2011/12 canterbury water management management water canterbury I WA
What’s in a zone? The story of the Canterbury Water Management Strategy TER WA I A W drinking TER I WA
I water A WA
W
Water and the
TER regional economy TER WA I I WA I A A WA
W Kaitiakitanga o ngā wai
W
TER TER TER WA WA I I WA A I A A W W
Why we’re changing
W how we manage water TER TER TER I WA I I WA Ko te wai te ora ngā mea katoa I WA WA WA WA
WA Water is the life giver of all things supporting the supporting strategy management water the canterbury supporting TER TER TER TER I WA TER WA I WA TER WA I WA TER WA I WA TER WA WA I WA TER WA I WA TER WA I WA TER WA I WA TER WA I WA TER WA I WA TER WA WA I WA TER WA I WA TER WA WA I WA TER WA I WA TER WA WA Did you know? We’re bringing to life a shared vision for managing water
We work with and for the people of Canterbury to ensure the region’s natural and physical resources are managed sustainably while promoting economic, social and cultural well-being.
The Canterbury Water Management Strategy provides for real community influence on decision-making concerning integrated water management, and incorporates the best available knowledge and experience from here and overseas.
THE STRATEGY’S PRIORITIES THE SHARED VISION: To enable present and future Environment, customary use, generations to gain the greatest community supplies & stock water 1 social, economic, recreational and cultural benefits from our water Irrigation, renewable electricity resources within an environmentally 2 generation, recreation and amenity sustainable framework.
For more information visit: ecan.govt.nz/canterburywater
Everything is connected WAI 1
Welcome to Wai/Water
Wai/Water is a refreshing take on water resource Wai/Water is an accessible, informative read about management in Canterbury. all the issues being dealt with under the Canterbury Water Management Strategy. It is intended for use We all know how important our freshwater resources by communities, schools – anyone interested in are in Canterbury – important for recreation, for water in Canterbury. It uses case studies based on business, for our farmers, and of course for drinking. real people and includes voices and views from However, did you know how many different across the region – from rūnanga, from farmers, perspectives there are on how to manage our fresh from industry, from environmental organisations, water? Wai/Water, published by Environment and from ordinary Cantabrians. Canterbury with input from many groups and It’s a companion to the Canterbury Water – The individuals, aims to present these perspectives in a Regional Context, which is a more detailed and balanced, unbiased way. technical information source also published by If you are interested in water issues in Canterbury, Environment Canterbury. it’s likely you will have heard about the Canterbury Read Wai/Water and I hope you’ll begin to Water Management Strategy. The Strategy is a appreciate the diversity and scale of water issues in partnership between Environment Canterbury, Canterbury. How many opinions there are about the Canterbury’s district and city councils, Ngāi Tahu, right way to manage our water. How much overlap and key water stakeholders. The strategy aims to there is between people’s opinions, even if these build community consensus about how Canterbury’s opinions seem very different to begin with. How the precious freshwater resources should be managed, best way forward is by engaging with communities Dame Margaret Bazley both now and in the future. Under the Strategy, across Canterbury and working to find common Chair of Environment Canterbury’s Canterbury is divided into 10 zones, each with Commissioners ground – as envisaged by the Canterbury Water its own zone committee made up of community Management Strategy. representatives, plus a regional committee. It’s a 24 November 2011 bold undertaking, but one that’s already proving very And finally perhaps, you might appreciate how our effective. common ground isn’t ground at all – it’s water.
Acknowledgements
The development of Wai/Water has been a collaborative process. Environment Canterbury would like to thank the following organisations and individuals for their time and expertise.
Dr Chrys Horn and Dr Pip Lynch (Authors) Land and Water Forum and Whitewater New Zealand – Hugh Canard Te Rūnanga o Ngāi Tahu – David Perenara-O’Connell, Leanne Scott and Gail Tipa Trustpower – Kerry Watson North Canterbury Fish and Game – Emily Moore Waimakariri Zone Committee – Murray Lang and Claire McKay Department of Conservation – Phillipa Gardner Avon-Heathcote Ihutai Trust, Christchurch – Martin Maguire, Chairperson Irrigation NZ Inc – Chris Coughlan Vicki Conradson Meridian – Maree Willetts and Hamish Cuthbert Dannielle Jordin Federated Farmers of New Zealand – Lionel Hume Ann Jarman
Thank you also to the Canterbury residents who provided us with their perspective on water, assisting us in creating the true-to-life ‘characters’.
LC, TL, both South Canterbury P & A, Mid Canterbury VN, PN, both Christchurch CK, D & V, all North Canterbury 1 WAI | Contents 2
Contents 82 97 Introduction 4 12 Section One: 7 Understanding water Canterbury water management over time 7 The First People • Arrival of Europeans • Managing water • The present day Why change the way we manage water? 16 A new ethic: the Canterbury Water Management Strategy What do science, Matauranga Māori and local 18 knowledge tell us about water? Types of water bodies in Canterbury 19 Rivers above and below ground • Braided rivers • Hill-country rivers Spring-fed streams • High country lakes and wetlands • Coastal lagoons (hapua) and estuaries • Wetlands/ repo raupō Water management: science, people and values 30 Science • People and values Section Two: 39 Managing Canterbury’s water Environmental uses: Ecosystem health, 41 24 environmental limits and biodiversity Challenges to water quality • What improves water quality? • Water quality in Canterbury’s rivers • Water quantity • Biodiversity – a test of ecosystem health Why our biodiversity is important • Threats to biodiversity Kaitiakitanga o ngā wai – Māori and water 54 Ngāi Tahu and water management • Integration • Balancing uses • Mahinga kai Drinking water 58 Secure supplies • Drinking-water contaminants Water use in urban areas 62 Reticulated water supplies • Using water in urban areas • Waste water 62 Surface water • Urban waterways are highly valued • Measuring water use Water and the regional economy 66 Irrigation and efficiency of water use in the economy • Farming needs for irrigation Irrigation and other water uses • Sources of water for irrigation • Irrigation practices and water “footprints” • Water metering • Water and tourism • Ecosystem services Economy and Infrastructure development • Energy From Water 82 Why is hydro electricity important? 70 Why do we need more power stations? • Combining electricity generation and irrigation Effects of other water uses on hydro-electric generation Effects of generation on other uses 2 WAI 3
94 R ecreation and amenity values in water 104 Recreation and history, culture, landscape • What do recreationists need from our waterways? • One river or lake cannot provide a substitute for others Recreation and water quantity and quality 57 104 The regulatory environment: Who is responsible and what processes are used The Resource Management Act (RMA) 1991 • Other Legislation The Canterbury Water Management Strategy (CWMS) 95 Collaborative water management structures 121 Section THREE: Learning for water management 121 What do we need to know? Science – what it can answer and what it cannot 123 Adaptive management 124 Getting it together Zone committees • The Regional Committee • What do zone committees have to do? What does the Regional Committee do? • Working together can be difficult! Working with wider communities 132 Gl ossary / Papakupu 136 References
Another closely linked document is Canterbury 20 Water – the regional context, a technical document on water issues for use by key stakeholders including members of Canterbury Water zone committees. Call Environment Canterbury’s Customer Services on 0800 324 636 to request a copy or look online at www.ecan.govt.nz or www.canterburywater.org.nz
122 Environment Canterbury: contact details Christchurch Timaru Kaikoura 24 Edward Street 75 Church Street 73 Beach Road PO Box 345 PO Box 550 PO Box 59 Christchurch 8140 P. 03 687 7800 P. 03 319 5781 P. 03 365 3828 Online: www.ecan.govt.nz Contact the Commissioners: 48 Email: [email protected] 0800 COMMISSIONERS Customer Services: 0800 EC INFO (0800 266 647) 0800 324 636 [email protected] 3 WAI | Introduction 4 New Zealand lifestyle Zealand New Water is an important part of our is an important part of our Water
Introduction
Ko te wai te ora ngā mea katoa Water is the life giver of all things
The Canterbury Region is stepping into a new era of water management aimed at “enabling present and future generations to gain the greatest social, economic, recreational and cultural benefits from our water resources within an environmentally sustainable framework”. The Canterbury Water Management Strategy heralds a new way of making decisions about our use of water that involves everyone who uses water. That means everyone living in Canterbury. This is not an easy thing to do, but involving as many people as possible is more likely to help us make good decisions about how water is used. To be involved we are going to need to learn about water: the different ways that water is important to us. It is easy to take for granted the clean water that comes out of our taps, the clean rivers that we swim or fish in, and the water we depend on for industry – until suddenly the water is not sufficient, or it becomes unsafe to drink or swim in. We must understand the difference between consumptive and non-consumptive uses of water. A consumptive use is one that uses water in ways that make it unavailable to other users. Non-consumptive uses of water leave the water in the waterway, or return it in a clean form, so it does not interfere with other uses. Consumptive uses provide food and other products we depend on. The fruit and vegetables we eat, for example, grow by ‘capturing’ water. WAI 5
People have different needs for water: ▪▪ The natural ecosystems that we all depend on need ▪▪ Anglers want healthy habitats for fish and nice places water to function well and so that the plant and animal to fish; species in them survive; ▪▪ Families want clean, clear water for recreational ▪▪ For tāngata whenua, the foundation of individual cultural activities such as swimming, walking, mountain biking identity includes identification with a takiwā – a tribal and picnicking; territory that includes an ancestral river; ▪▪ Kayakers and jet-boaters want sufficient water quality ▪▪ We all need food and growing food requires water, and flow for their recreation. either on our home gardens or on commercial farm and ▪▪ Electricity generators want high volume, high gradient horticultural land; water and sites for large storage lakes to produce ▪▪ Everyone wants clean water for drinking, food electricity. preparation and cooking, washing and watering pets or stock; ▪▪ We all use water for cleaning everything from our houses to milksheds, from our dinner vegetables to flushing toilets; Future generations will also want water for all these uses and perhaps some that we haven’t ▪▪ Almost everyone depends on the electricity that power thought of yet. companies generate using water; ▪▪ Farmers, food processors and even local councils want water for irrigation and regional development, and they want it to be there during dry periods;
Water used for commercial and home gardens is not available for other so we must ensure that all uses are accommodated fairly. Wise use of uses, but without using it we would have to import more food. A our water resources will accommodate all uses fairly and in a way that non-consumptive use of water is fishing; anglers make use of takes account of the characteristics of the water bodies in a particular waterways for their recreation and, sometimes, for food gathering. place. This means it will vary from place to place and from community to community, and it will change over time. Making good decisions about water also requires us to know something of the many different water resources that we have in our region. We all This book is organised into three sections. Section 1 talks about the depend on having clean water – we need it to live healthy lives and to different ways we can think about water and its use in Canterbury. prosper. Canterbury is a dry place that may well get drier, so we must Section 2 looks at how we are using water now and the ways in which we ensure that we learn to use water wisely and improve and protect what are planning to manage it. Section 3 looks at some of the things we don’t we already have. We are all in this together! yet know or understand but which are important if we are to manage water resources in a sustainable way. At the same time, there are many things that we don’t know about our water resources in Canterbury. This means we will have to make some The book deals mainly with how humans view and use water because decisions without knowing quite how they will work and monitor what it is our activities that have created the need for a new way to manage happens closely to see how the decisions might need to be adjusted. water. Other species’ needs for water are also important and contribute This is the basis of an approach known as adaptive management. to the urgency for better water management practices in Canterbury. Water is a common resource – like air or national parks. It is not owned Māori and English terms are used throughout the book to refer to by anyone although we all have a right to use it and often that use is for aspects of water environments and cultural interactions with those private benefit. Farmers, for example, make use of water to generate environments. Few readers will be familiar with all the terms used, so private income through producing food. Factory owners may use water there’s a glossary on page 132. to produce something to sell. Because it is a common good, it would be easy for water to be over-used and that would be bad for everyone, 5 WAI | Canterbury Water Management Over Time 6 ection one ection S ection one ection S ection one ection S ection one ection S ection one ection S ection one ection S ection one ection S ection one ection ction one S e S Canterbury
ection one ection Water S ection one ection ection one ection S S ection one ection S ection one ection S ection one ection ction one S e S ection one ection S ection one ection ection one ection
S Lake Tekapo/ Takapo, a high country lake S ection one ection S ection one ection S ection one ection ction one S e S ection one ection S ection one ection ection one ection S one S ection one ection S ection one ection one S one ection one ection one ction one S e S one ection S ection ection one S ection S ection ection one S ection one S ection S ection ection one S ection one S ection S ection ection one S ection one S ection one S ection one S ection one S ection S ection 7 understanding water | WAI
ion Sect one
Understanding water1
Canterbury water The First People The first Māori arrived in Te Waipounamu (the South Island) about management over time 800-1200 years ago from Eastern Polynesia. A number of tribes including Waitaha, Kāti Mamoe and most recently Ngāi Tahu have made their homes in Canterbury. In this new land, these people had to learn quickly how to get all of their food, clothing and shelter from the local resources. Rivers, lakes, and wetlands were an eople value the water in Canterbury in many different ways. important part of this. Some of the different ways of thinking about water overlap. POne person may want to see that farming on the plains It is difficult to imagine the amount of learning early Māori settlers remains profitable, but also feel that it is important to have places had to do to survive in a land so different from their tropical where native plants and animals can live and that it is a good thing homeland. They had a lot to learn about the plants and animals to have healthy rivers where people can fish and swim. Another and how to deal with cold winters when nothing grew. People person may want to restore native waterway ecosystems and also brought very little with them and, for several hundred years, could have productive industries and a high quality of urban life. Most, not bring in additional supplies from elsewhere. They could not if not all of us share all of these values in varying proportions. afford to degrade their mahinga kai (food resources), nor pollute The next few sections show the different ways that people have their water supplies. used and understood water management over the hundreds of years that there have been people living in Canterbury. 7 WAI | Canterbury Water Management Over Time 8 Children in a traditional Mōkihi or raft. Photo: Ngāi Tahu or raft. Mōkihi in a traditional Photo: Children
Through trial and error, they had to develop tikanga (rules and traditions) highly spiritual process and a very important cultural activity. Māori that allowed them to use these new resources in ways that also kept them always thanked the spirits of a place when taking food or other resources. productive and healthy. Whānau and hapū who learned to manage their mahinga kai well, lived well. People died if they could not learn how to Developing tikanga care for their resources well enough. This interdependence with land and When Māori arrived in Canterbury, not only did they have to learn water also meant that they treasured their resources and saw it as a duty what was good to eat, they had to learn about the breeding cycles of to pass them on to future generations in the same or better condition than food species, how to store food, and how the seasons and harvesting they had received them. affected plant and animal populations. It would have been easy to make mistakes and lose important species. The extinction of moa, which Connections to natural resources were slow to breed and sensitive to changes in habitat, was probably Ngāi Tahu iwi survived because they understood that they were an example of this. Luckily, early Māori quickly learned how to manage spiritually and physically related to the land and the water. Ngāi Tahu their environment sustainably before too much was lost. today see themselves as being directly related to the natural world as well as to their human ancestors. This close identification with the Continual learning natural environment also means that a group’s mana (good standing) is Environments change over time. The Canterbury Plains appear to affected by the health of their natural resources, including waterways. have become drier about the time that Māori first arrived in the region. Waterways carried (and still carry) special meaning for Ngāi Tahu whānui. So, to survive over the long term, Māori had to constantly add to the All natural things were seen as having a wairua (spirit) and mauri (life knowledge that was passed down from earlier generations. A great deal force). People respected and worked with the mauri of each water body of knowledge is needed to gather kai: knowledge of techniques and also so that it stayed strong. Harvesting resources, including food, was a knowledge of ecosystems. If a population of fish declines or disappears, 8 9 understanding water | WAI the knowledge of techniques for gathering this food, along with the associated ecological and cultural knowledge, will probably also begin to disappear. Tribal groups who were able to pass knowledge down successfully and adapt it for conditions in the present would have survived better than those who did not learn from their elders and ancestors.
