November 2003 - January 2004 Volume: 5 Number: 19 Akad e m i k A r aşı ı r m a 1a r De r g is i 2003-2004, S ay ı 19, S ay 1a1 a r 85-96

The Sunni and Shi'i Schools Of Thought Within The Muslim Tradition Kemalettin Özdemir*

There are already so many studies on the nature and the rise of the Shi' a school in lslam that it may be seen as redundant to produce another study on the subject unless one is claiming an original approach on the debate. 1 The present short study does not claim any originality as far as the main ideas are con­ cerned. But we would like to examine, trying to utilize almost ali the works thus far produced, the Shi'a rather from the perspective of recent developments in OLır global age in order to see what the main differences are between the major factions in ; the Shi'a and the Sunni schools. We shall not argue for de­ fending any of the sides; we rather propose a new vision in order to understand what these divisions constitute in Islam within this age of an expected global dialogue. For it is now a known fact that within the Muslim tradition, there are two main political and theological branches: the Shi 'i and the Sunni schools. The Shi 'i school contains a little more than % 10 of the lslamic population in the world, and is mainly present in Iran, Iraq and the Indian sub-continent, although there are pockets too in East Africa, East Arabia, Lebanon, Syria, and Afghani­ stan. The Shi'ite school is divided into three principal subdivisions: the largest division is the Shi 'ism, also known as "" (Ithna 'Ashariya). Twelver Shi 'ism has been the official religion of Iran since the Safavid dynasty came to power in 1501. The Zaydis, the second largest group, are found in Yemen, and the third largest group, about two milli ons, the Isına 'ilis, are con­ centrated in lndia. These subdivisions each contain further lesser subdivisions, and in some cases have given ıise to offshoots. Shi'a in this sense is the school ip Islam with the largest subdivisions. Although Husayn M. Jafri regards it as oversimplification ofa very complex situtation the rise of Shi 'ism as a school of thought within the Muslim tradition has commonly been explained in terms of political differences. 2 lts origins ha ve been attributed to political partisanship with regard to the leadership of the Muslim Comrnunity. Those who first advocated the candidacy of 'Ali İbn Abi Talib for successorship to the Prophet later began, especially during the times of Muhammad al-Baqir, the 5th imam and grandson of Husayn ibn 'Ali martyred in Karbala in 680, and his son Ja'far al-Sadiq, to allege that 'Ali had a divine right to successorship and had received a special mandate from the Prophet. They have been called the Shi'at 'Ali (the "party of 'Ali") or the Shi'is. Refer­ ring to the support of the Shi'is of Kufa for the leadership of 'Ali and his de­ scendants through Fatima, the daughter of the Prophet, Abdulaziz Abdulhussein Sachedina, brought up asa Shi'i, writes:

85 Akademik Araştırmalar Dergisi The Sunni and Shi'i Schools Of Thought Within The Muslim Tradition

This support for the leadership of the 'Alids, at least in the beginning, did not imply any religious underpinning ... The claim of leadership of the 'Alids became an exaggerated belief expressed in pious terms of the traditions attrib­ uted to the Prophet, and only gradually became part of the cardinal doctrine of the Imamate,_ the pivot on which the complete Shf'ite creed rotates.3 With this brief outline we are not claiming to have done justice to the whole historical process for the rise of the Shi'a. in any case our purpose is not the de­ tailed history; we rather would like to pinpoint the issues of concem for the Sunni-Shi'i quarrel which may seem in the final analysis as very simple. It is thus the main purpose of this paper to exhibit the simplicity of the issues within the context of the contemporary events. They may have been very significant for their space time dimension, but it is not any more relevant to raise these is­ sues in the age of dialogue of civilizations. in this spirit we may now try to un­ derstand the history of the division and the main points of disagreement be­ tween these schools.

