Cluster Policy in the Russian Federation: a Сase Study of Industrial Clusters

Irina Rodionova, Tatiana Krejdenko, Cezary Mądry

QUAESTIONES GEOGRAPHICAE 37(2) • 2018

CLUSTER POLICY IN THE RUSSIAN FEDERATION: A СASE STUDY OF INDUSTRIAL CLUSTERS

Irina Rodionova1, Tatiana Krejdenko1, Cezary Mądry2

1Peoples’ Friendship University of Russia (RUDN University) 2Institute of Socio-Economic Geography and Spatial Management, Adam Mickiewicz University in Poznań

Manuscript received: January 25, 2018 Revised version: March 11, 2018

Rodionowa I., Krejdenko T., Mądry C., 2018. Cluster policy in the Russian Federation: A case study of industrial clusters. Quaestiones Geographicae 37(2), Bogucki Wydawnictwo Naukowe, Poznań, pp. 61–75. 3 tables, 3 figs.

Abstract: The article describes cluster policy in the Russian Federation regarding industrial clusters. In the first part, the authors explain the definitions of basic concepts related to clusters that are used in Russia, the features of cluster policy in the light of European experiences, and bring closer the Russian literature on the subject. In the second part, they distinguish and describe five stages of cluster policy in Russia. In the third part, they present basic quantitative data describing clusters in Russia, including their spatial diversification, the number of entities creating clusters, employment, etc. A particular role of the state in creating clusters and subsequent cluster policy programs is described, paying attention to their low efficiency.

Key words: Russia, clusters, industrial clusters, clustering, cluster policy, regions of the Russian Federation, federal districts of the Russian Federation Corresponding author: Cezary Mądry, Institute of Socio-Economic Geography and Spatial Management, Adam Mickiewicz University in Poznań, ul. B. Krygowskiego 10, 61-680 Poznań, Poland, e-mail: [email protected]

Introduction beginning it should be noted that the article only deals with industrial clusters and the cluster pol- The example of many countries shows that icy concerning them1. An accompanying term the shaping and development of clusters is an is clustering (clustering processes), i.e. activities effective instrument not only in increasing the aimed at creating clusters, which can be defined efficiency of the activities of the companies with- as a set of actions undertaken by the state and so- in the cluster but also of the regional policy. In cial units in order to associate various enterpris- Russian literature, a cluster is understood as a es in clusters to establish network collaboration group of mutually related companies producing between them. This definition particularly relates ready-made and complementary products and to the Russian Federation economy, because in specialised services concentrated in a certain re- this country the development of clusters is im- gion (Gorkin 2013). Yet, as the same author notes, possible without state participation. The spatial in recent years this notion has been increasingly structure of Russia’s economy has been shaped used to mark territorial complexes of any specialisation and different hierarchical levels (hence 1 Whenever the term ‘cluster’ is used in the article, it is such terms as ‘industrial cluster’, ‘intellectual understood as an industrial cluster, unless it is other- cluster’, ‘harbour cluster’, etc.). Therefore, at the wise indicated.