Traditional use In traditional Māori society, water was the centre of all activity – economic, social, and religious. ▪▪ Water was a major source of food; tuna (eels), ika (fish), and manu (birds) were found in various waterbodies. ▪▪ Materials for raranga (weaving), mōkihi (rafts) and home building were gathered from wetlands and streamsides. ▪▪ Waterways were used for transport.
▪▪ Water was used in religious ceremonies, both traditional and River in days gone by the Waikirikiri/Fishing Selwyn Christian, such as baptisms, waitohi (dedications), purifications and waiwhakaheketūpāpaku (water burials). ▪▪ Water was also used for recreation. Harvesting and settlement took place at many significant sites on Canterbury waterways. Kai moana, kai awa and kai roto (food sources respectively from the sea, the rivers and the lakes) became more important resources after land sales during the 1800s when Māori had less access to land-based resources.
Arrival of Europeans During the 1800s, Europeans came to this country with a set of beliefs the promise of government payments, a guarantee that fishing and and understandings based on the life that they had come from. hunting rights were retained, and the promise of allocation of a series They came from many different walks of life, so they had a variety of of reserves. Small areas were set aside as reserves to protect Ngāi perspectives on what they found in New Zealand when they arrived. Tahu from the settlers, but in practical terms, all other land beyond the reserves was opened for European settlement and the established A place to make a better life pattern of Māori resource gathering and use was disrupted. The early European settlers came from places where private property rights and international trade were taken for granted. Many came here A wild landscape – tamed hoping to make their fortune and to make a better life for themselves Diaries and letters of the European settlers in early New Zealand show and their families. On top of this, unlike the Māori who came before that many of them found the landscape here uncomfortably wild them, these new migrants could get food and other resources from and uninhabited. Even now, many British visitors to New Zealand feel Australia and further away, if they were able to pay. It made sense to more comfortable when they see signs of people than when they are them to use the country’s natural resources as a way to build wealth, in landscapes that are empty of people. It is not surprising, then, that and to trade for goods that came from other places. many early settlers wrote of being homesick and uncomfortable with The European settlers hunted seals and whales, mined for gold, the vast wetlands in Canterbury. Wetlands were commonly seen as harvested timber and flax and many gave little thought for the long-term ‘wastelands’ that harboured disease. future of these resources. Farming provided wool, and later, meat, for The settlers wanted to make the new land more like the one they had export. Trading with markets far away has continued to be an important left, with familiar industries. The 1876 Public Works Act allowed swamps feature of Canterbury farming, with much of what is produced here or marshes to be called ‘public drains’, so that councils could drain being exported around the world. them to create farms and towns. And settlers brought familiar and useful plants, animals and birds with them, many of which adapted well Ngāi Tahu sold large tracts of land to the settlers on the basis of 9 WAI | Canterbury Water Management Over Time 10
TOP LEFT Early fishermen on Te Waihora/ Lake Ellesmere, photo courtesy of Ellesmere Camera Club.
BOTTOM LEFT Original Hakataramea Fish Hatchery 1901
TOP RIGHT Salmon jumping up river to spawn
BOTTOM RIGHT Irrigation canals have been a feature of Canterbury for many years. Water diversion race Rangitata River
to growing here; some, like potatoes and pigs, were adopted by tāngata today in the existence of national and conservation parks that are whenua. However, there was some conflict with tāngata whenua who mostly found in mountainous places where people do not live. The valued native species in the same habitats used by introduced species. philosophy of preservation with no provision for Māori cultural use also threatened the generation and transmission of matauranga (Māori One response to this conflict was the requirement, under the Native traditional knowledge) associated with mahinga kai. Land Purchase Act of 1892, to reserve a strip of land along many waterway margins to enable everyone to have access to lakes, rivers, Acclimatisation work creeks and other water bodies. Many New Zealanders still place high value on this freedom of access to waterways. Europeans, like Māori, connected conservation with fishing and hunting. A place with outstanding scenery Unlike most, some early settlers liked the landscapes that they found in New Zealand. These colonists had brought with them a concern to avoid the environmental problems they had experienced in their homelands. While Māori largely lived within nature and relied on it for their food and shelter, European conservationists divided natural spaces into two categories: areas to be changed and used, and areas to be preserved, and not used. Europeans tended to separate the places where people farmed or harvested resources from places that were protected and could be used only for visiting and viewing. This separation is reflected 10 11 understanding water | WAI
reserves from waterways and further prevented the gathering of kai and cultural materials. The conservation movement Some of the early European visitors to New Zealand were natural scientists who studied the native flora and fauna. Their work stimulated the interest of others so that by the 1860s, when the effects of native forest destruction were becoming obvious to settlers, some people began to call for conservation of natural environments in their local areas and nationally. Some farmers began to establish reserves on their own properties as they noticed that native landscapes around them were disappearing fast. The conservation movement became highly visible in New Zealand in the 1960s when the Government wanted to raise the level of Lake Manapōuri/Moturau, in Southland, as part of a new hydroelectric power scheme. From this time on, many New Zealanders became more aware of a loss of native ecosystems. In particular, there was concern when scientists estimated that 85 per cent of native wetlands had been drained – more than almost anywhere else in the world. This loss was seen as a very significant issue because 20 per cent of New Zealand’s indigenous birds rely on wetland habitats for their survival. Tāngata whenua were also concerned about the ongoing loss of important sources of food and other materials. Irrigation Canterbury is a very dry place during the summer months. Irrigation makes a big difference to what can be produced from the land during these months, so it is not surprising that it has a long history here. Calls for irrigation on the Canterbury Plains were made soon after Europeans arrived in the region. From the 1880s, an extensive water race system was developed to provide a better supply of water for human and stock consumption. This system brought water to most farm paddocks in the They introduced new species such as salmon and trout, into the country mid-plains area. Even this early, there were tensions around allocation. for this specific purpose. However, the management provisions they Farmers up-river sometimes took off more than their fair share of the put in place for these species further removed Ngāi Tahu from their flow, leaving downstream farmers and their families without enough traditional resource base. water. Fish and game animals introduced by Europeans in the nineteenth century provided the basis for recreational hunting and fishing then, and they continue to do this today. Some of these species were farmed with the intention of supporting both recreational interests and new commercial enterprises. A salmon hatchery, for example, operated on the Hakataramea River from 1901 to the early 1920s. This hatchery played an important role in establishing salmon in the Waitaki and other river systems in Canterbury. Flood control Soil erosion and flood control were also issues during the early 20th century. Catchment boards were established in 1941 to promote soil conservation and take steps to protect productive land from flooding. The first major river control scheme was initiated by the Irrigation allowed more intensive sheep farming and cropping. It meant South Canterbury Catchment Board for the Opihi River, in 1951. For that farms that used to produce one sheep per acre could then produce tāngata whenua, river control works sometimes served to dislocate their 11 WAI | Canterbury Water Management Over Time 12
Waka are an important feature of Māori life Fishing the Waimakariri
six sheep per acre. Not all farmers used irrigation, but for those who Participation in recreation activities is one way that Cantabrians have did, it brought more certainty to production through drought protection. started to notice the deterioration of many rivers, and to appreciate the The Rangitata Diversion Race, for example, was built using government threats to what they have enjoyed in the past. Increasingly, people are funding during the 1930s Depression and it still operates today. It thinking of the legacy that they want to leave for their children and the irrigates thousands of hectares and diverts water to the Highbank power opportunities they will have to enjoy their natural environment now and station where it is also used to generate electricity. in the future. Recreation Managing water Waterways in Canterbury have also had a long history of being used for From the 1950s, water management became more complex because: recreational activities such as swimming, boating, kayaking, tramping, ▪▪ Erosion from many sources continued to cause sedimentation camping, picnicking and fishing. The rivers provided good routes of waterways across Canterbury, for travelling east and west for Māori and European alike. Fishing, particularly for introduced fish such as trout and salmon, but also ▪▪ Nutrient pollution of waterways increased with changes in land for native fish and whitebait, is something that has provided many use, and people with a strong interest in our waterways. There are many public ▪▪ Water allocation problems became apparent in some places in park areas along waterways in our urban areas and people have times of peak demand. long used these for walking, cycling, boating and observing wildlife. 12 13 understanding water | WAI
Punting on the Ōtākaro/ Avon Rivers are an integral part of the tramping experience
In the 1980s, government and people interested in agricultural and with the negative social, cultural and economic costs of such damage. industrial development began to talk more with those interested At the same time, most people don’t want the negative economic and in conservation. This was the beginning of a new approach to social consequences of not allocating enough water for industries such environmental management. Over the past 30 years people here and as agriculture, tourism and manufacturing. Most of us do see the need the world over have been working to increase stakeholder collaboration to use water wisely to achieve a range of benefits, but most of us also and make better use of science in decision-making processes. It is this agree that this should not happen at the expense of the health of our collaborative and evidence-based approach that underpins the current waterways. Canterbury Water Management Strategy. It seems probable that Cantabrians, like people in other places, want The present day the decisions that are made about water to be ‘fair’ for everyone. There are some things that most people agree are not fair. It’s not fair, for There are many ways of using water and thinking about it. Irrigation example, for someone to take water out of a river when it means that has always been important here, but so, too, have recreation and people downstream can no longer water their vegetable gardens, give conservation. These, along with other uses, remain important today. their farm animals drinking water, catch fish, or swim in the river. We Recent surveys indicate that most people want waterways to be good also tend to agree that it is not fair for someone upstream to pollute drinking water, good for swimming and fishing. Most people don’t want water so that those living downstream have to pay for water treatment waterways dewatered or degraded, nor do they want to have to deal to make it drinkable. 13 WAI | Canterbury Water Management Over Time 14
Electrofishing to survey fish in a stream without killing them. Photo: Department of Conservation
Increasingly, people want to manage water holistically. Ngāi Tahu effects a long way downstream where the water meets the sea. use the phrase ‘ki uta ki tai’ (‘from the mountains to the sea’) to Another trend is for people to talk of health and wellbeing in relation express their view that each part of a waterway is one element in a to waterways. This approach looks at more than the ecosystems whole, interconnected system of land and water. Water managers use within a catchment and recognises that particular relations with, and catchments as an integrated way of studying and managing water and understandings of, environments affect people’s way of life and their ecosystems. Catchments include all land from which water runs into sense of well-being. the streams that, in turn, run into a river. Important catchment features also include lakes, aquifers, estuaries, lagoons and wetlands. What When we think about water, an important group of people to consider happens in one part of the catchment affects the mauri (spirit or life are people who will live in Canterbury in the future. It is important to force) of the waterway as a whole. Catchment management is now be fair to future generations and to ensure that their quality of life is extending beyond the river to include the adjacent coastal and marine as good as, or better than, ours today. This is what it means to live ecosystems. What we do on the land that affects a river may also have sustainably.