' A Brief History to Understand the Division After the death of the Prophet Muhammad (upon him be peace and bless­ ings) in 632, an assembly of Muslims elected Abu Bakr as Caliph. The next day, all the Muslims in Madina, except a few from the Hashimites, the elan of the Prophet who advocated the candidacy of 'Ali, paid allegiance to Abu Bakr in the Prophet's Mosque, and the rest of the Muslim community living in Makka and other towns gave support to this election. But in order that the op­ position of the small Hashimite group should appease and end, 'Ali chose to de­ lay in paying allegiance and some time later he also paid allegiance together with the Hashimites. After Abu Bakr, 'Umar and 'Uthman were elected as Caliphs. After the murder of 'Uthman in 656, the people of Madina proclaimed 'Ali Caliph. 'Ali accepted the Caliphate but encountered opposition. The most serious opposition came from the family of 'Uthman, headed by Mu'awiyah. The Battle of Siffin in 657 between the armies of 'Ali and Mu 'awiyah resulted in a stalemate and an agreement to submit the dispute to arbitration. 'Ali's problems then intensified when a part of his army repudiated him for having submitted to arbitration. These seceders, the Khawarij, were defeated at the Battle of Nahrawan, but one cif them av en ged this defeat by assassinating 'Ali at the Mosque of Kufa in 661. 'Ali's elder son, Hasan, succeeded to the Caliphate but soon abdicated in fa­ vor of Mu'awiya for the unity of the Muslim Community. Before his death, Mu'awiya appointed his son Yazid as his successor and took the allegiance of the elders of the Community. However, Husayn, the grandson of the Prophet and son of 'Ali, refused to pay allegiance to Yazid because of the weak charac­ ter and dissipated life of the latter and in order to prevent Caliphate from tum­ ing into a Sultanate or kingship. He was persuaded to leave Madina and set out

86 Journal of Academic Studies Kemalettin Özdemir Yıl: 5, Sayı: 19 Kasım 2003 - Ocak 2004 for Kufa, where he had been promised support for his cause. But Yazid acted quickly in arresting Husayn's emissary in Kufa, intimidating the Kufans, and in­ tercepting Husayn on his way. Husayn was surrounded at a place called Karbala and there killed, together with the male members of his household except his son 'Ali Zayn al-Abidin, in 680. The tragic martyrdom of Husayn became the rallying point of the party of 'Ali (Shi'at 'Ali), and continues to this day to be the most important commemo­ ration in the Shi 'ite calendar. After this event, there was some disagreement among the Shi 'is o ver the identity of their spiritual leader, the imam, for the next few generations. It can be said that they divided into smaller factions after the death of every Imam.

Basic Points of Division Both the Sunnis and Shi 'is are fully agreed upon the essentials of the Islamic faith. That is, they believe in God' s Existence and Unity; the world' s final de­ struction, Resurrection and Judgment; Prophethood and ali Prophets without distinction; ali Divine Scriptures; angels; and Divine Destiny and Decree (in­ cluding human free will). However, according to the Shi 'is, religion is based on fıve pillars: (God's Oneness), Prophethood, Resurrection, Justice, and Imamate. There are not any signifıcant differences between their and the Sun­ nis' approach to the first three pillars. Justice: The Shi 'is, like the Sunnis, believe that God is the All-Just and or­ ders us to be just. However, the Shi 'is claim that because of His being the All­ Just, God is obliged to treat His servants with justice. That is, He has to admit His believing good servants in Paradise and punish His unbelieving, sinful ones.4 Contrary to this, the Sunnis, say that although God is the All-Just and acts with justice, He is absolutely free in His wills and actions. He does however He wills and is not obliged to do anything. They also say that besides being the All­ Just, God is also the All-Compassionate and Forgiving and therefore we hope for His compassion and forgiveness. No one can enter Paradise by virtue of one's good .acts alone except by the mercy of God, for no one is ever able to thank God even for a single bounty of His. So, following the Prophet, the Sun­ nis seek refuge in and pray for His forgiveness and compassion. The Imamate: The cardinal point of difference between the Sunnis and Shi 'is is the matter of the Imamate. Conceming the Prophet' s mission and the basic character ofislam, the Qur'an declares: We have sent among yon one of your own as a Messenger who recites Our Revelations and signs (in people's inner world and in the outer world) to you, purifies yon (of false beliefs and doctrines, sins, and ali kinds of filth), instructs you in the Book and Wisdom, and instructs you in that which you do not know. (2: 151)

