Is SARS-Cov-2 Neutralized More Effectively by Igm and Iga Than Igg Having the Same Fab Region?

Hypothesis Is SARS-CoV-2 Neutralized More Effectively by IgM and IgA than IgG Having the Same Fab Region?

Yalcin Pisil 1, Zafer Yazici 2 , Hisatoshi Shida 3 and Tomoyuki Miura 1,*

1 Laboratory of Primate Model, Research Center for Infectious Diseases, Institute for Frontier Life and Medical Science, Kyoto University, Kyoto 615-8530, Japan; [email protected] 2 Department of Virology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, 19 Mayis University, Samsun 55270, Turkey; [email protected] 3 Division of Molecular Virology, Institute of Immunological Science, Hokkaido University, Hokkaido 060-0808, Japan; [email protected] * Correspondence: [email protected]

Abstract: Recently, recombinant monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) of three Ig isotypes (IgG, IgA, and IgM) sharing the same anti-spike protein Fab region were developed; we evaluated their neutralizing abilities using a pseudo-typed lentivirus coated with the SARS-CoV-2 spike protein and ACE2-transfected Crandell–Rees feline kidney cells as the host cell line. Although each of the anti- SARS-CoV-2 mAbs was able to neutralize the spike-coated lentiviruses, IgM and IgA neutralized the viral particles at 225-fold and 125-fold lower concentrations, respectively, than that of IgG. Our finding that the neutralization ability of Igs with the same Fab domain was dramatically higher for IgM and IgA than IgG mAbs suggests a strategy for developing effective and affordable antibody therapies for COVID-19. The efficient neutralization conferred by IgM and IgA mAbs can be explained by their capacity to bind multiple virions. While several IgG mAbs have been approved as therapeutics by the FDA, there are currently no IgM or IgA mAbs available. We suggest that mAbs with multiple Citation: Pisil, Y.; Yazici, Z.; Shida, H.; Miura, T. Is SARS-CoV-2 antigen-binding sites such as IgM and IgA could be developed as the new generation of therapy. Neutralized More Effectively by IgM and IgA than IgG Having the Same Keywords: SARS-CoV-2; COVID-19; neutralizing antibody; IgG; IgM; IgA Fab Region?. Pathogens 2021, 10, 751. https://doi.org/10.3390/ pathogens10060751 Severe acute respiratory syndrome-coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2) has caused the second Academic Editor: Roberto Paganelli pandemic of the 21st century, which so far has killed more than 2.5 million people and infected more than 130 million in 223 territories globally (World Health Organization, 2021). Received: 19 May 2021 Current clinical management procedures for coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) Accepted: 11 June 2021 include good hygiene practice, infection diagnosis, and supportive care such as supple- Published: 13 June 2021 mental oxygen and mechanical ventilatory support. The United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has approved one drug, remdesivir (Veklury), for the treatment of Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral COVID-19; however, the World Health Organization does not currently recommend usage with regard to jurisdictional claims in of remdesivir. Favipiravir, an approved drug to treat influenza, has also been adminis- published maps and institutional affil- tered to treat COVID-19, but its antiviral efficacy is still under debate [1]. Unfortunately, iations. no effective antiviral treatments for COVID-19 are currently available due to our limited knowledge about SARS-CoV-2 and lengthy drug development time frames [2]. Antibodies collected from convalescent individuals can be used to treat infectious diseases. Approximately 90% of individuals with mild-to-moderate COVID-19 produce Copyright: © 2021 by the authors. anti-SARS-CoV-2 antibodies. Immunoglobin (Ig) M and IgA are typically produced within Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. 7 days [3], and IgG development occurs 10–18 days post-infection; antibody titres remain This article is an open access article stable for at least 5 months after infection [4]. Convalescent plasma containing neutralizing distributed under the terms and antibodies may be able to modulate the inflammatory response of newly infected COVID- conditions of the Creative Commons 19 patients and could therefore be used as a therapy for COVID-19 [5]. However, antibody Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// therapies carry the risk of triggering allergic/anaphylactic reactions, white blood cell/red creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ blood cell alloimmunization, lung damage and difficulty breathing, haemolytic transfusion 4.0/).