14 15 understanding water | WAI
Lyell Creek/ Waikoau in Kaikoura
Box 1: The Kaikōura Water Story
Kaikōura – one of the few places in the world where mountains meet the sea – has a unique water story. Less than 20km from the coast, Kaikōura’s mountains create a unique and often publicised beauty and vista. They are high enough to ‘catch the clouds’, bringing rainfall at an intensity that can cause devastation, chaos and destruction of property and livelihoods near the coast. The snow-capped Seaward Kaikōura Range has many steep streams which carry large amounts of soil and rock down from the mountains to the Kaikōura ‘flats’ and the sea. On the way, they create braided river systems and riverbeds of ever-changing depth. The water also supplies underground aquifers and surface wetlands. The smaller hills along the Kaikōura Coast are dotted with water-bearing gullies, creeks and springs. Kaikōura District has no shortage of water, but there is a need to monitor and preserve water quality. The Kaikōura “flat” was historically a swamp area, where aquifers abounded and water was filtered on its way to the sea. Drained by European settler farmers, this natural cleaning disappeared and as dairying has intensified over recent years water pollution problems have increased in the water downstream. To create better land for pasture, drains have been constructed to take water from streams and natural springs straight to the sea. These require constant maintenance and monitoring for flow and cleanliness. As human activity has spread across the Kaikōura District, gravel and rock extraction from the four main rivers has increased to ensure flood protection and security for social and economic infrastructure. The conservation of Kaikōura’s water resources, their flow paths, quantity and quality all need ongoing monitoring and managing, as do the human activities near them. 15 WAI | Canterbury Water Management Over Time 16
LEFT Unfenced creek showing results of high nutrient runoff
RIGHT Silted-up stream
Why change the way we manage water? ▪▪ The quality of drinking water in some parts of Canterbury is low. Wise use of water means living within our means by not over-allocating ▪▪ Anglers are finding that trout, eels and flounder are water, being careful not to pollute or degrade waterways, working to disappearing from some streams and lakes in Canterbury. improve resources for future generations and ensuring that aquatic ▪▪ Some rivers and riverbanks are being invaded by pest plants ecosystems keep working. If some activities continue as they have done and animals which threaten native species, and make these over the past few years, clean water resources, and the economic and places less pleasant for people to use. social benefits that come from them, will not be available in the future. ▪▪ Existing water resources do not supply enough water, reliably, Canterbury has a lot of water, but now, with increasing demand for use, for some users. there are signs that all is not well with our water resources: ▪▪ Much of the native vegetation, insect, fish and bird life ▪▪ Some rivers have very little water in them during summer, (biodiversity) associated with waterways is disappearing. Many because so much is taken out for various uses, especially of these species are regarded as taonga (treasured) species by irrigation. tāngata whenua. Less than 10 per cent of Canterbury’s wetlands ▪▪ Many waterways are now polluted, particularly in their lower still exist. When our ecosystems disappear, so too does part of reaches, and in some cases are no longer safe for swimming or our local and national identity. even kayaking. ▪▪ Tension between water users is increasing. ▪▪ Groundwater supplies are running out in some places in times Scientists are predicting that these problems will get worse because of high demand and low groundwater levels also means less they expect the climate in Canterbury to change – potentially get water feeding into lowland streams and coastal estuaries. warmer and drier – over coming decades. The quality of life we currently 16 17 understanding water | WAI
All this means that we have to change how we use water in Canterbury. This is what the new Canterbury Water Management Strategy aims to do – to find new ways of managing water that are fair to everyone, including future generations. A new ethic: the Canterbury Water Management Strategy The philosophy behind the Canterbury Water Management Strategy (CWMS) has been trialled on a small scale elsewhere in the world, but has not previously been embedded in legislation for use at a regional level in New Zealand. It is an attempt to develop a new ethic that can be applied to all the different types of waterways and involve all the different water users in collaborative decision-making. The CWMS will operate alongside, and in alignment with, the Resource Management Act 1991 (see Part 8 of Section 2 for more about legislation relevant to water management). The CWMS seeks to: ▪▪ protect ecosystems, habitats and landscapes, ▪▪ support improvement in indigenous biodiversity, enjoy in Canterbury may not be available in the future if the waterway here continues to deteriorate in quality and quantity. Potential ▪▪ support improvement in water quality to achieve a healthy quality of life issues include: standard for humans and ecosystems, ▪▪ Human health and wellbeing is threatened by ▪▪ enhance opportunities for Ngāi Tahu to protect pollution and lack of access to good quality wāhi tapu (sacred sites) and wāhi taonga drinking water. (significant sites) through the exercise of kaitiakitanga (guardianship) and ▪▪ It is expensive to manage pests and to Pollutants can rangatiratanga (mana or authority) , treat polluted water to make it safe for take years to move people to drink. through soil and ▪▪ enhance opportunities for recreational use of waterways, ▪▪ Farmers’ profits decrease when water gravel into our is over-allocated because they are waterways. ▪▪ ensure all users have access to reliable unable to rely on getting the water they water and use it efficiently and productively, had planned for. ▪▪ enhance economic and community values that ▪▪ Tourism operators who use the waterways for depend on water, their activities will lose customers if the water in ▪▪ enhance our ability to manage water successfully in the those waterways deteriorates. face of challenges such as global climate change. ▪▪ Māori will be unable to safely gather and consume the food that The CWMS affects all water users or polluters in the region. This means they have gathered for hundreds of years. everyone – everyone who drinks water, uses water for cooking and ▪▪ As the climate warms, people will miss being able to swim washing, as well as those who use it for farming, recreation, industry where waterways are polluted or where polluted water makes it and cultural purposes. It also means anyone who drives a car, walks a unsafe to swim in the sea. dog, or flushes a toilet. Managing water well is more complicated than it might seem. Researchers are now finding that water can be affected by our activities a long time into the future, just as it is affected now by things that happened many years ago. Pollutants can take years to move through soil and gravel into our waterways. So, for example, nutrients from We are all in this together. fertilisers or animal urine that were put on the land 25 to 30 years ago are just starting to affect water quality in aquifers and rivers now. Over those 25 to 30 years, land uses have intensified, so effects are likely to have intensified, too. And actions taken now to fix waterway problems may not be fully effective for another 25 to 30 years! 17 WAI | What Do Science, Matauranga Māori And Local Knowledge Tell Us About Water? 18
Testing water quality in the lab Local land owners sharing knowledge on Banks Peninsula
Science has also told us a great deal about how water in Canterbury What do science, Matauranga works – how it flows above and below ground and how it interacts with Māori and local knowledge ecosystems around it. It tells us that we have many different types of water bodies in Canterbury, from braided rivers that run from the tell us about water? mountains down to the sea, to coastal wetlands, mountain and lowland lakes and small spring-fed streams. The different types of water bodies are discussed below. Another useful form of knowledge is Matauranga Māori. This is Science is an important tool that helps us find out about the world, knowledge held by whānau and hapū members about many things, including its water. Scientists observe and experiment to find out including waterways. The matauranga or knowledge is rooted in a facts in an impartial or unbiased way. Scientific information is used particular place and set of experiences, and is generated by the people in decision-making and can help people to weigh up different water living in that place. It is acquired through everyday observations, trial management options. and error, and from being passed down from earlier generations. Matauranga changes over time and can change as the environment Science, as a discipline, has grown in breadth and understanding changes. Matauranga Māori is often connected with using resources, especially over the past two centuries. Biology, ecology and hydrology such as in food gathering, and it also includes social behaviours, are examples of branches of science applied to waterway management. spiritual beliefs, and notions of health and wellness. Biologists are interested in different life forms and they now understand that each life form (or species) needs a good place to live (a habitat) Farmers and gardeners, too, generate local knowledge in relation and the presence of other plants and animals. Ecologists study to their farms or gardens. They are interested in good husbandry how plants, animals, fungi and micro-organisms are part of whole and learn by reflecting on practical experience, trial and error and ecosystems. experimentation. They learn from others by discussing their problems and solutions with other land users. Farmers who are farming where These ecosystems often provide us with ecosystem services, benefits their parents and grandparents farmed also incorporate knowledge from that humans gain from the way ‘nature’ functions. Examples of previous generations. Many gardeners do the same. ecosystem services are: plants absorbing excess nutrients from runoff so that waterways stay clean; gravelly streams providing egg-laying sites Science, Matauranga Māori and local knowledge are all important when for fish we eat; and wetlands holding rainwater that would otherwise we need information to support water management decision-making. flood land that we use. These are all things that benefit people and contribute to their health and wellbeing. 18 19 understanding water | WAI
Woolshed Creek, Mt Somers, in winter Groundwater welling up to the surface
brought down from the mountains by rivers and landslips. Gravel does Types of water bodies in not hold water well and so much of the rain that falls on the Plains sinks Canterbury into the ground and flows downhill through the gravels. This is known as groundwater. In some places underground, the gravels are surrounded, and sealed in, by clay. Here, groundwater is channelled in geological structures known as gravel aquifers. The water flowing through the aquifers can be hundreds of years old because it only flows very slowly Science, Matauranga Māori and local knowledge can provide through the gravel. When an aquifer becomes narrow, the water flowing information about water bodies in Canterbury and the ecosystems that in it gets forced up to the surface in the form of springs. These springs are associated with them. feed our lowland creeks. Some aquifers feed water back into rivers and some rivers feed water into aquifers. Water is found in many different forms. Some comes from snow melt and rain in the mountains and some comes from rain falling directly on Groundwater is a very important resource in Canterbury and there the plains. Some is found on the surface of the land in the form of lakes, are many wells on the Plains that tap into them. However, our rivers and streams. There are more river channels in Canterbury than in understanding of how the aquifers and other water bodies relate is any other region in New Zealand. limited. We cannot see the water flowing through aquifers, so it is difficult to tell if water levels are getting low. Water users can encounter Much of Canterbury’s water runs underground through gravel channels big problems if a well that has always provided water for them suddenly known as aquifers. This kind of water is known as groundwater. runs dry (as has happened in some places, particularly near the Aquifers are fed by rainfall and water from the rivers seeping into the Canterbury coast during dry summers). ground. In many places, water wells up from these aquifers to the surface when it hits solid rock or clay. These upwellings are called Braided rivers springs and they often feed lowland streams such as those found around Christchurch. All this water provides habitat for a great diversity Braided rivers are found in only a few places around the world, including of plants and animals. Our uses of water and of the land around water Alaska, Canada, the Himalayas and a few places in New Zealand, bodies affect our water resources. including Canterbury. The Rangitata, Waitaki, Rakaia, Waimakariri, Hurunui (in part) and Waiau rivers are examples. Braided rivers are Rivers above and below ground found where there are geologically young mountain ranges such as in the Southern Alps/ Ka Tiritiri o Te Moana. They form when rivers carry The Canterbury Plains are covered by gravel beds half a kilometre thick. rocks, gravel and sediment down from steep slopes onto gentler terrain. The Plains have formed over time as huge quantities of gravel has been 19 WAI | Types Of Water Bodies In Canterbury 20
Waimakariri River showing braided river form
The rivers form a wide gravel bed, and often flow in several channels. Gravels in these beds are constantly moving downstream during floods. Several metres of gravel can move in a big flood. The gravels eventually get swept out to sea and are deposited along the coast by currents to form our beaches. For Māori, this ‘working ability’ of a river is its mauri. In a braided river, the constant movement of gravels to form islands, plains, river mouths and coastal beaches contributes to sustaining its mauri. In Canterbury, some water from braided rivers on the upper plains also feeds into the aquifers underground. The Waimakariri River, for example, feeds the aquifers and springs in the Christchurch area. Braided rivers are also valued for food gathering, drinking water, travel, irrigation, electricity generation, gravel extraction for roading and construction, and for recreation. They are ecologically important because they support many threatened native New Zealand birds, and fish and other wildlife. In Canterbury they are home to many unique species. Birds such as ngutu pare/ wrybill and kakī/ black stilt feed, breed and nest on islands formed by the braids, where they are protected from predators. When the rivers flood, nests can be washed away but the birds have adapted to this environment and quickly rebuild their nests. 20 An alpine stream 21 understanding water | WAI
Pareora River
Hill-country rivers (6 cumecs), the Pareora river outlet closes. Nevertheless, the Pareora is the main water supply for Timaru city, for surrounding agricultural and Some Canterbury rivers begin their journey in the foothills to the east of horticultural activities, and for the local freezing works. the Southern Alps. The Pareora, Waihao, Opihi, Orari, Hinds, Waikirikiri/ Selwyn, Ashley, Waipara and Kōwai rivers are examples. Some are small braided rivers. These rivers tend to be low in volume because they lie in the rain shadow of the foothills. They get their water from easterly or southeasterly rain falling mainly in summer. There are many mahinga kai, nohoanga (habitation), wāhi tapu and wāhi taonga sites along hill-country rivers, particularly near the river mouths. The Kōwai River in North Canterbury, for example, once provided rich sources of tuna and inanga (whitebait). The mouth of the Waipara was important for collecting pāua. Hill-country rivers are an important source of water for the plains’ aquifers. They also provide an important source of irrigation and stock water, as well as being valued for boating, swimming and fishing. An example is the Pareora River in South Canterbury. This river has fairly regular flood events between the long periods of lower flow that are common in summer. The underlying geology affects its water flow; in places, water disappears into underground aquifers, returning to the riverbed further downstream. At flows below 6 cubic metres per second Small braided hill country river 21 WAI | Types Of Water Bodies In Canterbury 22
Spring-fed streams There are many rain or spring-fed waterways on the Canterbury Plains and Banks Peninsula and these are often referred to as lowland streams or spring-fed streams. This type of waterway includes Lyell Creek/ Waikoau, Ruataniwha/ Cam River, Ohapi Creek, Waikākahi Creek, Hurutini/ Halswell, Ararira/ LII, Waikekewai, Waiwhio/Irwell, Kaituna, Lee, Tentburn Stream, Waitataari/ Harts Creek, the Ōtākaro/ Avon River, Pūrākaunui/ Styx River and Ōpāwaho/ Heathcote River. Spring- fed streams are also found in inter-montane basin areas such as the Mackenzie and Amuri basins. Inland spring-fed streams include Mary Burn, Quail Burn, Willow Burn, Wairepo Creek, St Leonards Stream and Dry Stream. Spring fed streams also occur all over Banks Peninsula – some of these include streams such as Omaru, Zephyr, Te Wharau, Purau, Okuti, Okana, Tikao and Koukourārata. Spring-fed streams flow more consistently than other streams and rivers because they are fed by water flowing underground. Groundwater flow is less affected by floods and droughts than is water flowing over
Okeover Stream, a spring fed stream in Christchurch
the surface. On Banks Peninsula, for example, the streams flowing in to Akaroa Harbour flow more regularly and reliably in summer than do those flowing in to Lyttelton Harbour. This is because the rock around Akaroa Harbour is quite fractured and stores water better than the rock in the north of Banks Peninsula. It is also because Akaroa Harbour streams capture southerly rain, whereas Lyttelton streams are north-facing and get less rain; in summer they can stop flowing. Naturally-flowing streams, channelled and re-routed streams, as well as artificially created drains, form a complex and interconnected network of waterways on the Canterbury Plains. Drains and water races are a key source of drinking water for stock; some also support irrigation. Ngāi Tahu value these waterways for many reasons: the springs (waipuna) are culturally significant for healing; they are mahinga kai for both cultural and food purposes. Because of their small size and consistent flow, spring-fed streams are particularly vulnerable to pollution, including sediment that doesn’t get flushed out by flood flows. This applies to small streams on Banks Peninsula as well as to streams on the Plains. On Banks Peninsula, the streams are only a few kilometres long and have small volume, so they are particularly vulnerable to pollution. Land use, whether pastoral or urban, often encroaches on the riparian zones (stream edges) of small spring-fed streams changing their character and often leading to Zephyr Stream, Banks Peninsula pollution or habitat degradation. 22 23 understanding water | WAI
High country lakes and wetlands Canterbury’s high country has a rich diversity of lakes and wetlands. There are large and small glacial lakes, lakes formed specifically for hydro-electric power generation and myriad medium and small lake- tarn-wetland complexes. These water bodies provide habitats of outstanding value to wildlife, particularly indigenous freshwater birds, fish and plant communities. In Māori tradition, the principal lakes of the South Island were dug by the rangatira (chief) Rākaihautū who was the captain of the canoe, Uruao. This canoe brought the Waitaha tribe to New Zealand. Rākaihautū beached his canoe at Whakatū (Nelson) and dug the lakes with his ko (digging stick similar to a spade) as he journeyed southwards by an inland route. The lakes in the upper Ashburton/ Hakatere catchment – including Lakes Emma and Clearwater and nearby Lake Heron – are recognised as outstanding natural features in a natural landscape. They are home
Windsurfer on Lake Clearwater for tens of thousands of indigenous birds and the associated wetlands are exceptionally important ecologically. They have outstanding tourism values and provide wide-ranging recreational and sporting opportunities. Many people visit them to go walking, tramping, boating, bird-watching, fishing, kayaking, camping, windsurfing, waterskiing and swimming during summer holiday periods. High country lakes are important habitats for mahinga kai. Lake Pearson/Moana Rua, for example, was a good source of tuna/ eels, weka and kākāpō. Ngāi Tahu used these sites often in the past and they are still important in the cultural life of the various rūnanga. Te Taumutu rūnanga, for instance, have significant relationships with Whakamatau/ Lake Coleridge, Waikawa/ Lake Lyndon, Lake Pearson/ Moana Rua and Oporea iti/ Lake Grassmere. These lakes were also essential resting and camping places along the inland trails across the main divide, regularly used for trade in pounamu/ greenstone. Canterbury’s high country lakes provide two-thirds of New Zealand’s hydro-electric storage capacity. Most of the storage is in Lakes Pūkaki and Tekapo/ Takapo, in the upper part of the Waitaki braided river system. Hydro-electric power stations in Canterbury provide around 30 per cent of the country’s hydro-electric capacity, and generation from them meets 17 per cent of annual demand. Ahuriri Valley wetland 23 WAI | Types Of Water Bodies In Canterbury 24
Te Ihutai/ the Avon Heathcote Estuary, Christchurch Te Waihora/ Lake Ellesmere
Coastal lagoons (hapua) and estuaries Coastal lagoons and estuaries are a vital food source and link between freshwater and marine environments. They provide important nursery Hapua, lagoons and estuaries form where rivers meet the sea. There and spawning grounds for marine and freshwater fish such as inanga/ are many such waterways along the Canterbury coast and they provide whitebait, tuna/ eel, patiki/ flounder, kahawai, and yellow-eyed mullet. important habitats for a variety of native flora and fauna. The shallow margins of lagoons and estuaries provide vital habitat for Estuaries are water bodies that are continually supplied by fresh water wading birds. Even the smallest lagoons provide important bird feeding from rivers and salt water from an opening to the sea. This mix of water and resting habitats, and a link between larger lagoons for migrating sources makes estuaries rich in nutrients and provides habitat for bird species. marine fish (such as salmon and sea-run trout) to adjust to fresh water Lagoons and estuaries provide wild areas often within a highly modified, before swimming upstream to spawn. Saltwater inputs vary with the farmed or urban environment. They are also valued for boating, fishing incoming and outgoing tides, while freshwater inputs can increase with and game-bird shooting. rainfall. The mix of water is often called brackish water and is too salty for most freshwater species to live in. Estuarine and coastal areas hold significant cultural value for Ngāi Tahu. All have important mahinga kai and wāhi tapu sites, particularly Te Lagoons are coastal water bodies that have a limited opening to the Ihutai/ Avon-Heathcote Estuary, Te Waihora/ Lake Ellesmere, Te Roto o sea. Lagoons are found at the mouths of rivers or streams behind Wairewa/ Lake Forsyth and Wainono Lagoon. shingle or sand bars and receive occasional inputs of salt water from wave overtopping, infiltration through the shingle or sand bar, or Te Waihora/ Lake Ellesmere and Te Ihutai/ Avon-Heathcote Estuary artificial opening. are the largest and most culturally significant water bodies in central Canterbury for Ngāi Tahu. Te Ihutai not only provided food, medicinal Hapua are a type of lagoon that usually form at the mouths of braided, and construction resources in the past, but also access to other gravel-bearing rivers and form as long narrow water bodies parallel to waterways and to the open sea for fishing. The mahinga kai of the the shore. They are predominantly fresh water, with no significant tidal estuary supported the local economy through trade and contributed to inflows and outflows, and have a single semi-stable opening to the sea. the strength of social networks. Inanga/ whitebait, kanakana/ lamprey, 24 25 understanding water | WAI
Inanga/ whitebait Hakatere/ Ashburton River Lagoon
patiki/ flounder, pipi and tuna/ eels were local specialties. The soils at The restoration and rejuvenation of the mauri and ecosystem health the river mouths also allowed kumara and aruhe (edible fern root) to of Te Waihora/Lake Ellesmere has been confirmed with the signing of be grown. Whakaora Te Waihora – a long-term relationship agreement and shared commitment between Environment Canterbury, Ngāi Tahu and Te Te Waihora/ Lake Ellesmere and Te Ihutai/ Avon-Heathcote Estuary are Waihora Management Board. locally, nationally and internationally significant ecosystems. Some 113 species of bird have been recorded in Te Ihutai. Most of these birds The parties have also signed an interim co-governance agreement visit on a seasonal basis. An example is the celebrated godwit. Late which establishes an enduring co-governance framework for the active each September, hundreds of godwits arrive at the estuary from their management of Te Waihora and its catchment. breeding grounds 12,000 km away in northern Siberia. They feed over These agreements signal the start of a new approach to management the summer, building up their strength before leaving again in March to of natural resources in the region, one which acknowledges and brings return to the northern hemisphere. together the tikanga responsibilities of Ngāi Tahu and the statutory Te Waihora is New Zealand’s fifth largest lake by area (at approximately responsibilities of Environment Canterbury. 20,000 hectares) with some 75 km of shoreline. It has been a site of Māori settlement for hundreds of years. In recognition of the Wetlands/ repo raupō significance of Te Waihora, Te Rūnanga o Ngāi Tahu argued successfully Repo raupō/ wetlands may be large or small, natural or man-made. for its inclusion in the Ngāi Tahu Claims Settlement Act 1998. Now, They may be continuously wet or just wet at times. Wetlands are Te Waihora is jointly managed by Ngāi Tahu and the Crown (through very important waterways, not least for biodiversity. They have an the Department of Conservation). The management plan provides for importance much larger than their size because they perform a range joint operational plans, protocols, research and administration of laws of functions such as filtering contaminants and slowing down surface and regulations regarding the lake. This is an example of collaborative water flow. For Māori, they are very important as sources of mahinga kai. water management and fits well with the current Canterbury Water Wetlands are an integral part of the Canterbury Plains environment. Management Strategy. 25 WAI | Types Of Water Bodies In Canterbury 26
Box 2: Wetland types
There are four main types of wetlands in Canterbury: bogs, fens, swamps, marshes and shallow water. Bogs are found in places with cool climates and are fed by rain only. They are relatively rare in Canterbury, found only in flat areas that have high rainfall. There is no circulation of water in bogs so they have a low nutrient status. Plant material in the water does not break down easily so it builds up in layers, creating peat (which is a form of carbon storage). A common plant of New Zealand bogs is sphagnum moss. Fens are like bogs but have water running into and out of them. They vary in their acidity (pH) and have slightly more nutrients and a little more plant growth. Fens are more common than bogs in Canterbury. Swamps and marshes are permanent, fertile wetlands that support much plant and animal life and are fed by water flowing into them from LII River at Te Waihora/ Lake Ellesmere streams. They are commonly found on the edges of lakes, rivers or estuaries in Canterbury. Swamps have larger plants including trees, shrubs, harakeke/ flax and raupo in them. Most of the Canterbury wetlands that were drained to make way for farmland and urban development were swamps. Marshes tend to have large periodic changes in water level. The tidal salt marshes at the heads of Lyttelton and Akaroa harbours are examples. There, seawater inundates the marsh areas twice a day. Around the edge of Te Waihora/ Lake Ellesmere there are marshes, too, but here the water covers the marsh area only a few times a year. The plants in a marsh are shorter herbs and grasslike species in cooler, southern places. Marshes generally have high nutrient availability.