87 Akademik Araştırmalar Dergisi The Sunni and Shi'i Schools Of Thought Within The Muslim Tradition

The verse means that lslam pursues three main goals: Reciting to people God's Revelations and His signs in the outer world (nature) and people's inner world, purifying their minds of false beliefs and doctrines and their hearts of sins and ali kinds of filth, and instructing them in the Book and Wisdom, and in that which they do not know. The Prophet's temporal or political leadership de­ pends on people's paying allegiance to him as such. So, for the Sunnis, the leader of the Muslims after the death of Muhammad was a temporal leader cho­ sen by consensus. This must be so because Islam considers a society to be com­ posed of conscious individuals equipped with free will and having responsibil­ ity toward both themselves and others. Islam goes a step further by adding a cosmic dimension. it sees humanity as the "motor" of history. Just as every in­ dividual's will and behavior determine the outcome of his or her life in this world and in the hereafter, a society's progress or decline is determined by the will, world-view, and lifestyle of its inhabitants. The Qur'an (13:11) says: "God will not change the state ofa people unless they change themselves (with re­ spect to their beliefs, world-view, and lifestyle)." in other words, each society holds the reins of its fate in its own hands. The Prophetic tradition emphasizes this idea: "You will be ruled according to how you are."5 As Is lam holds individuals and societies responsible for their own fate, peo­ ple must be responsible for governing themselves. The Qur'an addresses society with such phrases as: "O people!" and "O believers!" The duties entrusted to modern states are those that lslam refers to society and classifies, in order of importance, as "absolutely necessary, relatively necessary, and commendable to carry out." People cooperate with one another by sharing these duties and estab­ lishing the essential foundations necessary to perform them. The government is composed of ali of these foundations. Thus, Islam recommends a government based on a social contract. People elect the administrators and establish a coun­ cil to debate common issues. Also, the society as a whole participates in audit­ ing the administration. The Prophet says that ali people are as equal as the teeth ofa comb.6 Islam does not discriminate based on race, color, age, nationality, or physical traits. Those who are bom earlier, have more wealth and power than others, or belong to certain families or ethnic groups have no inherent right to rule others. · Although the political system was transformed into a sultanate after the death of 'Ali, the fourth caliph, due to internal conflicts and to the global condi­ tions at that time, especially during the rule of the first four caliphs (632-661), these fundamental principles of government-including free election-were fully observed.7 For the Shi 'is, leadership belongs to the successor designated by God and the successor or imam, as he is called by the Shi 'is, is known through the decla­ ration of the Prophet or the preceding imam. The authority of each successor derives from this designation, which makes him entitled to both spiritual and

88 Journal of Academic Studies Kemalettin Özdemir Yıl: 5, Sayı: 19 Kasım 2003 - Ocak 2004 tempom! leadership. Whether the holder of this station actually exercises tem­ pom! power makes no difference to his station. The Imam is the Guide (hadi) for humankind and the Proof (hujfa) of God. According to the !ate Murtaza Mutahhari, the Imamate or, as another term of almost the same import, wilaya, has four dimensions: 1. The right of love and devotion (wila '-i mahabba): This right places the Muslims under the obligation of loving the Ahi al-Bayt, the Household of the Prophet comprising 'Ali, Fatimah, Hasan and Husayn. 2. The authority in spiritual guidance (wila' -i imama): This reflects the power and authority of the Ahi al-Bayt in guiding their followers in spiritual matters. 3. The authority in socio-political guidance (wila'-i zi'ama): This dimension of wilayat reflects the right that the Ahi al-Bayt have to lead the Muslims in so­ cial and political aspects of life. 4. The authority of the universal nature (wila '-i tasarruf): This dimension reflects some sort of universal power over the entire universe that the Prophet and Ahlul Bayt have been vested with by the grace of Almighty God. 8 · Ali Muslims unanimously accept the first dimension of wilayat of Ahi al­ Bayt. Loving the Ahi al-Bayt is one of the essential parts of the Islamic faith. This is thus not an issue of disagreement. The second dimension of the wilaya is a commonly held belief of the Shi 'is as well as the majority of the Sunnis who belong to Sufi orders. The Ahi al­ Sunna (The Sunnis) do not doubt the lmamate of Amir al-Mu 'minin in the sense that 'Ali is the master or greatest of the saints. He was also the foremost in knowledge of Islam among the Companions and, according to Bediüzzaman Said Nursi, served as the shaykhul-Islam (the religious guide) of the first three Caliphs.9 Furthermore, other than the Naqshbandi order, almost ali Sufıs trace the chain of their spiritual masters back to the Imams of the Ahi al-Bayt, ending with imam 'Ali ibn Abi Talib as the spiritual authority after the Prophet. The Naqsbandi order traces its spiritual leadership back to imam Ja 'far al-Sadiq and then follows the !ine to Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr and then to Abu Bakr. The third and fourth dimensions of wilaya are unique Shi'i beliefs, and they are considered as part of the essential parts of Shi 'i sect. it is important to note that whenever the Shi 'is use the term lmamate or imam, it encompasses ali the four dimensions of wilaya. It excludes neither the spiritual and universal author­ ity nor the social and political leadership. W e should note that the Shi 'ite school restricts the number of the Imams to 12, the twelfth being Muhammad Mahdi who is considered to have disappeared from the world in 940 and to be alive in the unseen (glıa'ib). He is expected to return as the Mahdi toward the end of time to fiil the world with justice. It has been a point of controversy as to who would Iead the Shi 'i community during this "greater occultation" of the 12th Imam. However, the !ate Ayatullah Khu­ mayni developed the doctrine of Walayat al-Faqih. According to him, just,