doi: 10.2478/quageo-2018-0021 ISSN 0137-477X, eISSN 2081-6383 62 Irina Rodionova, Tatiana Krejdenko, Cezary Mądry for many decades. Intensive industrialisation in cluster policy in Russia and distinguishing its and central planning in the Soviet times shaped stages; (3) quantitative characteristics of industri- Territorial and Production Complexes. However, al clusters operating in Russia. The spatial range this took place in the absence of a free market, and includes the Russian Federation in the adminis- sometimes without taking into account the needs trative division of the first level (entities of the of local communities (Maryański 1987). After the Russian Federation) or the federal districts3. The collapse of the USSR, market mechanisms and distinguished phases go back to the times of the the establishment of companies or their groups in existence of the Soviet Union, while the statistical the free market conditions were rather unknown data refer mainly to the state at the end of 2017 and extremely poorly developed. This justified (for selected data for 2008–2017). the state aid in the creation and development of clusters, at the level of both federal and regional authorities. For these reasons, cluster policy Literature review began to develop in Russia. This term (cluster policy) is understood as a complex of activities The concept of a cluster was introduced and focusing on: 1) the formation of conditions (in- developed in literature by Porter (1990, 2001). cluding the business environment, competition Research was also conducted by Saxenian (1994), and infrastructure development) for the devel- Gordon, McCann (2000), Swann (1998), Power opment of clusters; 2) support for cluster initia (2011), and others. Publishing the concept of tives2. The implementation of cluster policy is clusters coincided with the fall of the communist focused on the following tasks: 1) promoting the system in Central and Eastern Europe, which competitiveness of enterprises and organisations intensified the disintegration processes in these which are part of territorial clusters; 2) develop- countries, including production processes. It was ment of innovative, industrial, transport, energy, only the strengthening of market mechanisms residential and social infrastructure of territorial and the revival of economies of these coun- clusters; 3) assistance in attracting investment to tries that resulted in an abundance of publica- a cluster territory; 4) development of a system of tions regarding the appearance of clusters and professional and continuing education; 5) devel- cluster initiatives. Examples include works by opment of small and medium-sized enterprises; Brodzicki, Kuczewska (2012); Dutkowski (2005); 6) creation, development and replication of ef- Stryjakiewicz, Dyba (2014). Some authors fo- fective mechanisms of the public-private part- cused their research on creative and innovative nership; 7) development of international scien- clusters, which corresponded to a popular reflec- tific, technical and production cooperation (Karta tion on the knowledge-based economy. One can klasterov Rosii…). mention here research by Kovacs et al. (2011); Clustering processes and cluster policy exist Szultka (2012); Środa-Murawska, Szymańska in economies of various types and usually testify to the higher levels of economic and organisa- 3 Entities of the Russian Federation (in other words: tional development of the country. However, na- federal entities of Russia or entities of the Federation) tional economic determinants and traditions can are constitutional units of the administrative division of Russia. The constitution lists the following entities: give these processes specific features, hence the republics, countries, regions, cities of federal impor- question of how clustering works in the territory tance, autonomous regions, autonomous districts. of the Russian Federation. Therefore, the purpose These entities have their own power structures: ad- of this article is: (1) identification of the charac- ministration head, parliament, constitutional court, teristic features of cluster policy concerning in- two representatives in the Federation Council (the upper house of the Russian parliament). This division dustrial clusters in Russia (especially compared in literature is commonly called the regional division to European models); (2) discussion of changes of Russia. The federal districts group the Federation’s entities and have no power in the constitution of the Russian Federation. Therefore, they do not constitute 2 Cluster initiatives are the joint organised efforts of the administrative division of the country. They were firms, government, educational and research organ- established by the decree of the President of Russia in isations aimed at increasing the growth and competi- May 2000. They are headed by governors elected who tiveness of a particular cluster (Karta klasterov Rosii…). report directly to the President. CLUSTER POLICY IN THE RUSSIAN FEDERATION: A СASE STUDY OF INDUSTRIAL CLUSTERS 63