BOG FEN SWAMP MARSH Wetland Type
SHALLOW WATER Water Source Rainfall Groundwater Surface water Water flow & fluctuation Low Medium High Nutrient availability Low Medium High pH Low/acidic Medium High/neutral Peat Content High Medium Low/none
source: Landcare Research
Wainono Lagoon 27 understanding water | WAI
Canterbury wetlands contain a huge number of plants, birds and animals. Wetlands can support everything from the tall kahikatea (now found in only a few places such as Riccarton Bush and Peel Forest), to tī kōuka/ cabbage tree, raupō, pukio/ sedge, harakeke/ flax and a wide range of less well-known liverworts, mosses, and small herbs. Wetlands host many insects, fish, birds and amphibians. The Canterbury mudfish is found only in Canterbury wetlands and is endangered. It has the remarkable ability to live out of water, buried in wet mud, for up to two months! The edges of tidal rivers are essential breeding areas for inanga. Birds such as pukeko, pateke/ brown teal, matuku/ Australasian bittern, and the secretive matata/ fern bird use wetlands and vegetation on the edges of wetlands for breeding.
Wetlands do important “work” in Canterbury ecosystems
Some wetlands are man-made yet still have important ecological values. An example is the Wigram Retention Basin (Ngā Puna Wai), which was created to reduce flooding and stop industrial pollutants from getting into the Heathcote River. Another example is the Bromley oxidation ponds, which are part of the Christchurch city sewerage treatment facility. Both these wetlands provide good habitat for many different species of birds. Harakeke/ New Zealand flax: a well known wetland species Wetlands do important ‘work’ in Canterbury ecosystems. They hold on to water, slowing its flow into rivers. This moderates the flow of rivers – plants ‘cleanse’ the water by absorbing excessive nutrients and some when there is a lot of rain, some of it is captured by wetlands and only pollutants; raupō is an important plant in this regard. This filtering role released into the rivers much later. This helps prevent major flooding. is very important for people, natural ecosystems and other organisms. In dry periods, the water stored in wetlands still seeps into rivers, Nitrates in drinking water are bad for human and animal health. Further, contributing to overall flow. Wetlands also slow down the speed at when too many nitrates get into our rivers and lakes, they encourage the which water flows over land, which helps decrease erosion and reduce growth of weeds and algae, which makes the waterways unattractive. damage from flooding. Sometimes the algae that grow can be poisonous; toxic algal blooms Swamps and marshes filter the runoff from surrounding land so that occur at times during the summer months in both Te Waihora/ Lake fewer nutrients (such as nitrates) get into lakes or rivers. Wetland Ellesmere and Wairewa/ Lake Forsyth.
Canterbury Kōwaro/ Mudfish: an endangered native fish
Pukeko/ swamp hen. Photo: Department of Conservation 27 WAI | Types Of Water Bodies In Canterbury 28
A great example of a restored riparian zone
Mahinga kai For Māori, wetlands are an important part of the river system and are taonga (treasures). Māori commonly lived beside wetlands because they provided a good source of kai and other resources year- round. There was once a Ngāi Tahu village and an important whare wānanga (place of learning) for tohunga (wise men) located near the Punatarakao wetland, at the mouth of the Waihao River about 20 km north of Waitaki. Similarly, the Ōrakipaoa wetland near Temuka was once the site of a pā and several settlements. It was known as a good source of tuna and manu/ birds and of tī kōuka/ cabbage tree. Wetlands still provide many material resources for Māori and are important for cultural and spiritual practices. Many taonga species are associated with wetlands, including: kōtare/ kingfisher, kōtuku/ white heron, pūkeko, pārera/ grey duck, harakeke/ flax, raupō/ bullrush, tī kōuka/ cabbage tree, wiwi/ rushes and kōwaro/ Canterbury mudfish. Restoring wetlands In recent years, people have begun to realise the importance of wetlands and are taking steps to restore some of them. Te Rūnanga o Taumutu, for example, has restored a wetland area called Te Repo 28 Modern-day food gathering 29 understanding water | WAI
A newly planted wetland area that is being restored
Orariki, near Taumutu on the shore of Te Waihora/ Lake Ellesmere. Over three years from 2002, the rūnanga fenced the wetland and replanted indigenous species in the riparian (river bank) zone. They also created a car park, pathways and a bridge between the marae and the repo raupō/ wetland so they can more easily access the mahinga kai it provides. Likewise, Travis Wetland in north-eastern Christchurch has been the focus of much community activity aimed at restoring its natural hydrology. Parts of it have been replanted in native species, and weeds such as blackberry, gorse and grass have been removed. Other pests – cats, rats and stoats – are being controlled to encourage birds back into the wetland. Enhancing the health, biodiversity and ecological sustainability of wetlands means restoring adequate water levels, restricting nutrient and sediment pollution, controlling weeds that compete with native vegetation, and restoring, maintaining and protecting riparian vegetation. These are actions that responsible landowners, conservationists, ecologists and Ngāi Tahu all agree are appropriate and practicable. Volunteers planting streamsides 29 WAI | Water Management: Science, People And Values 30
Water management: science, people and values
Good water management requires an understanding of what we know and what we value. Science is a way of increasing what we know. Through discussion with other people, different values become apparent. Science and values can be incorporated into waterway management plans that whole communities can agree on. Science It is important to understand that science is just a tool. It can be interpreted differently by people with different views and values. In an Environment Court hearing, for example, someone wanting to see water conserved might use scientific data to show how important water quality is to native species, such as the kōwaro/ Canterbury mudfish. In the same hearing, a housing development company might use scientific data to show that the drainage they are planning in a new subdivision 30 31 understanding water | WAI
will have only minor effects on water quality in the neighbouring People and values wetland. A Ngāi Tahu representative might also use Matauranga Our history reflects a lot of different uses for water and many different Māori and science to point out that the kōwaro, a taonga species, is approaches to its management. All of these continue today. To highly threatened due to loss of habitat and might compare its current illustrate the diversity of uses and users, fictional characters will join distribution to its historic distribution and abundance. us in our journey through this book. Their views, which are based on Science cannot provide us with all the answers, partly because there interviews with real Cantabrians, highlight current issues and reflect the is a lot that we don’t know about our complex environment and partly actual views of real people consulted during the development of this because human beings make decisions based on personal priorities. book. Their conversations illustrate the ways in which collaborative Science cannot be the only tool we use to weigh up the different ways solutions to water management problems might be generated under the water can be managed. Despite this, it is an essential part of managing Canterbury Water Management Strategy. our water. This will be discussed more in Section 3.
TOP LEFT Using a clarity tube to assess water quality
BOTTOM LEFT Artificial nest platform for grebes. Photo: Department of Conservation
TOP RIGHT Fairlie Primary School class investigating life under stones in a stream
BOTTOM RIGHT Divers looking at weeds, Lake Heron. Photo: Department of Conservation 31 WAI | Water Management: Science, People And Values 32
Introducing some chatty community members: The following few paragraphs introduce you to 10 characters based on real people we have talked with (Please note: We have not used their real names), to illustrate some of the issues that people around Canterbury are dealing with in relation to water.
Jim Jo
Jim farms sheep, beef cattle and deer on his South Canterbury hill Jo lives in the city and works in an office in town. She isn’t very country property. He and his family enjoy the rural lifestyle and a interested in water and doesn’t feel that water management in close-knit local community similar to the one he grew up in. Canterbury is anything to do with her. She hasn’t really had time to join in the discussions about water that she has heard in her workplace and When Jim bought the property, it had some irrigation piped from the noticed in the newspaper. Her family and her work take up all of her local river, but not enough for a dairying operation. He wants to be time and energy. able to do the farm work himself, rather than employing staff, so he has resisted converting to dairy farming so far. Like most farmers, Jim is Despite this, Jo and her family rely on water. Like other people in always looking out for ways to make the most of his farm – to have the Christchurch City, they each use on average 450 litres of water per day best possible financial return with the best possible physical condition for drinking, cleaning, showering, cooking washing clothes and watering of the land and water resources. He takes great pride in keeping his the garden. The food that they buy from the supermarket also took a property and his business in good condition. lot of water to produce, and the sewer that runs from their house uses water for transporting waste. When they were little, the children loved Jim changes the ratio of his different stock based on how prices for playing with the hose in the back garden on hot days and Jo’s husband, meat, wool and velvet go. Because he farms three different animals, he Sam, was out just yesterday using his water-blaster to clean up the can change how much he produces of any one of them when sale price outside of the house before he starts painting it. for that product increases. However, he still needs to work hard to produce profits and this means grazing as many animals on the property Jo and her family need water more than they think to keep their as possible without damaging the resources he depends on. household functioning well. They take it for granted that water will always run from their taps. But recently they found out what it was like Deer love to wallow in water, so Jim has fenced off the stream and when that doesn’t happen. The Christchurch earthquakes in 2010 and wetter areas of his lower paddocks. The springs that feed the stream 2011 damaged water pipes and water wells, so they had to get water rise in several places on the slopes and flow intermittently, so it is from a tanker on the street for several weeks. It was a big relief when not feasible to keep his stock off those areas all the time. As a result, they got their water back on again. It was even better when they were Jim’s stock contribute some nutrient pollution and sedimentation to told that they did not have to boil it before they could drink it. They the stream. He has planted a wide riparian strip along the stream and would not be pleased if their water were to deteriorate in quality and voluntarily monitors water quality entering and exiting his property. affect their health, or if they had to use less of it for a very long time. With help from Environment Canterbury, he is working to ensure that water leaving the property is as free from farming effects as possible.
32 33 understanding water | WAI
Huia & Jono Trevor
Huia and Jono purchased a North Canterbury property and moved onto Trevor is concerned about the environment. His concern springs from it with their young family a few years ago. They both wanted a farming the time he has spent in the outdoors. His mum and dad took him lifestyle and had both built up their own dairy herds through share- on many trips when he was a child and now he enjoys tramping and milking. kayaking with his friends. He lives in town and has a part share in an organic market garden. Trevor derives his main income from working for They both affiliate to their Māori tribal roots and, although not Ngāi an environmental organisation. Tahu, take a low-key interest in local Māori affairs. Their aim is to farm in a way that respects the Māori cultural values of the land and waterways. With his knowledge of environmental issues, Trevor feels he should live lightly on the Earth and try to convince other people to do the same. While Huia and Jono would prefer to farm mixed sheep, beef or crops, He uses energy and water very carefully: instead of driving, he bikes the price of land in Canterbury is pushed up by the income dairy farmers or walks whenever he can; he uses the most efficient irrigation system get for milk, so purchasing property for lower income businesses is not available on his garden; and takes short showers. He thinks about what financially viable. They have opted in to dairy farming because it is the might happen as oil becomes more expensive and he is interested in only affordable way to cover the mortgage and earn a good income. how to prepare for climate change. Trevor is also worried about what Besides, it allows them to take on some staff so that they can spend a happens if Canterbury loses its native species (plants and wildlife, birds bit more time with their children. and insects) and he is worried that future generations will not have The cost of buying their land and setting up the dairy and irrigation healthy environments to live in. He is concerned that life will become systems has left Huia and Jono with high debt that they must be able to more difficult for everyone if our water resources deteriorate. Trevor pay off. They must look for efficient ways to work while getting the best sees conserving the environment as essential to the future well-being of possible returns. Their livelihood and that of their staff depends directly humans and other species. on growing grass for cows to eat, and grass growth depends on water.