89 Akademik Araştırmalar Dergisi The Sunni and Shi'i Schools Of Thought Within The Muslim Tradition

knowledgeable mujtahids (greatest of jurists) are heirs to the Imams and will lead the Shi 'i community. 10 This doctrine is responsible for the institution of ni­ yaba al-imam (regency to the Hidden Imam) in the Constitution of the Islamic Republic of Iran. According to the Shi 'is, like ali the Prophets, the 12 Imams were also sinless and infallible; they did not commit any sin, whether capital or minor, and whether intentionally or unintentionally, and that they were sinless from the be­ ginning of their life till their last breath. Again, the Imams possessed and their substitue jurists must possess such qualities as knowledge, bravery, justice, wis­ dom, piety, and love ofGod. 11

The Sunna and Religious Knowledge The Book of God, the Holy , is the principal source of every form of lslamic belief, thought, and action. However, the Qur'an contains only the gen­ eral principles concerning the acts of worship and the daily life. The clarifica­ tion and elaboration of their details, such as the manner of accomplishing the daily prayers, fasting, exchanging merchandise, and in fact ali acts of worship ('ibadat) and transactions (mu'amalat), can be achieved only by referring to the Sunna of the Prophet. But here lies a significant difference between the Sunnis a:nd the Shi'is. While in the Sunni Tradition, the Sunna (the Prophetic sayings, actions, and approvals) is transmitted through the Companions, the Shi 'is, who accuse the overwhelming majority of the Companions of the Prophet of denying 'Ali his divine right to successorship to the Prophet, accept only the hadiths they accept as transmitted through the Shi 'is from the Prophet and the 12 Imams. 12 However, with the exception of the Imamate, raj'a (to be discussed below), and Divine justice and some secondary matters, their agreement upon the essentials of belief, worship, and Islamic life is because they follow the same Book - the Qur'an - and the fact that the hadiths they agree upon are more than those upon which they disagree.

Khums The Sunnis interpret the ghanima in the verse "Know that whatever you re­ ceive as ghanima to God belongs one fifth of it, and to the Messenger, and his near kinsfolk, and orphans, and the destitute, and the wayfarer (devoid of suffi­ cient means of journeying)" (8:41) as spoils of war. Whereas the Shi'is inter­ peret is as "whatever of a thing you acquire," and claim that it includes ( 1) the profit or the surplus of income, (2) the legitimate wealth which is mixed with the illegitimate wealth, (3) mines and minerals, (4) the precious stones obtained from sea by diving, (5) treasures, (6) the land which a non-Muslim citizen ofa Muslim state buys from a Muslim, and (7) the spoils of war. They cali it (one fifth) and maintain that during the occultation of the Hidden imam (li1ı imam), the first 3 portions (the portions belonging to God, His Messenger and

90 Journal of Academic Studies Kemalettin Özdemir Yıl: 5, Sayı: 19 Kasım 2003 - Ocak 2004 his near kinsfolk) should go mujtahids, who are expected to spend them on re­ ligios services. 13

Eschatology and Raj'a (Retum to the World) The Shi 'is, along with other Muslims, believe in a Day of J udgnıent and a physical resurrection at the end of the world. The Shi 'is also believe that God will resurrect the leading ones in belief and unbelief and oppression, including especially the supporters and opponents of the Imams, before the end of time and show the world the final victory of the Ahi al-Bayt. They also believe that before the end of the world the Hidden Twelfth Imam will appear as the Mahdi and fili the earth with justice when it had been filled with injustice. 14 The Sunnis cetagorically reject the doctrine of raj'a.