(2013); Bialic-Davendra et al. (2013, 2014, 2016); theoretical aspects of creating and developing Markova (2014). The flow of knowledge with- clusters and cluster initiatives; 2) a problem of in clusters was studied, among others, by Dyba evaluating efficiency of a cluster and particular (2016a, 2016b, 2017). economic entities being its part; 3) mechanisms Despite regression of industrial geography in and instruments of the state’s support of the clus- Russia, an increased number of scientific articles ter entities. on the history of formation and the specificity of In his works, Kucenko (2012a, 2012b) consid- the development of clusters and cluster initiatives ers the main directions of the state’s cluster pol- in the RF regions have been observed in recent icy. He takes up the following issues: a combi- years. In addition to publications of a text-book nation of evolutionary and constructive trends nature (e.g. Selischeva 2016; Gorlov 2013), there in creating clusters, shaping the state’s cluster have been works by scholars from the Higher policy, differences and relationships between the School of Economics (HSE) in Moscow (НИУ cluster policy and the industrial policy, the place Высшая Школа Экономики; Philipenko 2003, and role of the state in the process of activation 2004, 2009; Abashkin 2010; Abashkin et al. 2012, and development of clusters. 2013), including experts of the Russian Cluster In Mironova and Kardashova’s work (2010), Observatory of the Institute for Statistical Studies mechanisms stimulating cluster creation are ana- and Economics of Knowledge – Российской lysed. Advantages of organisation of production кластерной обсерватории Института in clusters and types of cluster policy in devel- статистических исследований и экономики oped countries are shown. Characteristics of a знаний НИУ ВШЭ; Klasternaya polityka...), re- modern cluster policy in the Russian Federation searchers from the Location Council of the and recommendations to implement a cluster ap- Manufacturing Forces of the Russian Federation proach in the country’s economic policy based on – Совет по размещению производительных foreign experience are analysed. сил РФ (Kotilko, Farkov 2017), from the Institute Tarasenko (2013, 2015) and Ivanova et al. of Economics of the Ural Branch of the Russian (2014) claim in their works that creating clusters Academy of Sciences – Институт Экономики and stimulating their development is one of the Уральского отделения РАН (Lavrikova et al. most important tasks of modern Russia. They 2007; Romanova, Lavrikova 2008), experts from stress that if this task remains unresolved, it will the Industrial and Commercial Chamber of the be impossible to shift from the raw-material econ- Russian Federation – Торгово-промышленной omy to the knowledge-based one. The authors палаты Российской Федерации (Podkomitet discuss mechanisms of cluster development, the po razvitiyu...), Research Centre and Science importance and necessity of compiling clusters Statistics – Центра Исследований и статистики development programs and strategies, and they науки (Gudkov, Kol’cov 2011), Institute of list cluster management tools. Economics and Organisation of Industrial Currently, the most controversial issue in Production of the Siberian Branch of the Russian examining cluster initiatives and the specifics Academy of Sciences – Институт экономики и of clusters is determining the economic viabili- организации промышленного производства ty of particular entities in clustering conditions Сибирского отделения РАН (Lizunov 2012), (Buyanova, Dimitrieva 2012; Bogachev et al. 2016; as well as scientists from different Russian uni- Bochkova et al. 2014). According to Tkachenko versities (Buyanova, Dimitrieva 2012; Mantaeva, and Velikanova (2008), the most important factor Kurkudinova 2012; Tarasenko 2013, 2015). in increasing the productivity of industrial pro- Another research is conducted at the Institute of duction in cluster enterprises is an improvement Regional Innovation Systems in St. Petersburg in management, including management of infor- (Институт региональных инновационных mation for industrial clusters. Assessing cluster систем), which measures the effectiveness of efficiency through the concept of “cluster- pow clusters by the value of education and evaluation er” is also proposed. This is an aggregated rate of of their competitiveness (Institut...). cluster participation in the territorial division of In Russian studies analysing the cluster poli- labour which characterises the degree of the clus- cy, three priority areas can be distinguished: (1) ter impact on the socio-economic development 64 Irina Rodionova, Tatiana Krejdenko, Cezary Mądry of the region as a whole (Bochkova et al. 2014). initiatives (a grant form of support), while re- Clusters as a form of the development of innova- gional authorities are entirely responsible for the tion are one of the aspects of research conducted emerging clusters. by Baburin and Zemtsov (2017), and Zemtsov et Most Russian authors suggest using both al. (2016). These authors suggest measuring the types of activities, both the “conductor’s” model potential clustering of Russia’s regions, with a and elements of a “liberal” policy of supporting view to further development of the innovation of cluster initiatives in the Russian Federation re- the Russian economy. gions. Unfortunately, using European experience In regional studies, comparative works and without considering the Russian specificity of case studies can be mentioned. Among the for- creating spatial economic structures (industri- mer, the research conducted under the supervi- al ones) is ineffective. Therefore, it is important sion of Druzhinin (2017) should be mentioned. that particular economies take into account all They concerned identifying factors, determining the nuances of pursuing cluster policy in differ- the effects of existence and creating models of ent countries of the world. In the Russian reali- the functioning of clusters in cross-border are- ty only the “conductor” instruments, or in other as in the coastal zones of the European part of words “continental policy” (with an active role of Russia. Case studies concern individual clusters: the state), are used. This means that state struc- their creation, range, functioning, influence, etc. tures support cluster initiatives organisationally (e.g. Markov, Yagol’nister 2006; Eldarov 2013; and financially. Increasing the role of regions in Rubstova 2014; Plyaskina et al. 2016). the creation of clusters, as is the case in the developed countries which implement the cluster policy in the Anglo-Saxon (“liberal”) model, so Stages of shaping cluster policy in far has practically failed in Russia. In Russia’s re- Russia’s regions gions, there is still a shortage of resources (financial, managerial, labour, etc.) owing to which an The question of whether and what tasks the independent cluster policy could be conducted. state cluster policy should promote is still debat- Experts from the Russian Cluster Observatory able. It is necessary to understand what forms of think that competitive regional clusters can act support should be a priority and what criteria as leaders of economic development of Russia’s should be applied when selecting regional clus- regions, provided that mechanisms for their de- ters for state support or whether it should target velopment are created. One of such mechanisms all clusters. Scientific disputes arise as to -ques is the cluster policy, understood as a set of activ- tions concerning areas of support (creating job, ities aimed at shaping the business environment, developing existing structures or creating and developing competition, building infrastructure implementing new technologies). (as conditions for cluster development) and sup- The Russian practice of creating and develop- porting regional cluster initiatives (Klasternaya ing clusters is primarily based on European expe- polityka…). rience. This has been reflected in the OECD report An effective cluster policy in the regions real- “Competitive Regional Clusters: National Policy ises at least some of the modern socio-economic Approaches” (Competitive regional clusters...). The tasks of territorial development. The implemen- state cluster policy is treated as part of a strategy tation of investment projects within clusters al- aimed at increasing the competitiveness of the lows developing infrastructure not only within economy of regions and the whole country. The the cluster itself but also in the region (includ- main method of the state influence is to integrate ing production, transport, energy, engineering, a cluster approach with an innovation policy. innovation, social, and housing infrastructure). Simultaneously, many countries deliberately cre- Investment within clusters stimulates induced ate innovative infrastructure designed to support investments and investments in other regional and develop clusters. The state defines regions centres. in which clusters are formed, which in Russia is The positive experience of the functioning of called a “conductor’s model”. In other countries, cluster companies allows formulating and pro- the state provides incentives to support cluster moting the most effective mechanisms of the CLUSTER POLICY IN THE RUSSIAN FEDERATION: A СASE STUDY OF INDUSTRIAL CLUSTERS 65