33 WAI | Water Management: Science, People And Values 34
Mary Kiri-Anne
Mary and her family live on a lifestyle property near Christchurch. They Kiri-Anne grew up in a small town but has lived in the city since she made a deliberate choice to live off their land as much as they can. On started studying at university. She studied physics and chemistry before their 4-hectare farmlet they keep pigs, hens, sheep and sometimes a deciding to specialise in hydrology. She is now working as a hydrologist few cattle. They have a large and productive vegetable garden, and a in a small business where she provides advice on water and water flows woodlot producing fuel for winter heating. The family is largely self- commercially. She wants to continue to develop her understanding sufficient in food. Mary and her partner each do casual work in the local of water quantity and quality (including how pollutants move through area to bring in sufficient income for their other needs. surface and ground water systems) so that her business keeps growing. She relies on local councils, farmers, environmental groups and Mary and her family are very conscious of their water use because they government agencies that need the information hydrology can provide. depend on bore water for household use and for watering the veggie They are her main clients. gardens during summer. They feel fortunate to have a deep bore producing good volumes of high quality water on their property. Some Kiri-Anne is aware of her Ngāi Tahu ancestry (her whānau are from of their neighbours are not so lucky. A spring-fed stream runs along Southland) but she does not spend a lot of time with other Ngāi Tahu their boundary and from it they draw stock water (manually, by bucket) people. Her partner is pākehā and their children haven’t shown much if there is not enough rain. Pasture growth relies on rainfall. In droughts interest in their Māori side, although recently their youngest son has and in late summer, Mary sells off stock rather than drawing more become active in the kapahaka group at his school. water to keep them in feed. Mary is concerned about how the local springs may be affected by increases in dairy farming upstream of their property. These new farms have applied to take a lot of water out of the aquifers up stream of their property which might mean they have less water available in their bore and boundary stream. Mary is actively engaged in community sustainability groups in her area.
34 35 understanding water | WAI
Peter & Sue Piri
Peter farmed alongside his father before taking over the mixed arable Piri is a commercial fishing and hunting guide. He has enjoyed fishing farm from his parents, keeping it in the family for a fourth generation. all his life, first with his father, then with mates, and now with his own He and wife Sue hope that their daughter and son-in-law will take the young children. He used to work in a government department but he farm over from them when they retire. Sue works for the local council. left that job to live in a small town near pristine fishing rivers and lakes. Her salary supplements the family income and is particularly important For his own recreation, Piri enjoys white-water kayaking with mates for keeping the cropping business going through difficult periods. Their he’s known since university. He and his family have lakeside camping small flock of merino sheep provides another source of income from holidays each year at Christmas. high-quality wool. Piri is well-connected to his marae and continues to live within the Peter’s highest priority is to leave the farm in good condition for his takiwā (area) in which his marae has an interest. He is concerned about daughter to take over. It is a point of honour in his family to have the the traditional knowledge that Ngāi Tahu has lost and he is interested property in good physical and financial condition. It is also important for in helping people to relearn or recover this knowledge and pass it on Peter and Sue to save enough money over the next few years to have a because he feels that it is still valuable in today’s world. He is down-to- comfortable retirement. earth and understands that people need to be able to make a living and to grow food. He is well aware that some of the traditions of the past All Peter’s crops are presold in the form of a contract to grain or seed may need to be adapted, but the idea of using resources in a sustainable merchants. To get a contract Peter must show that he is able to supply way is a principle he strives to live by in his personal life and his work. the amount of grain stipulated in the contract each season and, to be He is actively engaged in water management issues. sure of this, he has to have irrigated land. The water he uses comes from deep bores on the property. Piri wants to earn his livelihood and build a business based on his recreational interest (fishing). To produce good tourist fishing Water conservation has been a talking point in the family for many years experiences, Piri needs high quality natural environments that provide and, over time, Peter has learned how the farm ecology works. He both good habitat for trout, and the kinds of places that his clients come has stopped ploughing his paddocks and adopted no-till seed sowing to New Zealand to see. methods so that he doesn’t lose soil moisture in autumn. He has also retained the exotic trees planted on the property by his forebears. These Piri is concerned about water quantity and quality; he is concerned trees help to retain the soil during hot nor-west winds and provide about losing good fishing rivers, losing mahinga kai, and losing rivers shelter for the sheep during hot summers and cold, wet weather. If suitable for kayaking. Already some of the rivers that he used to use for he cut down the trees, Peter could install expensive, but much more kayaking and fishing now have less water in them and their water quality efficient, centre-pivot irrigators. He’d save himself a lot of time and is decreasing so much that he can’t use them anymore. Piri wants to work: keeping the trees means he has to spend several hours each day continue kayaking and to pass on his knowledge to others, including his in the summer moving irrigation pipes from one paddock to another to own children. More than anything else, he wants to see that Canterbury water his crops. But he still thinks it’s his best option. Peter and Sue water resources are passed on to his grandchildren in a better condition have won an environmental award in recognition of their commitment to than they are in today. sustainable farming. 35 WAI | Water Management: Science, People And Values 36
Finn Rob
Finn has been interested in energy ever since he started learning about Rob wears many hats. He and his family farm in Canterbury, and he physics in primary school. He has worked for regional and national is known around the province for his leadership roles. He sits on a electricity corporations for 20 years and now manages the hydro- number of boards around the region. He often finds himself travelling generation portfolio for the company that employs him. His work makes to Christchurch where he has been appointed to a committee that has him very aware that New Zealand needs more electricity as each year a strong focus on water in Canterbury. With his farming and business goes by. In Canterbury, the economy has grown a lot over recent years, background, Rob is enthusiastic about the benefits of water storage and and is likely to keep growing as dairy farm conversions bring money into what it can bring to Canterbury. His view is that it has the capacity to local towns and cities. Dairy farming uses a lot of electricity. Finn knows provide increased irrigation and to leave more water in the rivers at dry that increasing electricity usage means hydro-generation companies will times. He believes it is also one of the keys to unlocking the potential for continue to make profits from the water in Canterbury’s rivers. an increase in the protection of significant biodiversity, mahinga kai and recreational benefits. Finn is driven by a professional ethic of doing his best to promote the interests of his company. Being successful in his work rewards him with promotion and more pay. Finn knows that demand for electricity will only increase in the foreseeable future. He hears the concerns of environmental lobby groups and has some sympathy for their views, but knows that if his company does not win the rights to generate power, another company will. Finn keeps up-to-date with the latest thinking on low-impact electricity generation and makes sure his staff do the same. He sometimes feels frustrated when discussing electricity issues with people who do not understand how the electricity system works. It is more complicated than many people realise.
36 37 understanding water | WAI
Activity Box 1
If you are a school or community group, you may find the following reflection activities useful.
Activity 1: Water and waterways in your life Think about all the different ways you have used water today (or perhaps in the last week or year) including direct water use. This might include indirect forms of water use, such as the water that it took to grow your food or produce the things that you have used. It might also take the form of using a park along a waterway for recreation or travelling to work/ school or you like (or would like) to go swimming or fishing in local waterways. Where are your local waterways? How are they used by other species? Are there changes you would like to see in the waterways you use? Activity 2: Has water use changed over time? Do some research and think about how people (both Māori and European) used water in Canterbury in the past. What was different about how people used water in the past compared to now and what is the same? Talk to older people about their memories of waterways or water bodies in your area and how they used them. How have they changed over time? Are these changes good or bad? Activity 3: Talk with other members of your household, whanau / family, colleagues, neighbours or groups of friends about their views on water use and water resources. You never know, they might be interested in water, too! Why is it important to look after our water? Do you all agree or do different people have different priorities? Do you all use water in the same way? What measures do you all take to save water or to look after it? What do others know about your local waterways? It might be fun to go on an expedition to find out where your local waterways go!
Families enjoying Otukaikino Stream 37 WAI | Environmental Uses 38 two Section Section TWO two TWO Section Section Section Section TWO Section Section two TWO TWO TWO Section Section ction Section Section TWO Se
TWO TWO Section Section two TWO Section Section
ction
TWO Canterbury Se Water TWO Section Section Section Section ction Section Section TWO Se
TWO TWO Section Section TWO Section Section
ction TWO Se
TWO Section Section Section Section
ction Water flowing over a water race on the Waimakariri River TWO Se
TWO TWO Section Section Section two Section two TWO Section Section
TWO Section Section
TWO Section Section Section Section Section Section TWO Section Section
TWO TWO Section Section Section two Section TWO Section Section Section Section Section Section TWO Section Section Section TWO Section TWO Section Section TWO Section Section Section Section Section TWO Section TWO Section Section Section two two Section two Section two Section two Section Section 39 managing canterbury’s water | WAI
ion O Sect TW
MANAGING CANTERBURY2’S water How might we ‘distribute’ water fairly so that a wide range of water users – human, animal or plant – get what they need? How can we manage water so that it These questions are at the heart of the Canterbury Water sustains the things we want now and in Management Strategy. Our need to ask this question arises from the future? competition for use of water, degradation of waterways, and the prospect that these challenges will only increase in the future. This How do different water uses impact on section looks at water use and sustainability. other uses and users? Water ‘use’ means several things. It is easy to see how irrigation or town water supply is a use of water, because farmers and local councils take water out of the waterways. But other users can use the water ‘instream’, i.e. they do not take water out of the waterway but use it when it is still in there. People who fish, swim or kayak in a river are examples of this and they need a certain quantity and quality of water for their recreation to be possible. Other living organisms such as native plants and animals also use water. For some of them it is a habitat – a place to live. 39 WAI | Environmental Uses 40
TOP LEFT We all want to be able to fish and swim in our waterways
TOP RIGHT Measuring water quality for a sustainable future of biodiversity
CIRCLES LEFT TO RIGHT Crab Black Shag/ Kawau Bellbird/ Makomako on flax/ Harakeke Kingfisher/ Kotare at nest hole
We all gain life and health from having good water available to us – this that’s safe for recreation. As a young person, we might enjoy spending is another type of use. For some people, water and waterways are time with friends at swimming holes or we might take up kayaking. In central to their well-being and sense of identity – this is yet another use. our working lifetime we might depend on the economic use of water to People who discharge waste into water are also using it (intentionally or raise a family and create wealth to support our family. During our adult unintentionally) to transport unwanted chemicals, dirt or effluent. life we might take up trout or salmon fishing with a passion, or belong to a tramping or nature club. Sustainability means different things to different people. For a business owner, it might mean sustaining profits. For an environmentalist, it We all have multiple interests in water. Very few people want to see might mean sustaining a species or an ecosystem. For Māori, it might polluted rivers or unnaturally dry river or lakebeds. However, these mean sustaining the traditions and beliefs that are essential to the scenes are becoming increasingly common because decisions about identity and unity of the hapū. The meaning of ‘sustainable use’ has water have not been made with all uses in mind. To manage water many facets. And it can change as our knowledge and understanding of sustainably – for everyone – it is vital that we learn about others’ water resources changes and as we change our priorities for using them. perspectives on water and that we make decisions using effective collaborative processes. Collaboration is not easy, though, and most This notion of change is important because as individuals, we may also of us need to learn how to do it. So there’s more information about have different priorities with respect to water over the course of our collaboration in Section 3. lives. As a child we might value a picnic spot with clear running water 40 41 managing canterbury’s water | WAI
this, they can measure the amount of pollution (in our waterways) by 1. Environmental uses: testing water quality. When we know how much pollution there is and Ecosystem health, how it got there, we can work to reduce it. It may not be possible, in practical terms, to eliminate all pollution, so it is handy to know what environmental limits and environmental limits there are to the health of our waterways. biodiversity Environmental limits can be set to enable environmental objectives to be achieved. Environmental objectives say what condition we would like to see a waterway in; e.g. a maximum amount of algae cover. Environmental limits are the measures of water quality or quantity required to achieve those objectives. For example, these Aquatic ecosystem health refers to the condition of a waterway and might be a measure of the amount of nutrients in the water (nutrient its ability to support life. A healthy waterway ecosystem has good ‘load’) or a measure describing the minimum allowable flow. Different water quality, diverse habitat features and sufficient quantities of environmental limits can be set, depending on the desired outcome water for all the species that depend on it. Aquatic ecosystems rely on for the waterway: it may be preventing growth of nuisance algae, or connections with neighbouring habitats for the supply and cycling of maximising conditions for trout spawning, or maintaining good habitat energy, nutrients and other materials to enable many different species for native fish species like piripiripōhatu/ torrentfish or inanga. to flourish into the future. Setting environmental limits allows human activities to occur alongside Scientists can assess ecosystem health by studying the species that a thriving biodiversity of other species. Environmental limits may change are living in a stream and comparing them with the types of species we over time, as we learn more about how waterways work and as user would expect to see if the stream were in a healthy condition. Alongside needs for water quality and quantity change. 41 WAI | Environmental Uses 42
Box 3: Environmental standards, Sediment pollution Sediment is made up of fine particles of rock and/or soil that are limits and targets washed into rivers and lakes by rainfall. Particles can stay mixed (suspended) in the water during high flows, particularly when the A standard is an established norm or requirement. In an particles are very fine, such as those found in glacial lakes (These fine environmental sense, it is the point that is set to ensure an particles give Lakes Ōhau, Tekapo/Takapo and Pūkaki their distinctive objective is met. There are three main types – standards, limits blue-green colours in sunlight). Sediment is naturally found in rivers too. and targets. In high water flows, sediment is usually carried down rivers to the sea and contributes to the sand and gravels that are washed up on beaches. Standards are commonly used to describe a threshold, and are In low flow conditions, the sediment settles to the bottom of lakes or often used in point source situations (see explanation below) as rivers (a process called sedimentation). In rivers, the sedimentation well as in water allocation. is usually temporary and is part of the natural system that native plants Limits are defined as the capacity for use of a resource, and and birds can cope with. most often used in allocation situations, often as a rate or load. Sediment pollution occurs when too much sediment enters a river or Targets are a standard or limit that must be met at a specified lake, or changes to flow patterns in a river upset the balance of these time in the future. These are used where there is an natural processes. Sediment inputs can be increased by grazing and over-allocation of a resource which has to be corrected. cultivation, removal of stream-side vegetation so the bank becomes unstable, animals walking in stream beds or on banks, or when land is source: Land and Water Forum report, A Fresh Start for Freshwater developed for urban use and bare soil is disturbed and exposed to rain (www.landandwater.org.nz/land_and_water_forum_report.pdf) or water flow. If this occurs regularly, or in very large quantities, the sediment particles settle in thick layers, smothering aquatic plants and Other ways of assessing water quality may be fundamentally different. covering stony riverbed habitat. Sediment pollution also affects how far Māori spiritual values with respect to water, for example, include light can travel through water, which in turn dictates the depth to which perceptions of pollution that may conflict with scientific measures. plants can survive and grow. ‘Drinkable’ water may be scientifically defined as carrying contaminants, but at a level that is not toxic to humans. By contrast, Māori are likely to require drinking water to be protected from spiritual pollution, which prohibits certain discharge activities, regardless of the level of physical contamination. Challenges to water quality Four main types of water pollution in Canterbury are: 1. Sediment pollution, 2. Excessive nutrients, 3. Toxins, 4. Microbial/ faecal contamination. Pollutants may come from one of two types of sources: 1. A single identifiable source, or point source. Examples include a stormwater discharge pipe during heavy rain, an industrial discharge from a meat-processing factory, or a polluted tributary running through a poorly managed farm that feeds into another stream. 2. Non-point source pollutants come from widespread sources, not a single point. Examples include large numbers of waterfowl congregating on waterways, or oil-based liquids washing into waterways from roads. Ink spill in the Opawaho/ Heathcote River, Christchurch 42 43 managing canterbury’s water | WAI