Pathogens 2021, 10, 751. https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens10060751 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/pathogens Pathogens 2021, 10, 751 2 of 4

reactions, and infections [6]. Moreover, the levels of virus-neutralizing antibodies in convalescent plasma are often too low for effective treatment [7]. The passive administration of monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) is a promising antiviral therapy for AIDS and COVID-19 [7–9]. Several anti-SARS-CoV-2 mAbs have been isolated from the B cells of infected individuals. The majority of the mAbs isolated target the receptor-binding domain of the SARS-CoV-2 spike protein, which interacts with the angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) receptor to initiate the infection process [10–12]. The isolated mAbs effectively neutralize SARS-CoV-2 in vivo [9,13–15]. Combining multiple mAb clones can have a synergetic effect on neutralizing SARS-CoV-2 by recognizing different epitopes of the receptor-binding domain. Combination treatment of the anti- SARS-CoV-2 mAbs casirivimab and imdevimab has been approved by the FDA for use in mild-to-moderately ill high-risk patients [16]. The mass production of mAbs is laborious and expensive. Thus, researchers are searching for ways to increase mAb potency and reduce the concentration of mAbs required for effective treatment. The five classes of Igs are IgM, IgD, IgG, IgA, and IgE. All Ig molecules contain a fragment antigen-binding (Fab) region, which recognizes antigens, and fragment crystallizable (Fc) regions, which mediate the effector functions of natural killer cells, macrophages and the complement system. IgG is monomeric, IgM is multimeric (typically pentameric), and IgA exists in both monomeric and dimeric forms. The number of antigen molecules trapped by each Ig molecule can influence the effectiveness of virus neutralization [17]. Recently, recombinant mAbs of three Ig isotypes (IgG, IgA, and IgM) sharing the same anti-spike protein Fab region were developed; we evaluated their neutralizing abilities using a pseudo-typed lentivirus coated with the SARS-CoV-2 spike protein and ACE2- transfected Crandell–Rees feline kidney cells as the host cell line [18]. Although each of the anti-SARS-CoV-2 mAbs was able to neutralize the spike-coated lentiviruses, IgM and IgA neutralized the viral particles at 225-fold and 125-fold lower concentrations, respectively, than that of IgG [18] (Figure1a). Our finding that the neutralization ability of Igs with the same Fab domain was dramatically higher for IgM and IgA than IgG mAbs suggests a strategy for developing effective and affordable antibody therapies for COVID-19. The efficient neutralization conferred by IgM and IgA mAbs can be explained by their capacity to bind multiple virions [18] (Figure1b). Underlying reasons could be the enrichment of cross-linking of viral antigens, complement fixing, and the neutralization of virus-infected cells. This is consistent with a recent report in which the monomeric form of anti-SARS-CoV-2 IgA found in serum was two-fold less potent than IgG, while the dimeric, secretory form of IgA was 10-fold more potent than monomeric IgA [19]. Only the IgG type of mAbs has been clinically applied so far. The reasons could be ascribed to difficulty of IgM purification compared to IgG and the less-stable nature of IgM [20]. But these factors can be overcome by the recent progress of techniques such as new chromatography strategies and Fc glycan modifications [21,22]. Additionally, dimeric IgA and polymeric IgM can bind polymeric immunoglobulin receptors (pIgR). Owing to pIgR, dimeric IgA and polymeric IgM are transferred from the lamina propria across the epithelial barrier to mucosal surfaces [23]. Therefore, IgA and IgM could be injected intravenously and also administered via the nasal pathway, delivering to mucosal organs including the lungs. While several IgG mAbs have been approved as therapeutics by the FDA, there are currently no IgM or IgA mAbs available. Our finding about efficacy of the polymerization of antibodies suggests to pharmaceutical companies that mAbs with multiple antigen- binding sites such as IgM and IgA could be developed as the new generation of therapy. PathogensPathogens 20212021,, 1010,, x 751 FOR PEER REVIEW 3 3of of 4 4