Table 1. Stages of shaping cluster policy in Russia. Name of the period/phase Years Main features Soviet period until 1991 Shaping Territorial-Production Complexes and energy-production cycles as spatial forms of organising economy Period of regional cluster initiatives 1991–2006 Creating and developing cluster proto- types in Russia’s regions, implemented as part of the regional policy of the Russian Federation entities Period of clustering of the innovative sphere 2006–2007 Development of clustering as part of special technical and implementation economic zones Period of state cluster initiatives 2007–2014 Developing a legal framework for clustering, forming technological platforms, active state support for innovation and territorial clusters Period of activation of regional cluster initiatives from 2014 until now Active creation and development of cluster initiatives based on innovation, inter-com- pany links and the development of competitiveness Source: own study. public-private partnership. The development of Phase two – regional initiatives. The emergence a system of education, in that improving quali- of the first clusters in Russia falls on the second fications or retraining workers, as well as the de- half of the 1980s, when the implementation of velopment of small and medium-sized business- market mechanisms to the Soviet economy be- es creates an environment of positive scientific gan. However, the expansion of production and technological collaboration and production cooperation was strongly conditioned by the co-operation. disintegration of the existing economic links af- The state cluster policy in Russia is about 10 ter the collapse of the Soviet Union. Therefore, years old. It uses organisational, methodical, and clusters were formed only in some subjects of the financial support instruments at a federal and a Federation (in the oblasts of Irkutsk, Murmansk, local level (Romanova, Lavrikova 2008). A for- Tomsk, the Komi Republic and some other units). malised cluster policy at the federal level began Phase three – period of clustering the innovative in 2008, but has not been sufficiently popularised sphere. In 2006, the RF government initiated a until now. project to create special technical-implementa- One can distinguish five phases of shaping tion economic zones (SEZ). This action can be cluster policy in Russia. The fundamentals of the considered a beginning of clustering the inno- spatial structure of the economy in Russia were vation sphere in Russia. The term “cluster” was created already during the Soviet period in the not used during this period, but the basic princi- form of Territorial-Production Complexes. They ples of organising the created entities fully corre- were not of a cluster nature, but they were char- sponded to clustering processes. These included acterised by a spatial concentration of economic development and by some achievements in terms fied technological chain focused on the processing of of economic development. However, the infra- raw materials to obtain finished products; 3) consist structure created then was used to create con- of enterprises that maximise added value; 4) mainly temporary clusters. Therefore, this period can be include heavy industry enterprises and are centrally managed. Clusters, on the other hand, are character- considered as the first phase in shaping the country’s ised as: 1) the effect of market forces in developed cluster policy (Table 1)4. regions; 2) their aim is to reduce transaction costs of enterprises associated in the technological chain (and 4 The differences between KTP and clusters are of orientation to the end user); 3) create a network struc- course deeper. Kisielieva et al. (2016) list the follow- ture, operating both as a part of mutual connections ing. KTP: 1) are the result of the work of scientists and and competition; 4) consist of enterprises of various the regulatory activity of the state in order to devel- sizes (including small and medium-sized enterprises) op especially underdeveloped areas; 2) create a uni- associated voluntarily. 66 Irina Rodionova, Tatiana Krejdenko, Cezary Mądry