Box 4: protecting fish habitat
Fish & Game does a lot of work to ensure that streams continue to have enough good quality water in them to support fish and other wildlife. When you walk past a stream in the Canterbury Plains and look in – what do you see? Do you see clean gravels on the bottom, or silt and mud? If you’re in Canterbury, the chances are you will usually see silt and mud. Fish & Game, an organisation charged with protecting trout and salmon, sees this as a problem. These fish don’t like streams smothered in silt and mud, as they lay eggs in the gravels and feed on insects that live amongst the gravels. Silt and mud smothers these eggs and insects, killing them. So where does all this silt and mud come from? Some of it comes down in floods. These are natural events, but drained wetlands make flooding more common and more severe. Silt also ends up in rivers when stock such as cows or deer stand on the banks or in the water. Fish & Game spends a lot of time working with farmers to encourage them to keep stock out of waterways. They also lobby regulators, such as regional councils, to put in strict rules when it comes to waterway management. Fencing-off streams to improve water quality is just part of the battle for healthy waterways. source: Fish & Game
Excessive nutrients (eutrophication) are suitable the nutrients can result in algae and aquatic plants (macrophytes) growing more quickly. This can have the following All living things need nutrients to live and grow, but too much of any negative effects: nutrient can cause problems. Many waterways are naturally low in nutrients, so when unnatural amounts of both nitrogen or phosphorus ▪▪ Large quantities of algae and plants can smother insect and fish (found in animal urine and fertilisers) get into them, changes can habitats. occur. Provided other conditions, such as flow, light and temperature, ▪▪ Algae and plants can consume oxygen at night, so the amount of dissolved oxygen in the water may decrease, making it hard for fish, insects and birds to live in the water. ▪▪ Waterways clogged with plant life are also less attractive for recreational users and amenity purposes. Faecal and microbial contamination Faecal contamination happens when animal, bird or human faeces (poo) get into the waterways. Faecal contamination occurs when: ▪▪ There are large numbers of waterfowl and birds living on lakes and rivers, ▪▪ Livestock can access waterways, ▪▪ Effluent flows off land, ▪▪ There are sewage spills (e.g. during floods in towns and cities or when sewerage pipes break or systems exceed capacity). The recent earthquakes in Christchurch broke many sewer pipes and as a result much sewage went into the waterways around Christchurch. Faecal contamination is a problem because animals commonly carry disease-causing pathogens (e.g. Salmonella, Campylobacter, Giardia, Cryptosporidium, Shigella, Salmonella) so having their faeces in waterways can make people sick if they use the water for drinking or swimming. The lower reaches of Canterbury’s rivers, and lowland lakes, lagoons Allowing stock into waterways can increase and wetlands, are most susceptible to faecal contamination because faecal contamination and sediment pollution they are surrounded by intensive agricultural or residential land uses. 43 WAI | Environmental Uses 44
Never wash cars on a drive or road Never rinse paint brushes in the gutter
Toxins affect the behaviour of many species, especially fish. Sunlight, water temperature, pH and mineral Toxins are chemicals that are poisonous to content of the water (water ‘hardness’) also living things. The types of toxins that get into influence toxicity. Waterways that have good waterways include chemicals from detergents, flows and a buffer of vegetation along a wide pesticides, herbicides, construction materials, riparian margin to filter out contaminants are less some metals and oil-based liquids. Nutrients likely to be badly affected by toxins. such as nitrates and ammonia can also be toxic to aquatic life at high concentrations. Small rivers W hat improves water quality? surrounded by intensive human development are at risk of toxin contamination from time to time. To improve water quality we need to stop the Runoff from our roads containing metal particles pollutants above getting into our waterways. from cars and from activities such as washing Everthing that gets off our roads Farmers do this by planting stream banks and cars, or paint brushes or tipping paint down a gets into our waterways fencing their waterways to keep stock out of drain can have a big effect on local waterways. them. This stops sediment and faecal material Wash cars on your lawn & paint These activities make our urban waterways the getting into the water and improves water quality. brushes in a laundry tub most polluted ones we have in Canterbury! Likewise, careful use of fertiliser can help stop nutrients such as nitrogen and phosphorus being The effects of toxins depend on a number of washed off the land and into waterways. factors, including the amount of toxin and the volume of water. When there is more water, the toxins are diluted and have less effect on animal In cities, water quality can be improved by making sure that surface and plant life. In times of drought, or low flows, toxin levels can kill or water runs through vegetation and soil, both of which can filter it before it enters the surface water system. In addition, people living in cities 44 45 managing canterbury’s water | WAI
Kōkopu/ Bully above a kōwaro/ mudfish Papango/ Scaup stretching its wings
can help by doing things like picking up dog poo, relatively healthy ecosystems, both in-stream washing their cars on the lawn, avoiding putting and in surrounding mountain areas, ensure high chemicals like paint into roadside drains and even natural water quality. During floods, river water minimising car driving. becomes turbid – full of suspended sediments (rock and soil particles) – which give the water Riparian planting helps by both acting as a grey or brownish colour. However, the native a filter, and increasing the amount of shade species that depend on these waterways have over the waterway. Shade helps to keep water evolved to cope with flood events. temperatures down which helps to minimise the growth of algae. Ensuring that there is plenty The lower reaches of braided rivers provide of water in a waterway also helps. It is also spawning areas for native fish and habitat for a important to allow floods to occur, since these wide variety of coastal birds and waterfowl. Here help to flush out the waterway. they are more modified and, in some cases, are Overall, New Zealand’s wetlands becoming unhealthy because of low flows and Water quality in Canterbury’s are in a poor condition – poorer pollution. Water quality occasionally (though rivers than most of us think they are rarely) exceeds guideline standards for ecological There is high water quality in the upper reaches health, human consumption, stock water, and of Canterbury’s braided rivers, in inland lakes and recreational uses. (For an explanation of water in rivers fed from those lakes. Their tributaries quality guidelines, see section 7 below.) Water contain native fish such as koaro/ Galaxias brevipinnis and are also quality in lagoon and hapua areas near river mouths is a concern in spawning areas for introduced fish such as trout and salmon. In these a number of places across Canterbury as this is where pollutants waterways, high water volume throughout the year, frequent floods, and accumulate and can create problems. 45 WAI | Environmental Uses 46
Te Whakaraupō/ Lyttelton Harbour basin showing the many gullies with small creeks that run into the Harbour
Water quality in the upper reaches of hill country rivers is affected Water quality is moderate to poor in many of the short, steep Banks by surrounding land use. In undeveloped areas, these rivers have high Peninsula streams. Many of these streams have very low summer water quality with a gravel bed and often provide habitat for trout flows. In addition, the deforested volcanic soils on the peninsula and native fish, such as tuna/ eels, banded kōkopu (near the coast), release high levels of phosphorus into local streams. Add this to the piripiripōhatu/ torrentfish, and Canterbury Galaxias (inland). occasionally high levels of nitrogen that come off the land as a result of farming activities, and the result is a rich medium for the growth of In their lower reaches, hill-country rivers have low water quality. plants and algae. This is a particular concern for the harbours and bays Nutrient enrichment from shallow aquifers and intensive farming that the streams flow into. Faecal contamination is also a significant activities is one of the causes. Where this happens measures that would problem, which can affect the recreational use of some Banks Peninsula help improve water quality include: waterways. 1. More careful use of fertiliser so that all of it is taken up by plant When the land next to them is well-managed, spring-fed streams growth, and generally have very clear water and a healthy gravel bed. In the 2. Planting natives along the north banks of the rivers to provide Mackenzie Basin they are still home to some threatened native fish buffering and shade. Shade helps to improve ecosystem health species, including big-nose and upland longjaw galaxiids. On the Plains, by keeping the water cooler and darker, which reduces plant these streams used to provide good fish habitat and spawning areas and algae growth and is better for fish and insects to live in. for native species such as inanga, tuna (eels), waikōura (freshwater crayfish) and kākahi (freshwater mussels) as well as trout. Now, Faecal contamination is another form of pollution in the lower reaches though, most are very degraded. There is generally high nutrient of hill country streams. The amount of contamination often exceeds loading, faecal contamination and sedimentation. Intensive farming, the limits that the Ministry for the Environment and Ministry of Health urban development and horticulture all contribute to poor water quality suggest for swimming. in these waterways. 46 47 managing canterbury’s water | WAI
A stream fenced off to keep stock away from the stream edge
Water quality in lowland spring-fed streams has improved where people have planted riparian margins and fenced to prevent stock Box 5: Waikākahi Stream and access. While many lowland streams are not used much for recreation Harts Creek or drinking water, they often flow into larger water bodies that have these uses, or they may have important uses for aquatic ecosystems, In the past, the small, spring-fed Waikākahi Stream near such as providing fish spawning habitat or refuge from floods. For this Glenavy in South Canterbury was healthy enough to support reason, we need to find ways to improve the poor quality of our lowland kākahi/ freshwater mussels and a small but excellent trout streams. Te Waihora/ Lake Ellesmere and Te Ihutai/ Avon-Heathcote fishery. In recent years, it became degraded as surrounding Estuary are affected by the poor quality of the lowland waterways that land use intensified. However, the landowners, regional council run into them. Both these estuaries are now significantly degraded due and Fish & Game staff have collaborated in a restoration to urban and rural development in their catchments. It is no longer safe programme. Stock have been fenced out of the stream, to take food from Te Ihutai. mechanical weed clearing has stopped, and the riparian zone Overall, New Zealand’s wetlands are in a poor condition – poorer than has been planted (with the help of school children). There are most of us think they are. Large areas of wetland have disappeared since signs of improvement in water quality and biodiversity: slow the early days of European settlement. Much of Christchurch city and improvement in water clarity and larger numbers of adult trout its surrounding farmland was wetland that has been drained. In some in the past few years. places, wetlands have been filled in (or reclaimed) and are now covered On Harts Creek Farm, near Leeston, riparian strips alongside with factories or houses. Elsewhere, where rivers have been dammed, the creek have been fenced off and planted in native trees the resulting lakes have flooded their associated wetlands. Activities and shrubs and in productive timber. The streamside is now such as fertilising pasture, using pesticides on crops, stock movement regenerating in native bush and the water, once cloudy and and taking water from nearby waterways, have all degraded the quality polluted, is reported by fishers as being clear enough to see fish and quantity of our remaining wetlands. in again. WAI | Environmental Uses 48
P 46 this photo is not right here. need to be biodiversity related – fish
Water quantity Many people are interested in how much water flows along waterways. The term environmental flows is used to talk about the amounts of water that are required to sustain a healthy ecosystem – that is flows that allow native fish, plants and birds to thrive. This usually means Tui on Harakeke/ Flax having a minimum flow below which water cannot be taken. It also means allowing rivers and streams to have occasional floods. Floods help to clear vegetation from braided river channels, create or maintain openings to the sea, transport sediment along the length of the river and maintain healthy habitats for the river ecosystem. There is strong interest in water quantity among Canterbury farmers and irrigation companies. These water users recognise that while there is plenty of water in New Zealand generally, in Canterbury demand for it – particularly for irrigation – is at an unsustainable level. They understand that the environmental impacts of irrigation and intensive farming need to be minimised and have developed tools to improve water efficiency. These include the formation of water user groups, the use of moisture probes and the development of storage ponds. Water quantity is also important to people who use waterways for cultural, recreational, sporting, industrial and amenity purposes. These uses are discussed in other sections of this document.
Rainbow Trout Biodiversity – a test of ecosystem health When ecosystems are healthy, a diversity of plants, animals, insects and other organisms can thrive. Biodiversity (living things such as plants and animals) is linked to ecosystem health in another way, too. Ecosystems operate by each ‘member’ species (e.g. each type of plant or animal, etc) contributing to it. Some insects and micro-organisms, for example, break down dead organisms and so create soil for new plants to grow. Without biodiversity, links in the chain of contributors can be broken, threatening the whole ecosystem. Biodiversity in and around waterways is vital to waterway health and, consequently, to human health. Why our biodiversity is important New Zealand’s geographical isolation and wide variety of landscapes has given it flora and fauna quite distinct from that in other places. For this reason, the biodiversity found here is important internationally. Scientists have found that many species are endemic (found only in this country). In Canterbury, for example, there are over 50 rare or Papango/ Scaup threatened endemic plant species and on Banks Peninsula there are more than 30 endemic insect species. 48 49 managing canterbury’s water | WAI
Having native biodiversity in and around waterways is very important to conservationists and to Ngāi Tahu. It is also important to the ecology of water environments. Native biodiversity provides habitat for taonga species such as kōkopu (or hawai)/ giant bully, piripiripōhatu/ torrentfish, harakeke/ flax, raupō, kakī/ black stilt, kōtare/ kingfisher and many others. Raupo Biodiversity is enhanced by having native vegetation in riparian zones. Having plants along a river provides shade and shelter for fish and young waterfowl during the day, helps to prevent the river from silting up and provides a filter for substances that could pollute the water (such as nitrates and heavy metals). Just as importantly, a variety of vegetation can also help to stop the water draining away from the land so quickly and so has an important role in evening out stream flows and moderating soil moisture. The upper reaches of Canterbury waterways are still in a relatively natural state and have relatively high biodiversity. For example: ▪▪ In the headwaters of the Pareora River there are good stands of kanuka, kowhai and mikimiki and recently (re)discovered species (e.g. Hebe pareora). ▪▪ Te Manahuna/ Mackenzie Basin streams are home to native non-migratory galaxiid fish.
▪▪ High country rivers support up to 30 per cent of New Zealand’s Kōwaro/ Mudfish endemic bird species – some 40,000 birds at any one time, including ngutu pare/ wrybill, tara/ black-fronted tern and tarāpuka/ black-billed gull. ▪▪ Part of the South Branch of the Hurunui River is managed by the Department of Conservation as a ‘mainland island’ to conserve the natural ecosystems and biodiversity. ▪▪ Narbey Stream in Hinewai Reserve on Banks Peninsula has dense vegetation for almost its entire length and it, like Wainui Stream in Akaroa Harbour, provides habitat for the rare kanakana/ lamprey, among other species. Where good management of waterways has occurred, biodiversity – and therefore water quality – is reasonably good. One example is the lower Waiau River, where access to the river mouth has been limited and local landowners have taken care to reduce their impacts on the waterway. Here, there are still good stands of indigenous bush and shrubs such as matagouri and mingi mingi. Kereru/ wood pigeon and kingfisher are attracted to the area as a result. Tara/ White fronted terns 49 WAI | Environmental Uses 50
Box 6: Ngāi Tahu and biodiversity
In Te Manahuna/ Mackenzie Basin, wetlands, tarns, lagoons and small streams support many different species and are an important part of the overall catchment ecology. They were and are important seasonal mahinga kai for Ngāi Tahu. Tuna/ longfin eel is especially significant to Ngāi Tahu because they historically provided food for long journeys and could be stored for later use. They were a specialty food of Te Manahuna/ the Waitaki area and therefore important culturally. Dams now block the passage of tuna/ eels to habitats in the upper parts of the Waitaki catchment. Being able to provide visitors with a good meal of tuna enhances the mana of Ngāi Tahu and much effort has been put into maintaining the longfin eel fishery in the catchment and providing passages past the many barriers. Wetlands and small streams were central to tuna harvesting. Slow moving water is ideal habitat for them and it is safer to harvest from wetlands and small streams than from the fast-flowing, cold rivers of Te Manahuna/ Mackenzie Basin. Tuna favour high quality water and rich sources of insect larvae, worms and water snails. However, human activities like damming rivers, taking water, the effects of polluted runoff, and the drainage of wetlands has reduced and degraded their habitat. Small waterways have been adversely affected as land use has intensified, such as when dry land farms are converted to dairy farming. While Ngāi Tahu are supportive of landowners having access to reliable water for farming and other purposes in Te Manahuna, the rūnanga and iwi are very concerned about conversion to intensive farming and the impact of dairying on small aquatic habitats. They have advocated for a precautionary approach to development around these fragile ecosystems.