Dissimulation (Taqiyya) Shaykh Saduq writes: "Our belief concerning taqiyya (dissimulation) is that it is obligatory, and he who forsakes it is in the same position as he who for­ sakes prayer. Until the imam al-Qa'im (the Mahdi) appears, taqiyya is obliga­ tory and it is not permissible to dispense with it. The one who abandons it be­ fore the appearance of the Qa'im has verily gone out of the religion of God, Ex­ alted is He, and the religion of the Imams, and disobeys God and His Messen­ ger and the Imams." The Shi 'is claim that when Inıam Ja 'far a!-Sadiq was asked concerning the Word of God, ''The noblest among you, in the sight of God, is the most ad­ vanced in taqwa (piety)" (49: 13) he answered: "(lt means) he who adheres most scrupulously to the practice of taqiyya." Shaykh Saduq writes that Imam Ja'far also said: "Mix with the people (ene­ mies) outwardly, but oppose them inwardly, so long as the Amirate (leadership of the Community) is a matter of opinion. Diplomacy with a true believer (meaning a Shi'ite) is a form of shirk (polytheism); but with a hypocrite (mean­ ing their opponents) in his own house, it is worship. He who prays with them standing in the first row, it is as though he prayed with the Prophet in the first row. Visit their sick and attend their funerals and pray in their mosques." 15

Pillars of Islam and According to the Sunnis, the Islamic life is based on five pillars: Bearing witness to God's Existence and Oneness and the Messengership of Muhammad, praying five times a day, fasting during the month of Ramadan, paying (the prescribed purifying alms), and or pilgrimage. They maintain that ji­ had, amr bi'l-ma'ruf and nahy ani'l-munkar (promoting what is good and pre­ venting what is evi!), and tawalli and tabarra (taking God and His friends for friends and standing aloof from their enemies) as supportive elements of Islam and Islamic life. Whereas, according to the Shi 'is, the !ast three elements are in­ cluded in the pillars of Islam.

91 Akademik Araştırmalar Dergisi The Sunni and Shi'i Schools Of Thought Within The Muslim Tradition

Derived from the root J-H-D, jihad means using ali one's strength, as well as moving toward an objective with ali one's power and strength and resisting every difficulty. Other than the Shi 'is including it in the pillars of Islam, there are no differences of view between the Sunnis and Shi 'is concerning the mean­ ing and content of jihad. Jihad gained a special characteristic with the advent of Islam: striving in the path of God. This is the meaning that usually comes to mind today. This strife occurs on two fronts: the internal and the external. The internal one can be de­ scribed as the effort to attain one's essence; the external one as the process of enabling someone else to attain his or her essence. In the words of the Prophet, the first is the greater jihad; the second is the lesser jihad. The first is based on overcoming obstacles between oneself and his or her essence, and the soul's reaching knowledge and eventually divine knowledge, divine love, and spiritual bliss. The second is based on removing obstacles between people and faith so that people can make free choice to adopt a way. The lesser jihad does not mean to do it on the battlefronts exclusively. In re­ ality, the lesser jihad has so broad a meaning and application that sometimes a 'Yord or silence, a frown or a smile, leaving or entering an assembly - in short, everything done for God's sake - and regulating love and anger according to His approval is included in it. In this way, ali efforts made to reform society and people are part of jihad, as is every effort made for your family, relatives, neighbors, and region. In a sense, the lesser jihad is material. The greater jihad, however, is con­ ducted on the spiritual front, for it is our struggle with our inner world and ego (nafs). The lesser jihad is our active fulfillment of God's commands; the greater ji­ had is proclaiming war on our ego's destructive and negative emotions and thoughts (e.g., malice, hatred, envy, selfishness, pride, anogance, and pomp), which prevent us from attaining perfection. As this is a very difficult and hard jihad, it is called the greater jihad. Those who fail in the greater jihad will fail in the lesser jihad. 'A'isha related: üne night the Messenger of God asked: '"A'isha, can I spend this night with my Lord?" I replied: "Messenger of God, 1 would like to be with you, but I'd like what you like even more." The Prophet made ablution and began praying. He recited: Behold! In the creation of the heavens and earth, and the alterna­ tion of night and day there are indeed signs for people of ıınderstanding. (3: l90) He recited this verse and shed tears until morning. (Ibn Kathir, Taf"sir Al 'Imran, 190.) This shows the inner depth and greater jihad of the Prophet (upon him be peace and blessings). Jihad is, therefore, the means of internal and external bal­ ance. Reaching spiritual perfection and helping others do so are points of con-