Table 2. Selected indicators of special technical-implementation economic zones of the Russian Federation in 2012 and 2014 (cumulative values). Number of Taxes paid by SSE residents as percentage of taxes Value of investment Unit jobs collected in the region (%) (million rouble) 2012 2014 2012 2014 2012 2014 Saint Petersburg 435 966 0,2 0,1 2337 4225 Moscow 794 1062 0,01 0,01 2162 1832 Moscow Oblast 1036 1684 0,02 0,03 2068 3109 Tomsk Oblast 1085 1474 0,16 0,23 3708 1457 The Republic of Tatarstan SEZ established in November 2012. No data on the evaluation of efficiency for the given period Source: own study based on data of the Ministry of Economic Development of the RF http://economy.gov.ru/minec/main/. innovative activity, a close cooperation between Phase 4 – state cluster initiatives. In 2007, “A large, medium and small business companies concept of the development of cluster policy in as well as research and development establish- the Russian Federation” (Koncepciya klasternoy...) ments (Dezhina 2012). Such zones appeared on was developed, which was devoted to the impor- the basis of the already functioning universities tance of the cluster policy for regional develop- – in Moscow, Moscow Oblast, Saint Petersburg ment. The concept highlighted the key areas of and Tomsk Oblast. However, their development cluster development support: financing research at that time was slow, and most of the planned of cluster structures, defining development - ob SEZ did not arise yet or were characterised by ex- jectives and directions, creating knowledge extremely low efficiency for a few years after their change centres, and engaging the concerned emergence (Table 2). organisations in joint actions. It was also nec- An analogous situation took place in other essary to increase the effectiveness of training projects related to creating clusters – a revival of programmes and to promote research activities, scientific cities (“наукоград”), already founded including help to commercialise results. In 2008, in the USSR and creation of a regional support a new document was drawn up: “Methodical rec- system for innovative small enterprises or tech- ommendations for the implementation of cluster nology parks (Dezhina 2012). The main barrier policy in the Russian Federation”, which was was a failure to adopt appropriate legal solutions to blaze the trail for creating innovative indus- for the regulation of the innovation sphere. trial clusters on the basis of Special Technical- In 2009, a project was launched to create Implementation Economic Zones and technolo- an innovative city of Skolkovo (Сколково) in gy parks (Metodicheskie recommendacii... 2008a). It Moscow Oblast, involving financial, managerial, defined prerequisites for creating industrial clus- technological and other resources. Basic docu- ters, among others developing large integrated ments of the project were drawn up and the clus- business structures that have already achieved a ter policy was implemented at the central (fed- significant position in the domestic market and eral) level, but this process was extremely slow. making use of the existing cooperation links. Establishing stable relationships between cluster As a consequence of adopting the above docu- enterprises and their subcontractors, as well as ments, in 2008 formation of technology platforms research and education establishments that gen- began, although their role in clustering process- erate most innovations also failed. The project es was unintelligible even for the cluster partici- of an aviation cluster in the city of Zhukovsky pants themselves. The creation and development (Жуковский) also finished at the planning stage. of technology platforms in Russia was based on Similar situations occurred outside the capi- European experience. Of the twelve main clus- tal oblast. Regional cluster development pro- ter evaluation parameters, selected on the basis grammes were adopted in them, and organisa- of the world’s best cluster practices INNOVISA tional structures for their implementation were (in 2012), the development of four was direct- created. However, they generally had a surface ly connected with the development of clus- and ephemeral nature. ters within technology platforms (International CLUSTER POLICY IN THE RUSSIAN FEDERATION: A СASE STUDY OF INDUSTRIAL CLUSTERS 67

Benchmarking...). Meanwhile, cluster develop- of innovative territorial clusters. According to in- ment programmes in Russia do not take into ac- dustry specialisation, clusters were created in 12 count technology platforms. The priority trends sectors which were assigned to 6 priority areas in science, technology and engineering were of the development of science and technology in formulated “top-down” (by presidential decrees the Russian Federation (Prioritetnye napravleni- and government resolutions), and only then the ya...). In the case of government support, only 25 activity of technology platforms was formulated clusters were selected, but their creation was still in consistence with them. “Road maps” of the slow. platforms developed without the state participa- Phase 5 – participation of regions and states in cre- tion proved useless (anyway, they were usually ating clusters. In this phase, state support for the of poor quality; Dezhina 2013). Over the next two development of clusters was initiated (not only for years, the document “Methodological recommen- pilot innovation clusters but also for other territo- dations for the implementation of cluster policy rial clusters). In the framework of a programme in the northern entities of the Russian Federation” of the Ministry of Economic Development of was created (Metodicheskie recommendacii... 2008b). Russia for small and medium-sized enterprises, It anticipated state support for cluster initiatives the Centre for Cluster Development has become in regions with harsh natural conditions. the fund administrator. This facilitated a revival In 2011, the importance of clusters was raised of regional authorities’ activities to create cluster again during work on new development strate- initiatives. However, the implementation of plans gies of the country. Two documents were adopt- from 2010 was not even halfway through (see de- ed: “An innovative strategy for the development tails below). By 2016, the Ministry of Economic of the Russian Federation until 2020” (Strategiya...) Development extended the pilot programme to and the project “A concept of Russia’s long- support cluster innovations to 27. This included term socio-economic development until 2020” the Udmurt machine-building cluster, which was (Koncepciya dolgosrochnogo...). An entire chapter developed as part of the defence industry com- of the strategy was devoted to innovative clus- plex (receiving state support since 2015) and a ters. This document sets out the conditions and cluster of optic technologies in the city of Perm. the directions of the development of clusters in Russia, including thorough state intervention in the clustering processes (with the regulation and Regional specificity of creating clusters control of institutions that ensure the creation in Russia and development of clusters), federal subsidy for large cluster ventures and state support guide- In the first-level administrative division of the lines for small businesses. Russian Federation there are over 80 subjects (re- However, these documents do not contain gions) divided into 8 federal districts. In 2008, the precise conditions for state aid. Furthermore, the creation of over 220 clusters was announced in selection criteria for innovative clusters are not over 64 regions of Russia. At the same time, creat- clearly defined. Yet, the fact that the so-called ing 62 clusters (27%) was planned in only one of “smart specialisation” is currently a basis for the the federal districts – the Volga Federal District. allocation of clusters in European countries has Further 100 clusters were planned in the Central, not been taken into account (Platform «Smart Northwest and South Federal Districts (with- Specialisation»...). This means choosing a cluster in the borders as of 2008). The fewest clusters specialisation at a regional level rather than at a (14) were planned in the Siberia Federal District state level, taking into consideration the maxi- (Metodicheskie recommendacii... 2008a). mum possible contribution to the economic de- In 2010 year, according to the data of the velopment of the region in which the cluster is Subcommittee on the Development of Cluster created. Technology of the Committee of the Chamber As part of the strategy, in March 2012 the of Commerce and Industry of the Russian Ministry of Economic Development of the Federation, creating 250 clusters in 50 econom- Russian Federation announced the establishment ic sectors was announced, including 70 clus- of a list of pilot programmes for the development ters (28% of the total) related to 3 activities: the 68 Irina Rodionova, Tatiana Krejdenko, Cezary Mądry