Threats to biodiversity Gravel extraction can help to mitigate the effects of flooding but taking too much gravel can lower a riverbed, change the profile of channels Many of Canterbury’s freshwater habitats are under threat from human and the types of sediment in the river. These changes can significantly activities, weed invasion, introduced predators that eat native birds, affect the habitat of small organisms living in the river gravels, and fish. lizards, fish and insects and from the effects of recreationists. Many If gravel supply down the river to the sea is reduced, coastal erosion tributaries of hill country rivers and most of the lower reaches of these can increase. Too much gravel extraction can also cause stopbanks and rivers, for example, have been highly modified by activities such as bridge piers to be undermined. farming and gravel extraction for roading and construction. As a result, the native vegetation along the stream edges has gone. Without the Of the 22 native freshwater fish species recorded in Canterbury, eight shade and habitat provided by the native plants, the native fish such as are rare and threatened: banded kōkopu , Canterbury mudfish/ kōwaro, bully, eel, smelt and inanga have suffered. dwarf galaxias, giant kōkopu, kōura, longjaw galaxias, redfinned bully and shortjaw kōkopu . Many other less threatened native birds, lizards, Lower water flows as a result of abstraction for irrigation and stock fish and invertebrates live and breed in the same habitats. drinking water affect some native fish species which have specific habitat needs, such as piripiripōhatu/ torrentfish which live in the fast- New species are still being identified in New Zealand, including some moving riffle sections of rivers. Low flows also encourage the growth in Canterbury. A new plant species, Hebe pareora, has recently been of unwanted algae, cyanobacteria and waterweed, which change the found in the upper reaches of the Pareora River catchment. This area habitat for the whole ecosystem and can sometimes be toxic to humans is considered a ‘biodiversity hotspot’ because it contains many native and animals. In braided rivers, recreational users sometimes destroy species. The Pareora River is habitat for the threatened banded dotterel bird’s nests or keep birds off their eggs and away from their chicks. and its spring-fed tributaries are important habitat for the endangered kōwaro/ Canterbury mudfish. Weed clearing can affect the biodiversity in and near waterways, if care is not taken. Mechanical clearing tends to take many beneficial plants The Ashley/ Rakahuri River, in North Canterbury, is a regionally from the waterway, plants that provide shade and cover for fish, for significant trout fishery and is locally significant for Chinook salmon. It is example, or food for bird species. Mechanical clearing can also take also a game bird habitat (e.g. pheasant, quail, mallard and grey duck). fish, eels, insects and freshwater crayfish from the waterway. It increases Gravel extraction disrupts the waterway ecology with impacts on game sediment suspension and turbidity of the water, which affects remaining species and native species. Water flows have dropped during the drier wildlife. And it can expose waterway banks, increasing risk of erosion. months over recent years due both to the loss of wetlands upstream and because water is taken out of the river. Chemical spraying can also have some of these effects and leave toxins in the water that can accumulate in the food chain. These effects can There are many threatened species found within braided river and be reduced by actions such as not clearing large tracts of waterway, wetland habitats. Some of these, including fish like the lowland longjaw avoiding breeding seasons of instream and riparian species, using galaxias and birds such as the kakī, are critically threatened. The kakī/ contact herbicides, spraying only in the centre of the stream, and black stilt is one of the world’s rarest wading birds. Only continued, replanting soon after clearing river banks. intensive management of the wild and captive populations has averted extinction. Gravel is extracted from many rivers for road and building construction. 50 51 managing canterbury’s water | WAI
Lake Wainono/ Wainono Lagoon, a conservation area in South Canterbury that is also managed as a traditional fishery for Ngāi Tahu
Other threatened species that are highly specialised or depend on environmental qualities. It also provides for community initiatives, braided river or wetland ecosystems to survive are the upland longjaw industry partnerships, development restrictions, education programmes galaxias and bignose galaxias, the ngutu pare/ wrybill, tara/ black- and other initiatives for improving biodiversity outcomes. fronted tern, tarāpuka/ black-billed gull, the robust grasshopper, and a range of small low-growing plants. Braided rivers also provide a pathway Hopes for the future between freshwater wetlands and the sea for many of our migratory fish Biodiversity is important for stream health and vice versa. If the such as the tuna/ longfin eel. CWMS is successful each zone in Canterbury will have some thriving lowland ecosystems, the population of each threatened freshwater bird Immediate Steps Programme species will be going up, 80 per cent of all rivers, streams and lakes The Canterbury Water Management Strategy requires that biodiversity in Canterbury will have very good aquatic ecosystem health, and all is included as one of the goals of water management in Canterbury. lowland streams will have at least “good” aquatic ecosystem health. The Immediate Steps programme has been put in place to assist with To do this, there will be operational nutrient management plans for this aspect of the work. Launched in 2010, Immediate Steps offers the all agricultural land in Canterbury and there will be a wide range of Regional and Zone Committees under the CWMS $10 million over five monitoring, research, incentives, education and involvement from years to assist with protecting and restoring biodiversity in and around communities and industries in the management of both land and water freshwater habitats. as well as efficient use of the tools that are available under the Resource The strategy also aims to improve planning frameworks by taking a long- Management Act. term approach. This means that the committees can set limits on things like environmental flows, catchment nutrient levels, and groundwater allocations over multiple years to enable long-term improvements in 51 WAI | Environmental Uses 52
Ō Tū Wharekai wetland area, an intermontane wetland system. Photo: Department of Conservation
Box 7: Ō Tū Wharekai – A Department of Conservation case study
Wetlands and the biodiversity they support are threatened, so the Department of Conservation (DOC) set up the Arawai Kākāriki restoration and research programme. Ō Tū Wharekai (Ashburton Lakes and upper Rangitata River) is part of this and is one of the best examples of an intact, inter- montane wetland system remaining in New Zealand. The area supports a great variety of native plants and animals, and provides a clean, healthy water resource for everyone downstream. It is also important historically and recreationally. As part of the programme, schools, community groups, land owners, non-government organisations, businesses and tertiary education providers are all working with DOC staff to protect, restore and learn about the wetland and its surrounding environment. Schools value the learning and teaching opportunities that this magnificent wetland provides. However, the area is difficult to visit because it is so remote, so DOC is part of the LEARNZ virtual education programme which has allowed over 6000 students to experience the wetland’s many ecological stories and secrets from the convenience of their classrooms. The Aoraki Polytechnic includes Ō Tū Wharekai in their Outdoor Recreation diploma. The students attend a 3-4 day field trip to the wetland where they help with research and restoration work. By doing this, they build an understanding of an environment that will be of enormous value in their future careers. University of Applied Science Eberswalde interns visit from Germany for 17 weeks each year and undertake a range of work to gain a better understanding of conservation in the work place. For 27 dedicated years, the Ashburton Branch of Forest and Bird have monitored waterfowl numbers and controlled wilding pines around Lake Heron. The Lake Heron Conservation Group also has a large trapping project around Lake Heron to help protect waterfowl. The Lake Clearwater Hut Holders Association has fenced and revegetated a 400-m riparian margin next to the baches. This protects the lake from village run-off as well as protecting the Australasian crested grebes when they breed in the area. The association now also traps predators around the village. For 10 years the Rangitata Landcare Group has worked hard to control broom in the upper Rangitata River. They are succeeding! Where once river margins were covered in dense broom there are now only a few individual plants coming up. Mark Gilbert, the owner/operator of Hassle-Free Tours, runs Lord of the Rings tours in the Ō Tū Wharekai surrounds. As a way of giving something back to the area, he designed and built artificial breeding platforms for the endangered Australasian crested grebe. Five were trialled in 2010 and, as a result, a university student has taken up the challenge of creating some new platform designs. Ō Tū Wharekai has got off to a flying start with DOC and a range of communities working together to protect and restore this wonderful natural habitat and water source. With continued collaboration this project is destined for great things! Find out more at www.doc.govt.nz/conservation/ land-and-freshwater/wetlands/wetlands-by-region/canterbury/o-tu-wharekai/ 52 53 managing canterbury’s water | WAI
Water quality- what are the issues?
Mary
The stream on our boundary still has freshwater crays, bullies, spawning herring and sometimes flounder, but there is more weed growth in it now so we see fewer of them all. Ten years ago we used to fish in that creek but I wouldn’t eat anything from it any more. And we used to swim down at the bridge but we don’t go there now because there is too much cow poo in the water. We have planted flax and other native shrubs along our side of the creek to help provide shade and shelter for fish. We’ve done the same with the wetland area on our property that’s connected to the stream. The council clears out the creek several times a year because of the weed growth. But I’m still worried about the deteriorating water quality in the stream. I’d like to see more of our neighbours, who have bigger farms, do more to clean up the stream.
Kiri-Anne
I can understand why Mary is concerned. Effluent is the biggest problem, though low flows contribute to its negative effects. It is hard to restore water quality once it is degraded in any system – hardest in lakes and then rivers and then in marine environments. I’m really concerned about groundwater, though. We can’t see it but it also can get degraded and it’s connected to surface waterways. It may be an even bigger problem – and we don’t yet understand how it works, let alone how we might ‘fix’ it.
Huia Trevor
I’ve fished from my local streams all my life, too, so I Hmmm, I’ve always thought that no pollution at all was can understand why Mary is worried. And I see what the goal to aim for. I’d like to know more about how much Kiri-Anne is saying. But here’s the thing: farming is pollution all the different waterway species – including totally important to the local and national economy so humans – can cope with. Do we have to assume that our we can’t just say let’s stop farming so we can save the economic future rests with intensive agriculture? streams and rivers. We have to find better ways to farm and better ways to manage water. We’re working on that at my place. We put in a storage lake to capture the water running off our place and then run it through a reed bed, so the nutrients are taken up by the reeds before the water goes back into the stream. We paid Piri for it all ourselves, because we want a clean stream our kids can swim in. But who’s to say what’s clean enough? Me, too. My clients want to see clean, clear water (preferably with No nutrients at all? Probably not because streams can big fish in it!). My business depends on that. Lots of recreation have natural levels of nutrients so how much should we and tourism businesses do. But if there’s a good story around put up with? There’s a limit to what farmers like us can environmental limits, I think we’d be able to work with that. afford to pay to clean up the water. 53 WAI | Kaitiakitanga O Ngā Wai – Māori And Water 54
Aōraki/ Mt Cook with Lake Pukaki in foreground. Photo: Ngāi Tahu
for so long as they wish to retain them. However, the Treaty was not 2. Kaitiakitanga o ngā wai – honoured, and Ngāi Tahu, like many other iwi around New Zealand, lost Māori and water control of most of their natural resources, including waterways. Ngāi Tahu protested strongly about the damage being done to their mahinga kai, and have appealed to councils and governments for generations to seek redress for the degradation and losses they have Today, tāngata whenua have an important role as kaitiaki (guardians) of experienced since European settlement. However their efforts had little water in Canterbury. As in the past, Ngāi Tahu iwi regard waterways as effect until the Ngāi Tahu Treaty of Waitangi claims were settled in 1998. taonga – something to be highly valued and carefully looked after, rather While they share concerns about water management with many than something that has solely commercial or economic use. Like Cantabrians, Ngāi Tahu, as tāngata whenua, have whakapapa ties others in Canterbury, it is of very great concern to Ngāi Tahu that many to waterways and water bodies in the places associated with their of our waterways are under stress, becoming polluted and unhealthy. ancestors. Using resources from land and waterways reaffirms these The mauri of the waterways is being degraded. connections. It also ensures continuity of the practices initiated and valued by tūpuna. In addition, Ngāi Tahu are now recognised as treaty Ngāi Tahu and water management partners with the Crown. All of these mean that it is important for Around 1840, the British Crown representatives in New Zealand drew Crown representatives to work with them in the management of water up the Treaty of Waitangi/ Te Tiriti o Waitangi. This Treaty is considered resources. the nation’s founding document and it guaranteed Māori full rights of Maintaining strong relationships and being involved in the management ownership of their lands, estates, forests, fisheries and other property of waterways is a key to kaitiakitanga. Some of the ways that these 54 55 managing canterbury’s water | WAI
Family swimming in the Waimakariri River near Kaiapoi
relationships are maintained are by using appropriate Māori names, allowing people to take water from a river for, say, irrigation or a new understanding the history of the place and changes over time, providing urban water supply. A catchment approach will look at how water is for cultural use, collaborative partnerships for waterway management, shared out across the whole catchment rather than thinking about and helping young Māori to understand how waterways are managed in it farm by farm or town by town. In Canterbury this will also mean their takiwā. managing water under the ground as well as water running across the surface. This approach also helps to look after the overall mauri of the Integration water and the health of the surface waterway. Ngāi Tahu whānui see that the health and well-being of our waterways are important for the overall well-being of all New Zealanders. They Balancing uses want to see the different stakeholders working together more effectively A key principle for Ngāi Tahu is the idea of sustainable use of resources. and the use of an integrated approach to water management. So what This means working in an integrated and collaborative way to find does this mean? a balance between different water uses (including conservation, recreation and commercial uses). Integration means seeing things as part of a whole system rather than as disconnected pieces. An integrated approach to water management Like other communities in Canterbury, Ngāi Tahu has to balance means thinking about the whole river catchment – ki uta ki tai – from resource use, development and protection. For whānau and hapū to the mountains to the sea. To manage water resources, we must be financially independent, iwi economic development is essential. look after the health of the land, the natural biodiversity and even the However, this needs to be balanced with the need to sustain valued cleanliness of the air since these all affect water quality and quantity. ways of life and requires that resources be developed in a way that does not threaten the cultural ways or health of present or future whānau, This “whole catchment” approach is particularly important when hapū and iwi members. 55 WAI | Kaitiakitanga O Ngā Wai – Māori And Water 56
LEFT Marae locations of Papatipu Rūnanga
RIGHT South Bay, Kaikōura
Ngāi Tahu water monitoring and management ▪▪ Are wanted organisms, such as fish, birds, native vegetation and mahinga kai present? How many of the species that used to be Ngāi Tahu people want to see the use of robust scientific and cultural found there are still found there? assessments to monitor the health of water in Canterbury. They acknowledge that there is a great deal that we don’t know about ▪▪ Is the ecosystem in and around the water healthy? managing water, particularly in the light of increasing demand for many ▪▪ Does the waterbody look natural? How modified is it and its different uses. Ngāi Tahu have developed an environmental monitoring surroundings? approach called the State of the Takiwā. This involves using a suite of tools to assess the health or mauri of waterbodies. Two of the tools ▪▪ Is the water body attractive and likely to be visited by Ngāi Tahu are the Stream Health Monitoring Kit and the Cultural Health Index. The or other people? Cultural Health Index assesses the quality of lakes, streams and rivers ▪▪ Is the food gathered there safe to eat? against a wide range of indicators, such as: ▪▪ Can tāngata whenua get access to the site to gather resources? ▪▪ Can waterways flow without interruption from their source to the sea? Mahinga kai ▪▪ How clear is the water? Today mahinga kai is viewed by Ngāi Tahu as the ultimate indicator of ▪▪ Are unwanted organisms, such as Escherichia coli (E. coli), the health of waterways. Mahinga kai is very important to Ngāi Tahu for weeds or pests, present? physical, cultural and spiritual reasons. For Māori, waterbodies and 56 57 managing canterbury’s water | WAI