92 Journal of Academic Studies Kemalettin Özdemir Yıl: 5, Sayı: 19 Kasım 2003 - Ocak 2004 sideration. Attaining internal perfection is the greater jihad; helping others at­ tain it is the Iesser jihad. 16

Other slight differences The differences between the Sunni and Shi 'i schools concerning the acts of worship are no more than the differences between the Sunni schools of Iaw ex­ cept the temporary marriage (mııt'a). in addition, they add to the cali to prayer (adhan) 'Aliyyıın waliyyııllah ('"Ali is the friend of God") as a practice intro­ duced by the Safavids. The Shi'a tend to combine the noon prayer with the af­ ternoon prayer and the evening prayer with the night prayer. They do not accept wiping over the indoor boots (inash ala khııffayn) in wudu' (ablution for prayer).

The Last W ord The Shi'a school, which comprises about 10% of the total of ali Muslims, is the only surviving school next to the Sunni one with its special doctrines. The main point of difference between these two schools is the matter of Imamate. The Shi 'is maintain that the Ieadership of the Muslim Community is determined by God himself and is a matter of faith. According to them, upon the instruction of God, the Prophet appointed 'Ali as his rightful successor but the Companions denied him this right and made the matter consultative. The number of the Divine-appointed Imams is 12. The !ast one got into the great occultation and will appear toward the end of time. The Shi 'i view of the Imamate or the Ieadership of the Muslim community during the absence or oc­ cultatiton of the imam is no different than that of the Sunnis. So in the present context, the Shi 'a doctrine of the Imamate, which is the bedrock of the Shi 'a school and the difference within the Muslim tradition is of no practical value. Although the Shi 'a has some other doctrines which make points of differ­ ence from the Sunni school such· as raj'a and taqiyya (dissimulation), it may well be considered that these are also related to the matter of the Imamate. However, since ali these points of difference are based on political partisanship, the Shi 'a has been able to maintain itself as a separate school in the Iong history of Islam.

* Assoc. Prof. Dr., Sakarya University, Faculty of Theology. 1 Among them we may remind only the major ones as: Husayn M. Jafri, The Origins and Early Development of Shi 'a lslam (London, New York: Longman, 1981 ); Bernard Lewis, The Origins of Isına 'ilism: A Study of the Historical Background of the Fatimid

