededila’antanno. Ginuwu uminsa duuchcha yanna sumuu diyaanno. Kuni mayira lawannohe? 16. Mini maatekki heeshshonni hagiirramoho?

Gafa Lame: Borrote xa’mo. Faasho: Aante noo xa’muwa lame behachche afidhino. Umi beehachchi Buqqeete fonqoli xa’muwa ikkite 6 guffa afidhino. Layinkiti kayinni mannu ledo no one xaadooshshe woyi mayimma afate fonqolo amaddanno. Baalanta xa’muwa 4-deerra afidhino tumo qolanni( LS= LowogeeshshaSumuuyaa S= Sumuuyaa SD=Sumuu yaa hooga HSD=Horonta sumuu diyeemmo). Konni daafira tumo qoltinanni wote mittore huluullantinikkinna garunni qolate wo’naalle.

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I. Buqqeete mayimma xa’muwa

T.K Tittirsha LS S SD HS D Owaantetexa’muwa 1 Ane muro wolootu muronni dimurantanno woy dikkitanno 2 Ani umi’yanni owaante nooe,wolootu hedo anetewiinni baxxituro nafa. 3 Duuchcha wote ama’yanna anni’ya woy jaalla’ya hedonni sumuu yeemmo. 4 Duuchchu manni hedonni baxxituro nafa wolu manni hedonni diqeelameemmo 5 Ani midasshi’yara ikkannorira dihaweemmo. Wolootu hedonni dimassagameemmo. 6 Anera horo afidhino coyibbara owaatahonna jawaataho 7 Mito mito wote kaajjado hedo noonsa mannira angaeemmo, hedonsara! 8 Ani umi’yanni hagiirraamoho,wolootu yitannoerira hajo dinoe Wolootu Ledo woy Dagoomuheeshsho xa’muwa 1 Mannu giwannoeha lawannoe mito wote. 2 Wolootu hagiirrira duchcha wote mitii’meemmo. 3 Ani coyireemmo wote macciishshannoe manni shiimaho woy dino. 4 Mini’ya maatenna jaalla’ya ledo suwashshu hasaawi nooe. 5 Duuchcha wote hojjimma macciishshantannoe korkaatuno ledo’ya ikkitanno jaalla nooekkihura. 6 Rooru manni ane baxillaanchonna dancha mancho ikka’ya kulannoe. 7 Anino mannunni mannuno anenni amanammeemmo. 8 Mannuyiwa gamba yaate lowo geeshsha waajjeeemmo. Meessaneete danchummatenni la’ate xa’muwa 1 Ani dancha heeshshso heereemmo dancha manchooti. 2 Umo’ya wolootu ledo heewisiiseemmo wote aneneetera dancha lao nooe. 3 Duuchcha wote ani asseemmorinni giirameemmo woy dihagiidheemmo. 4 Sa’ewo heeshsho’ya laeemmo wote danchumma macciishshantannoe. 5 Ani baalanta mayimma’ya baxeemmo!

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Heeshshote Dilgo xa’muwa 1 Ani dilgaamenna tiro noo heeshsho massaganni noommo. 2 Ani konni ka’a nooe heeshshora assaweemmo, assawoommohano ikkanna la’a hasireemmo. 3 Konni ka’I heeshsho’yara nooe dilgora woy mixora owaataho. 4 Heshsho’yara hedeemmorira danchumma dimacciishshantannoe. 5 Heeshsho’yara nooe mixora asseemmori mito wote mulla yanna guda lawannoe. 6 Mitu manni gumu nookki heshsho heeranna laeemmo, ani kayinni insawa digaamameemmo.

Umo lossate xa’muwa 1 Konni ka’ i heeshsho’ya halashshate hasatto lowoti dinoe.

2 Dancha mancho ikka’ya assaweemmo. 3 Sa’u dirrara dancha mancho ikka’ya leelishoomori nooha dilawannoe.

4 Umo’yanna wole alame laeemmo garira wole woyyabbino mayyimma kalaqa hassiissannoe yee hedeemmo. 5 Xa nooe mayimma ikkadote,wole mayimma heedhaera dihasireemmo.

Barru heeshsho woy qarqaru biddishshi xa’muwa 1 Barru heeshsho yanna asseemmorinni hagiirraamoho 2 Barru hoshsho hasatto’ya mito wote heeshshi assitannoe. 3 Barru heeshsho’yara dancha woy owaata mayimma nooe.

4 Ane mayimma ledo’ya heeranno manni ra woy dagoomaho di-subbinote.

5 Barru heeshsho’ya hasireemmo garinni harisa didandeemmo.

6 Anera barru hoshsho’yara hasiisannoere baala hattono womaashsha garunni amada dandeemmo.

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7 Xaphoomunni, ani heereemmo heeshshonni qarraho uweemmoha lawannoe.

II. Mannu ledo noo’ne xaadooshshe afate xa’muwa

T.K Description LS S SD HSD 1 Dadillinoha jawaachchishate wo’naaleemmo. 2 Wolootu coyidhannore huwate macciishsheemmo. 3 Qarra tirate suwashsho doogga hasate jawaataho. 4 Giirameemmo wote umo’ya eemadhate wo’naaleemmo. 5 Coyubba miiloomitte doogonni xawisate diayirrannoe. 6 Konni albaanni afoommoikki manna afatewo’naaleemmo. 7 Nooere wolu manni ledo beeqqate wo’naaleemmo. 8 Danchare assiehura galata aa dihaweemmo. 9 Soro loosummoro sao xa’mireemmo. 10 Assa dandeemmoikkire assa dandeemmoikki gede xawiseemmo. 11 Danchumma hedeemmo wote wolootu hedo’ya affanno gede assate wo’naaleemmo. 12 Afoommoikkire xa’matenni badhera dihigeemmo. 13 Anerano wolootahono taalo horo aanno coye assa hasireemmo. 14 Kaa’lo hasiissuero hiito xa’meemmoro afoommo. 15 Wolu manni miicamanna afummoro sammi yee dilaeemmo. 16 Wolootu heddanni noore afate wo’naaleemmo. 17 Bushu coyi dayiro hanqatenni roore suwashsho doogonni tirate wo’naaleemmo. 18 Banxayire assiniero galata dihaweemmo..

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Declaration

This is my original and, I declare that it is neither used for academic as well as other awards in any other institute or in this University.

Muse Yonoka Sign. ______

This thesis is approved by the University advisor, Ato Daniel Tefera.

Daniel Tefera Sign. ______Date ______

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