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FigureFigure 1 1.. (a) (a) NeutralizationNeutralization of of pseudo pseudo-typed-typed lentivirus lentivirus coated coated with with the the SARS SARS-CoV-2-CoV-2 S Spikepike protein protein (LpVspike(+)) (LpVspike(+)) by by anti anti-- SARSSARS-CoV-2-CoV-2 monoclonal monoclonal antibodies antibodies (mAbs). (mAbs). After After pre pre-incubating-incubating LpVspike(+) LpVspike(+) with with each each anti anti-SARS-CoV-2-SARS-CoV-2 neutralizing neutralizing mAbmAb at at a a 100 100 TCID50 TCID50 (50% (50% tissue tissue culture culture infectious infectious dose), dose), the the mAb/vir mAb/virusus mixtures mixtures were were added added to to ACE2 ACE2-expressing-expressing CRFK CRFK cells and cultured for 48 h, after which luciferase activity was measured. The IgG, IgM, and IgA mAbs were diluted serially cells and cultured for 48 h, after which luciferase activity was measured. The IgG, IgM, and IgA mAbs were diluted serially three-fold, from an initial concentration of 10 μg mL−1 to 0.016 μg mL−1. The x- and y-axes are depicted in logarithmic scale three-fold, from an initial concentration of 10 µg mL−1 to 0.016 µg mL−1. The x- and y-axes are depicted in logarithmic [18]. (b) Neutralization of SARS-CoV-2 by three anti-SARS-CoV-2 neutralizing mAbs (IgG, IgM, and IgA). IgG has two antigenscale [18-binding]. (b) Neutralization sites, while dimeric of SARS-CoV-2 IgA has four by threeantigen anti-SARS-CoV-2-binding sites. Pentameric neutralizing IgM mAbs has (IgG,10 antigen IgM,- andbinding IgA). sites IgG and has cantwo bind antigen-binding 10 small antigens; sites, while however, dimeric due IgA to steric has four restrictions, antigen-binding only five sites. large Pentameric viral antigens IgM hascan 10be antigen-binding bound by one IgM sites molecule.and can bind IgG 10can small bind antigens; to only one however, large dueantigen, to steric whereas restrictions, dimeric, only trimeric five large, and viral pentameric antigens IgA can can be bound bind to by multiple one IgM largemolecule. antigens. IgG can bind to only one large antigen, whereas dimeric, trimeric, and pentameric IgA can bind to multiple large antigens. Author Contributions: T.M. and Y.P. were involved in planning. T.M. supervised the research. T.M. and Y.P. conceived of the presented idea, Y.P. developedAuthor Contributions:the theory andT.M. performed and Y.P. were the involvedcomputations. in planning. Y.P. carry T.M. supervised out the all the-experimental research. T.M. , . and Y.P. conceived of the presented idea, Y.P. developed the theory and performed the computations. methods. T.M. Z.Y and H.S. encouragedY.P. carry out Y.P. the to all-experimental investigate for methods. specific substitutions. T.M., Z.Y. and H.S.Y.P. encouragedcontributed Y.P. to tothe investigate design and for implementation of the research,specific to the substitutions. analysis of the Y.P. results contributed and the to thewriting design of and the implementationmanuscript. All of authors the research, discussed to the the results and commented onanalysis the manuscript. of the results All and authors the writing have of read the manuscript. and agreed All to authors the published discussed version the results of t andhe commented on the manuscript. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of manuscript. the manuscript. Funding: This work was supportedFunding: by aThis Research work was on supportedHIV/AIDS by grant a Research from onThe HIV/AIDS Ministry grant of Health, from The Labour Ministry and of Health, Welfare of Japan, by a Grant-inLabour-Aid for and Scientific Welfare of Research Japan, by (B) a Grant-in-Aid from the Japan for Scientific Society Research for the Promotion (B) from the of Japan Science Society for (Grant No. 16H04682), and by thea grant Promotion from the of Science Japan (GrantAgency No.. 16H04682), and by a grant from the Japan Agency. Data Availability Statement: Data The Availabilitydata that support Statement: the Thefindings data that of this support study the are findings openly of thisavailable study are openly available in https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens10020153. in https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens10020153 Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest. Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest. References Reference1. 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