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Caliphate (Cambridge: W. Heffer & Sons Ltd., 1940); Allamah Muhammad Husayn Tabatabai, Shi'a, trans. by Seyyed Hossein Nasr (Qum: Ansariyan Publications, 1989); Julius Wellhausen, The Religio-Political Factions in Early Islam, trans. by R. C. üstle and S. M. Walzer (Amsterdam: North-Holland Publishing Company, 1975); see also The Political Doctrine of the Isma'ilis, (an edition and translation of Abu'l-Fawaris Ahmad ibn Ya'qub's al-Risalah fi'l-Imamah), ed. and trans. by Sami Nasib Makarem (Delmar, NY: Caravan Books, 1990); Heinz Halın, Shiism, trans. by Janet Watson (Ed­ inburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1991); S. M. Stern, Studies in Early lsma 'ilism (Jerusalem: The Magnes Press and Leiden: E. J. Erili, 1983); Asaf A. A. Fyzee, A Shi'ite Creed: A Translation of l'tiqadat al-Imanıfyah of Abu la 'far lbn Babawayh al-Qummf (known as al-Shaykh al-Saduq) (Tehran: World Organization for Islamic Services, 1982) There is no need to mention here the classical works on the Muslim schisms and sects that are well known, such as the ones by al-Baghdadl, al-Ash'ari, Ibn Hazın and al­ Shahrastanl. 2 Jafri. The Origins, op. cit., 1. 3 Abdulaziz Abdulhussein Sachedina. lslamic Messianisnı: The idea of Mahdi in Twelver Shf'ism (Albany: State University ofNew York Press, 1981), 6. 4'Ayatullah Kashif al-Ghita. Caferi Mezhebi ve Esasları (The Ja'fari Sect and Its Essen­ tials), tr., Abdülbaki Gölpınarlı (İstanbul: N.p., 1979), 56-57. 5 'Ala al-Din 'Ali al-Muttaqi al-Hindi, Kanz al-'Unınıalfi Sunan al-Aqwal wa al-Af'al ("A Treasure of the Laborers for the Sake of Prophet's Sayings and Deeds") (Beirut: Muassasat al-Risala, 1985), 6: 89. 6 Abu Shuja' Shirawayh ibn Shahrdar al-Daylami, Al-Firdaws bi-Ma 'thur al-Khitab ("The Heavenly Garden Made Up of the Selections From the Prophet's Addresses") (Beirut: Dar al-Kutub al- 'Ilmiya, 1986), 4: 300. 7 For the explanation of the Sunni view, see Fethullah Gülen, "A Comparative Approach to Islam and Democracy," SAIS Review, 21, No. 2 (2001), 133-138. 8 Murtaza Mutahhari, Wilayah: The Station of the Master, tr. Yahya Cooper (Tehran: World Organisation for Islamic Services, 1982). 9 Said Nursi, Lem 'alar (İstanbul, Sözler Yayınevi, n.d.), 24. 10 Ayatullah Khumayni, İslam Fıkhında Devlet, tr. Hüseyin Hatemi (İstanbul: Düşünce Yayınları, 1979), 97-98. 11 Shaykh Saduq Abu Ja 'far Muhammad al-Qumi, Şii-İmamiye 'nin İnanç Esasları ("The Principles of the Imamiya's Faith"), tr. E. Ruhi Fığlalı (Ankara: A. Ü. İlahiyat Fakültesi Yayınları, 1978), 110. See also the above cited English translation. 12 Muhammad Husayn Tabatabai, Shi'a, op. cit., 84 and 101-102. 13 Ayatullah Kashif al-Ghita, op. cit., 72-73. 14 Shaykh Saduq, op. cit., 70; Muzaffer Riza al-Muzaffer, Şia İnançları ("The Beliefs of Shi'a"), tr. Abdülbaki Gölpınarlı (İstanbul: N.p., 1978), 63.

94 Journal of Academic Studies Kemalettin Özdemir Yıl: 5, Sayı: 19 Kasım 2003 - Ocak 2004

15 Shaykh Saduq, ibid., 128-129.

Özet

Çağdaş İslam Düşüncesi Bağlamında Şi'i Okulu

Tarihi İslilm geleneği içinde Sünnilik ve Şiflik iki büyük dalı oluşturmuştur. Dünyada mevcut Müslüman nüfus içinde yaklaşık% JO'luk bir kesimi oluştu­ ran Şifler, pek çok küçük alt grupları olmakla birlikte 12 İmam Şifliği veya İmamiye, İsmailiye ve Zeydiye adlı üç ana gruba ayrılmış durumdadır. Sünni-Şif ayrışmasının kökleri, daha başka görüş ve iddialar da olmakla birlik­ te, daha çok siyasi tavır ve tercihlerde yatmaktadır. Tarih olarak konu, her ne kadar Hz. Peygamber' in vefatının hemen ertesinde Hz. Ebu Bekir'in ilk hal(fe olarak seçilmesine kadar götürülse de, ayrışma daha çok Hz. Ali'nin hilafet ·günlerine, daha kesin bir dönemeç olarak ise Kerbelil olayına dayanır. Ayrışmanın temelinde, Hz. Peygamber' den sonra yönetimin başı olarak yerine kimin geçeceği sorunu yatmaktadır. Bu noktada Kur'an-ı Kerim ve Sünnet'te kesin bir nassın olmaması Sahabe 'yi sorunu seçim yoluyla halletmeye götür• müş, fakat bilhassa Hz. Ali 'nin hilafeti zamanındaki hadiseler ve özellikle de Kerbelil olayından sonra bir takım Hz. Ali ve/veya Ehl-i Beyt tarafiarları konuyu bir itikadf mesele haline getirmişlerdir. Dolayısıyla, Sünnf-Şif ayrışma­ sının temelini hilafet konusu oluşturmaktadır. Şifler, İslam toplumu içinde za­ r;ııanla azınlıkta kalmanın da etkisiyle, soruna itikadf bir temel bulma gayreti i­ çine girmiş ve İmamet adı altında ele aldıkları Hilafet'in, Peygamberlik gibi İ­ lah! bir seçim olduğu ve dolayısıyla insanlar kabı!! etse de etmese de, halife ve­ ya imamın tayinin Allah'a ait bulunduğu tezini geliştirmişlerdir. Bu çerçevede, imam veya halifenin ümmetin en/aziletlisi olması gerektiği gibi, masum da ol­ duğunu ileri sürmüşlerdir. Onlara gore, her zaman bu vas!fları taşıyan bir i- mam bulunur. Fakat, Hz. Peygamber'den sonra imamların sayısı, Şiflerin en büyük grubunu oluşturan İmamiye'e gore, Hz. Ali ve oğulları Hz. Hasan ve Hz. Hüseyin 'le birlikte, Hz. Hüseyin neslinde gelen, tamamı 12 kişidir. 12 'nci İmam 74 yaşında büyük gizlenişe girmiştir ve Kıyamet' e yakın Mehdi olarak zuhur edecektir. Bu şekilde, Mehdf inancında da Şifler Sünniler ayrılmaktadır. Bu te­ zin getirdiği diğer bir ayrışma noktası Hadis konusundadır. Şifler, İmamların karar ve fetvalarını da hadis Kabul ederler ve Hz. Peygamber'den de ancak imamlar ve onlardan Şifler vasıtasıyla gelen hadisleri kabı!/ edip, Siinnf hadis kaynaklarını reddederler. Bu temel fak/ılıklardan ayrı olarak Şifler, halen bir şekilde hayatta bulunan 12 'nci İmanı 'ın mehdf olarak zuhurundan ayrı olarak, daha bir takım imamların ve onlara zulmeden muhaliflerinin de dirileceğine ve