Fig. 1. Spatial distribution of clusters in the federal districts of Russia (2008–2017). Source: own compilation based on: http://economy.gov.ru/minec/main and http://map.cluster.hse.ru/list.

Fig. 2. Number of cluster participants in Russia by regions in 2017 (in %). The total number of participants: 3442. Source: own compilation based on: Karta klasterov… CLUSTER POLICY IN THE RUSSIAN FEDERATION: A СASE STUDY OF INDUSTRIAL CLUSTERS 69 agrarian-industrial complex, building and tour- Caucasus Federal District. In total, clusters func- ism (Podkomitet po razvitiyu…). However, most tioned in 43 regions. The most were situated in of the clusters were never created; the others St. Petersburg (10), Rostov Oblast (9), Tatarstan were made on the basis of existing companies, (6), Moscow (5), and Voronezh Oblast (5). which were very reluctant to change their busi- The total number of cluster participants ness structure because financial support mecha- at the beginning of 2018 was 3,442, of which nisms had not been developed. The largest num- the most (472) formed clusters in Tatarstan ber of clusters was planned in the Volga Federal (Fig. 2). St. Petersburg, Moscow, Lipetsk Oblast, District. However, as mentioned above, in 2012, Bashkortostan and Moscow Oblast took the fur- only 25 clusters were chosen to be given the state ther places. support. In the Russian nomenclature, these clus- In terms of the number of employees, the or- ters are called innovation-territorial or, in short, der was similar (Fig. 3). An increase in shares was innovative clusters. noted in Samara Oblast and Arkhangelsk Oblast, At the beginning of 2016, the HSE Cluster which is associated with relatively labour-inten- Observatory registered 92 functioning clusters sive (compared to other clusters) machine plants: located in 40 regions of Russia, in which over one automotive and aerospace industry in the former million people were employed. The largest num- and shipbuilding in the latter one. The leading ber of clusters was located in the Central Federal regions (Tatarstan, St. Petersburg, Moscow) have District, and then in the Northwest and Volga had a targeted and consistent stimulating policy ones (Klasternaya politika...). At the end of 2017, aimed at the innovative development of the econ- the number of active clusters reached 113, of omy. These regions manifest not only the highest which 33 operated in the Central Federal District, indices of innovation and scientific activity, but 23 in Volga and 22 in the Northwest ones (Fig. 1). also a high level of development of small and me- On the other hand, there were only 3 clusters dium-sized enterprises, as well as a high level of in the Russian Far East, and none in the North investment attractiveness of the regions. This is

Fig. 3. Employment in clusters in Russia by regions in 2017 (in %). The total number of employees: 1,452,870 people. Source: own compilation based on: Karta klasterov… 70 Irina Rodionova, Tatiana Krejdenko, Cezary Mądry