95 Akademik Araştırmalar Dergisi The Sunni and Shi'i Schools Of Thoug.ht Within The Muslim Tradition

imamların onlardan haklarını alacağına inanırlar (Ric'at). Yine onlar, daha çok İmam-ı Cafer'in büyük oğlu İsmail yerine küçük oğlu Musa Kazım 'ııı ima- metini ispat sadedinde Beda adıya bir başta doktrin geliştirmişlerdir. Buna gore Allah, hükümlerinde, bir manada kaderde, değişiklik yapabilir. İstam top­ lumu içinde ayrı bir grup oluşturan Şifler, imamlardan sonra varlıklarını alim­ leri etrafinda toplanarak devam ettirmiş ve "humus" (S'te 1) adlı bir vergi usu- lü kabul ederek, bu vergiyi tabi oldukları alimlerine vermişlerdir. Buna delil olarak da, Enfal Suresi'nin, harp ganimetlerinin taksimiyle alakalı olan 41 'inci ayetini ileri sürmüşlerdir. Şifler, varlıklarının devamını bir bakıma inançlarını gizlemede, hatta başka türlü görünmede bulunmuş ve takıyye adıyla bunu da, dinin esaslarından saymışlardır. Şifler, Cenab-ı Allah 'ın iyileri Cennet' e, kötü• leri ise Cehennem' e koymaya mecbur olduğunu, O 'nun adaletinin mutlak ma­ nada bunu gerektirdiğini de savunmuşlardır ki, bu manada adalet, onlar açı- sından Dinin 5 esasından biridir. Bunlar dışında, Sünnflik'le Şiflik arasında önemli sayılabilecek temel fark yok­ tur. Fıkhf konularda en temel fark, onların geçici nikah meşru kabul etmeleri­ dir. Ayrıca Şifler, Sünnf mezheplerin müeyyidlıt'tan saydığı Cihad, Emr-i Ma 'ruf ve Nehy-i Ani'l-Münker'le birlikte tevellf ve teberra 'yı da İslam 'ın şart­ larından sayar ve bu şartları 8 'e çıkarırlar.

Anahtar Kelimeler: Sünnflik, Şiflik, Kerbeltıi, Yönetim, Hilafet, İmamet, Vila­ yet, Seçim, Hadis, Sünnet, İmamlar, Masum, Melıdflik, Rec'at, Adalet, Takıyye, Humus, Tevelli, Teberra, Cihad, Emr-i bi'l-Ma'ruf; Nelıy-ı ani'l-Münker

96 Journal of Academic Studies