Table 3. Selected data for clusters of the high and middle organisational level in the Russian Federation. Number of Number of Year of Level of or- Cluster Placement Specialisation Status participants employees starting ganisation Kamsky innovative ter- The Republic Automotive 213 151,561 2012 High 1 ritorial and production of Tatarstan and production cluster of auto compo- nents Petrochemical territorial The Republic Chemical pro- 187 30,497 2012 High 1 cluster of Bashkorto- duction stan Consortium scientif- Ulyanovsk Aircraft building 77 30,028 2009 High 1 ic-educational-pro- Oblast duction cluster “Uly- anovsk-Avia” Biotechnological inno- Moscow Industrial bio- 68 8,706 2012 Average 1 vation territorial cluster Oblast technologies of Pushchino Development of infor- St. Peters- Information and 66 20,838 1999 High 1 mation technologies burg communication 2 cluster technologies Udmurt machine-build- Udmurt Defense indus- 61 36,211 2015 High 1 ing cluster Republic try 2 Innovative cluster of in- Novosibirsk Information and 60 12,869 2013 High 1 formation and biophar- Oblast communication maceutical technologies technologies Pharmaceutical, biotech- Kaluga Pharmaceuticals 54 11,259 2012 High 1 nology and biomedicine Oblast 2 cluster Nuclear-innovation Ulyanovsk Nuclear and 54 26,470 2010 High 1 cluster in Dimitrovgrad Oblast radiation tech- 2 nology Innovative territorial Moscow Microelectronics 53 7,772 2013 Average 1 cluster “Zelenograd” and instrument making Complex processing Kemerovo Environmental 46 8,015 2012 Average 1 of coal and production Oblast protection and 2 waste recycling Innovative territorial Perm Krai Space industry 44 34,696 2012 Average 1 cluster “Technopolis” New Star Innovative territorial Perm Krai Optics and pho- 34 15,762 2014 Average 1 cluster of fibre-optic tonics 3 technologies “Photon- ics” The territorial and The Republic Environmental 32 1,025 2014 Average 1 branch cluster AGROP- of Tatarstan protection and OLIS “ALKYAGROBIO- recycling PROM” Innovative territorial Arkhangelsk Forestry and 31 20,110 2014 Average 3 timber industry cluster Oblast woodworking; “PomorInnovaLes” pulp and paper industry Cluster of information Vologda Information and 31 871 2013 Average 2 technologies Oblast communication technologies Moscow cluster of Moscow Medical indus- 29 12,182 2015 Average – medical technologies try “Yuzhny” CLUSTER POLICY IN THE RUSSIAN FEDERATION: A СASE STUDY OF INDUSTRIAL CLUSTERS 71

Number of Number of Year of Level of or- Cluster Placement Specialisation Status participants employees starting ganisation Energy-efficient lighting The Republic Microelectronics 24 9,866 2013 Average 1 technology and intel- of Mordovia and instrument ligent lighting control making systems Shipbuilding Innovative Arkhangelsk Shipbuilding 23 50,417 2012 Average 1 Territorial Cluster Oblast 2 Engineering-production Penza Oblast Medical indus- 15 2,264 2012 Average 2 cluster “Biomed” try 3 Innovative territorial Samara Space industry 13 43,257 2012 Average 1 aerospace cluster Oblast Cluster of medical, St. Peters- Pharmaceuticals 13 3,626 2011 Average 1 pharmaceutical indus- burg 2 try, radiation technologies The level of organisational development of the cluster (low, average, high) is formed depending on the number of confirmed parameters of the cluster initiative approved by the Ministry of Economic Development of the Russian Federation (share of the maximum number of criteria). 1 – Included in the list of pilot innovative territorial clusters; 2 – Supported by the cluster development centre within the framework of the program of the Ministry of Economic Development of Russia for supporting small and medium-sized enterprises; 3 – Included in the list of industrial clusters, approved by the Ministry of Industry and Trade of Russia. Source: http://map.cluster.hse.ru. where the first special innovative technical-im- as “participation of local companies in the val- plementation economic zones of Russia emerged ue added chain” (94th place), “cooperation be- and developed. tween enterprises and universities in the field of Cluster specialisation shows a priority devel- Research and Development” (81st place), “pop- opment of high- and intermediate-technology ularisation of staff training in business” (83rd industries. The most numerous are clusters from place), or “volume of foreign direct investment the following branches: microelectronics, infor- and technology transfer” (115th place). mation and communication technologies, phar- This position has led to a reflection on the ef- maceuticals and the medical industry. In terms of ficiency of cluster activities. Such research was the number of employees working in companies conducted by experts from the High School of making up the clusters, the production of cars Economics in Moscow. They concluded that only and automotive parts, the production of machin- 8 clusters operating in Russia can be identified as ery and equipment, the medical industry, phar- highly organised and effective, and another 14 maceuticals, and nuclear and radiation technolo- clusters as intermediated ones (Table 3). It should gies are in the forefront (Fig. 3. Karta klasterov...). be noted that the list included both clusters with Despite the existence of clusters in 43 sub- a large number of entities and jobs and small ones jects of the Russian Federation, the implemented (the values ranged between 13 and 213 entities, cluster policy did not bring the expected results. and 871 and 151,561 employees). For example, Both Russian analysts (e.g. Busygina, Filippov highly evaluated clusters included no Moscow 2016) and foreign ones are unanimous here. In clusters and only one from St. Petersburg. the Global Competitiveness Index of the World Almost every cluster which received an aver- Economic Forum ranking, based on the “cluster age or a high rating used the state aid programs, development status” index, Russia has occupied and as many as 9 of them even two, while only one and still ranks below 100th place out of 140 coun- cluster – Moscow cluster of medical Technologies tries surveyed (in 2012–2013 114th place and in “Yuzhny” – none. On the one hand, so willingly 2015–2016 110th one; The Global Competitiveness reaching for the state aid may testify to a relative- Report...). At the same time, as of now no posi- ly effective allocation of public funds, but, on the tive trend has been observed. Russia has main- other hand, possibly of low competitiveness of tained a relatively low position in such categories entities constituting the cluster. 72 Irina Rodionova, Tatiana Krejdenko, Cezary Mądry

The total amount of state aid for innovative evolving towards engaging regional authorities territorial clusters in Russia in 2013–2015 was 460 into the development of clusters. billion roubles (of which 98 billion from budg- Strong spatial diversification of clusters in ets of different levels, including about $5 billion Russia corresponds to the diversity of resources from the program of the Ministry of Economic necessary for its creation (accessibility, industri- Development) and 362 billion roubles from al traditions of the region, strong local economy, off-budget funds. According to the Ministry high-level research base, etc.). The branch of in- of Economic Development of the Russian dustry in which the cluster operates, its own re- Federation, approximately 70% of the funds al- gional resources, the autonomy of the regions, located in grants are aimed at the development financial independence of the regional adminis- of the cluster infrastructure. In 2015, the clusters tration are the favourable factors. included in the program produced goods worth The efficiency and degree of the organisation about 2 trillion roubles (Ministerstvo...). The most of clusters as engines of the economic develop- successful clusters are the petrochemical cluster ment of Russia’s regions is now very low. The in the Republic of Bashkortostan, the pharmaceu- main directions of the cluster policy in the Russian tical, biotechnology and biomedicine clusters in Federation regions adopted already in 2008–2010 Kaluga Oblast, the information technology clus- and the resources allocated to support cluster initi- ter in Novosibirsk Oblast, the aerospace cluster atives have not led to the expected results. In view in Samara Oblast. of the fiasco of the previous cluster policy, the em- Today, one of the most important projects phasis is now shifted towards innovative cluster is “Development of innovation clusters — the projects. However, these actions are based again leaders of investment attractiveness of the world on the involvement of public funds of the central level” (Ministerstvo...). Selecting at least five par- state authorities (ministries). This suggests that the ticipating regions for this project from the list of mechanisms developed by the central planning innovative clusters is planned. In 2016, six prior- system have largely survived in modern Russia. ity areas for the Project’s Office were identified, Reflection on cluster policy in Russia leads and a separate thematic group was created for to the following recommendations. For budget- each of them. ary reasons, state aid programs are unlikely to increase. Focusing on a smaller number of clusters can be evaluated as appropriate, but it may Summing up increase the problems of development of areas not covered by support. For more effective use The cluster policy in the Russian Federation of funds, competition mechanisms for obtaining shows its peculiarities. The basics of the infra- state support should be strengthened, and at the structure of most of today’s clusters in Russia same time the criteria for their resolution should were established still in the Soviet period, based be objectivised. The independence of committee on Territorial Production Complexes. The TPC members, in particular experts (practitioners and also shaped the then economic relations. This past scientists) is particularly important. This is a dif- has currently an effect not only on infrastructural ficult postulate. issues but also on the form of clusters, as some of Because the inflow of foreign investments to them are dominated by big industrial plants. clusters is limited (due to both economic sanctions Clusters have undergone several phases of de- and the fact that some of the clusters operate in velopment in the Russian economy. Each of them strategic industries), it is important to strengthen was characterised by an active and “conductor’s” the role of regions in the state’s cluster policy. If role of the state. Financial and organisational in- clusters are to contribute to the socio-economic struments remain the main tools for the imple- development of the regions, it is necessary for mentation of cluster policy. However, the arising the regions to play a key role in shaping, and not plans are, in most cases, not implemented, or at only implementing, the cluster policy. However, least not to the expected extent. Lacking or in- insufficient resources (financial, managerial and sufficient financial assistance from the state- re human resources) that they have at their disposal mains the main obstacle. Therefore, the model is remain a problem. CLUSTER POLICY IN THE RUSSIAN FEDERATION: A СASE STUDY OF INDUSTRIAL CLUSTERS 73

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