the food they provide are very important because they give people a ability of future generations to use and protect the waterway. sense of identity and connect them with traditional practices. Particular There are a number of ‘cultural instruments’, such as mātaitai forms of food, like tuna/ eels from Lake Waihora/ Lake Ellesmere or tītī/ and rāhui, that can be used to help maintain Ngāi Tahu’s values in muttonbirds from Murihiku/ Southland are exchanged as gifts between waterways. These are discussed later in this section under ‘Legislative different hapū (extended families). Being able to manaaki (host) Environment’. visitors by providing kai from one’s takiwā, for example, means that the activities of fishing, eeling and gathering foods creates and maintains Hopes for the future community ties and reinforces identity. Conversely, the inability to So what will success look like from the viewpoint of kaitiakitanga? Most manaaki guests and sustain whanaungatanga (kinship ties) can lead to of the hopes for the future success of processes associated with the cultural loss and a loss of mana. Canterbury Water Management Strategy in this area are associated Ngāi Tahu iwi can connect with past traditions and knowledge in with recognising the values that Ngāi Tahu put on water and the uses these places and can renew and pass on knowledge of their ancestral which they are aiming to maintain. This means that we need to work connections to their takiwā through visiting such places. towards recognising and protecting waahi taonga and mahinga kai sites, There are a number of other values that are important to Ngāi Tahu with ensuring good access for Ngāi Tahu iwi to high quality mahinga kai sites, regard to waterways. These include the role of particular waterways integrating ki uta ki tai philosophies into all management planning and in creation stories and in historical events, the use of waterways as making sure that all marae to have high quality drinking water. transport routes, ceremonial uses and wāhi tapu, and the continued 57 WAI | Drinking Water 58
Groundwater spring
3. Drinking water Secure supplies Twenty per cent of Canterbury’s drinking water bores are ‘secure’, meaning that they draw from an aquifer deep underground that has been tested and found to be clean, and has been assessed as likely to stay that way. Some of this water fell as snow or rain on the Southern Access to safe, clean drinking water is a fundamental human right. Alps hundreds, if not thousands, of years ago. Land uses affect nutrient However, not everyone in Canterbury has access to good quality flows in groundwater; it may take many, many years before the effects drinking water. of our current land uses show up in drinking water. Water from ‘secure’ Drinking water in Canterbury comes from different sources depending sources is currently safe to drink without treatment. on where people live. In Hurunui District, for example, there are 13 Many of the 150 Christchurch city wells are ‘secure’. They draw water different water supply schemes drawing water from 24 different sources. that originates from the upper reaches of the Waimakariri River and Timaru city draws water from the Pareora and Opihi Rivers. Geraldine has percolated down through the deep gravel aquifers of the Plains. and Christchurch are examples of places where water is taken from These wells are in a protected area – the Christchurch Groundwater underground aquifers. Protection Zone – which lies north-west of the city bounded to the north Approximately 570,000 Canterbury people receive water from one of by the river itself and extending south for a few kilometres. In this area, the 144 networked water supplies in the region. Others rely on one of the aquifers gradually become shallower, so protection is needed to the 127 private water supplies. The water for these various systems ensure that the city’s high drinking water quality is maintained. Human comes from 128 surface water bodies and 271 groundwater bores. activities are controlled to minimise the chance of contaminating the aquifer. If the aquifers were contaminated, it would be technically very difficult and, in practical terms, far too expensive to clean them up again. 58 59 managing canterbury’s water | WAI
Box 8: The Springston story
Springston is a small rural community, with a groundwater supply from a deep bore. In 2008, a high incidence of gastroenteritis (tummy bug or stomach flu) from Campylobacter was reported in the area. People who drank Springston water without boiling it first were 16.25 times more likely to get sick than those who didn’t. Investigations found that the bore did not meet the New Zealand Drinking Water Standards and that there was E. coli in the water supply. (Campylobacter and E.coli are different organisms, both found in faeces.) A replacement bore was drilled that complied with the Standards and no further illness has been reported from that reticulated water supply.
Drinking-water contaminants Health problems associated with contaminated water can affect many people in a short space of time, causing individual suffering and potentially causing disease in epidemic proportions that overwhelm our health system’s ability to respond adequately. The New Zealand Drinking Water Standards cover different types of contamination in water, including bacteria, protozoa (e.g. Giardia), cyanotoxins (toxins produced by bacteria called cyanobacteria/ blue- green algae), and chemicals (e.g. ammonia).
Box 9: Drinking water quality in
Groundwater spring South Canterbury
Water quality is higher in Mid and North Canterbury than in After the earthquake on 22 February 2011, there was damage to wells South Canterbury. and water pumping stations in Christchurch. Because of this, managers ▪▪ Some 77 per cent of the South Canterbury population thought it was possible that the water supply in some places was has access to drinking water that complies with the contaminated. As a precaution, chlorine was added to the public water standard for bacterial contamination, compared with supply. Christchurch people were also asked to boil water used for 92 per cent elsewhere. drinking and cooking until tests were clear for two weeks. ▪▪ Only 9 per cent of the South Canterbury population In contrast to Christchurch city, many other drinking water supplies in has access to drinking water that complies with the Canterbury can easily be contaminated. This may be because they are standard for protozoan contamination, compared with unprotected shallow aquifers, potentially infiltrated by pollutants at 66 per cent elsewhere in Canterbury. the surface. Or it may be that the design of the supply system does not adequately keep contamination out. In many small communities and ▪▪ Access to good quality drinking water is poorest in rural areas, water quality is low and some of it is likely to cause illness. communities of fewer than 500 people. This is the case throughout Canterbury. Exceptional natural events, such as very large floods and earthquakes, can affect drinking water. The September 2010 earthquake, centred at Greendale, near Darfield, disrupted drinking water for many rural people All drinking water drawn from rivers, lakes, springs, shallow in the Selwyn District. Alternative supplies were required for several groundwater and water collected from roofs is highly vulnerable to weeks until bores that had been damaged or become clogged with faecal contamination. (Human faeces can also infect waterways, as liquifaction silt could be repaired or replaced. when sewerage pipes break and untreated sewage pours into nearby waterways. The same thing can happen when septic tank systems leak, but this is usually more localised, shorter-term and relatively easy to fix.) 59 WAI | Drinking Water 60
Blue-green algae These microbes can rapidly proliferate (“bloom”) under stable water conditions, and some species can produce compounds that are toxic to animals (including humans). Some will form mats when this happens. A Stream fenced off to keep stock out
More intense farming upstream of aquifers could increase the risk of Cyanotoxins are naturally occurring, yet extremely dangerous, toxins bacteria contaminating waterways through animal faeces. that can disrupt the functioning of human and animal liver, skin and nervous systems. Recent investigations have found cyanotoxins to be In Canterbury, a major concern is nitrate contamination of drinking more widespread in New Zealand than previously believed. In 2003, water supplies. In 2008-2009, 10 per cent of wells monitored by for example, one form of cyanotoxin was identified when samples Environment Canterbury and many surface water sources of drinking of Hamilton city’s drinking water were tested. This illustrates the water had nitrate levels higher than the New Zealand Drinking Water importance of regular testing and ongoing scientific investigation to the Standard. Nitrate pollution is a problem associated with fertiliser or quality of our water resources in the country as a whole. effluent runoff into streams and rivers, which is increasing as farming and horticulture intensifies. Nitrates in surface water can leach into In Canterbury, seasonal algal blooms on rivers and lakes occur naturally, groundwater. High concentrations of nitrate in drinking water can cause but some algae contain cyanotoxins and eating or drinking water unborn and newborn children to suffer breathing difficulties. It can also that contains them can be fatal. In 2007, at least two dogs died after affect some adults. While 10 per cent is not a high figure, this figure exposure to algal mats in the Ashley River/ Rakahuri. could rise as nitrates already in the soil continue to move down into groundwater supplies. Hopes for the future Gastroenteritis (‘tummy bug’ or ‘stomach flu’) is a term used for We need to improve drinking water for those places which do not have the effects of many bacterial and protozoan infections of humans. good quality drinking water at present and we need to maintain the Gastroenteritis can cause serious illness, even death, in those who are water quality in those places that already have good drinking water. To very young, very old, ill or already in poor health. There are estimated to do this it will be important to ensure that there are operational nutrient be 18,000-34,000 cases of water-borne gastroenteritis in New Zealand management systems on all agricultural land, and that nitrate levels each year and a relatively high rate is usual in Canterbury, though in all groundwater are well below the maximum allowable amount drinking water is not always the cause. recommended for drinking water. 60 61 managing canterbury’s water | WAI
Drinking water- what are the issues?
Kiri-Anne
Christchurch has some of the purest drinking water in the world and we should value that really highly. But water is also a vital resource for many industries that support our high quality of life. We may have to make some hard decisions on water uses in the region.
Trevor
Without good quality drinking water we are all worse off because we’ll have to pay through rates for more water treatment and possibly more water bores and pipes. Some people can’t afford higher rates. For everyone’s sake, we need to take a second look at how intensively we allow urban development and farming to occur.
Jo
I worry that my kids will not have access to clean, safe drinking water if things keep going as they are. We all need to be able to drink to live, and our health is pretty important too – illness is expensive in all sorts of ways both for individuals and for New Zealand as a whole. In future, I’d like to see a range of measures to minimise the runoff from farms, so our water both above and below ground is not polluted.
Huia Jim
Intensive farming makes farming financially viable. Hmmm, it’s a tricky problem. Farming does have to be Without a strong farming base, Canterbury doesn’t financially viable, otherwise no one would farm and that have much of an economy. Keeping the waterways would cause huge problems for the economy and society. clean costs us a lot of time and money so perhaps But I think everyone should have good drinking water, too. there should be wider community contributions to help Maybe it’s not so much a problem of farming intensity, but farmers do the things that protect drinking water. of where we’re farming intensively. We might need more of those water protection zones, funded by everyone. 61 WAI | Water Use In Urban Areas 62
4. Water use in urban areas
Water takes many forms in urban systems. It is reticulated (or piped around) so that we have access to water for uses such as washing, drinking, watering the garden and flushing the toilet. Wastewater is Christchurch sewage treatment plant: all wastewater what we all create when we use water for showers, washing laundry from the city is treated here and dishes and flushing the toilet. Wastewater is carried away from our houses through underground pipes. It is ‘treated’ – cleaned – before it is released to the environment. Stormwater, as the name suggests, is water that falls during a storm and then has to be drained away to prevent flooding. Surface water includes stormwater, and is managed in a separate system to our sewer system. Surface water is drained from the surface of the land into streams, rivers and other waterways. Reticulated water supplies Urban areas deal with water in different ways. Urban councils may provide water reservoirs, bores for access to aquifers, piped water to buildings. They also look after waste water by providing piped sewerage and stormwater collection, pumping stations and treatment plants. Urban people rely on having a secure and sufficient reticulated water supply.
On average, each Christchurch Surface water is discharged directly into drains and rivers resident uses 450 litres of water each day
In Christchurch, reticulated water use in the summer is five times what it is in the winter because of garden sprinklers and, perhaps, children cooling themselves down! During the earthquake crises of 2010 and 2011, many water pipes broke and pumping stations stopped working. Urban dwellers in and near Christchurch had to rely on water tankers brought in to the city, which they visited daily to refill water containers. Some had access to privately owned bores. Even those who still had piped water had to boil it before using it. Water was in short supply for many weeks meaning short showers, limited washing and no watering of gardens. Without a good supply of water, many people could not use their household toilet and had to use temporary back-yard toilets for a short time; for some, chemical toilets or portaloos were in use for months. The many inconveniences of this situation highlight our dependence on municipal Curletts Box Drain in Christchurch water supplies and wastewater disposal systems. 62 63 managing canterbury’s water | WAI
The swale on QEII Drive in Christchurch helps filter surface water of pollutants before it drains into local rivers
Using water in urban areas In very heavy rain, when stormwater (run off from large amounts of rain) floods into sewerage pipes causing them to overflow, urban waterways Besides drinking and cooking, urban people use water for washing, can be contaminated, both with untreated sewage, and other pollutants growing healthy plants and animals, assisting industrial processes, fire that can seriously damage freshwater bodies and affect human health. fighting, recreation, sport (e.g. swimming, rowing), cultural uses, as a Among these are chemicals such as cleaning fluids and pharmaceuticals landscape feature and as scenery. High quality water is also used to from households, industrial and commercial areas, which can build up transport waste away from our homes and businesses (e.g. flushing our in the environment. Micro-organisms such as E. coli and associated toilets, hosing down our driveways and paths). pathogens are another major problem. Because of the way urban buildings and water systems are designed, For many people, this is an unacceptable type and level of pollution. For many Canterbury people use water that is good enough to drink for all many Māori, it is dangerous and disgusting to discharge human waste these purposes. It is worth thinking about systems where it would be into water; it is offensive to defile a living thing such as a water body possible to use alternative sources (e.g. rainwater) for some purposes, with human waste in this way. Towns and cities, therefore, can have such as gardening and transporting waste. significant cultural and biophysical effects on waterways. Waste water Surface water For many of us, once the waste has left our homes we forget about it. In Canterbury’s urban areas, waterways take many forms and serve Others think about waterway quality all the way to the sea. For urban many purposes. Some are streams, rivers and wetlands; others are populations of over 5000 people, wastewater treatment plants take invisible because they are in boxed drains or are hidden underground in our wastewater and make it safe enough to discharge back into the pipes. Most urban centres have at least one waterway running through environment. In some places, treatment plants struggle to cope with them. Christchurch, for example, has over 400 named waterways the load from new developments or from a seasonal influx of visitors. 63 WAI | Water Use In Urban Areas 64
running through over 800 km of streams, pipes, drains, swales (grassy WESTHAVEN TRAVIS NORTH NEW hollows or depressions used instead of curbs or gutters) and ponds. BRIGHTON When a lot of rain falls, the excess water (stormwater) has to be drained BURWOOD NEW BRIGHTON off quickly. SHIRLEY Urban development has major impacts on surface water quality and AVONDALE Av on R quantity. Our surface waterways carry groundwater from springs, DALLINGTON iv e stormwater, runoff and industrial discharges. Urban developments, RICHMOND such as new housing subdivisions and concentrated industrial, WAINONI BEXLEY commercial and retail areas have a significant impact on waterways. ARANUI Contaminated runoff and loss of riparian margins reduces water quality AVONSIDE and increases sedimentation. Runoff from roadways contains lead, zinc NORTH LINWOOD and copper from vehicle brake linings, exhaust emissions and engine LINWOOD SOUTH NEW and tyre wear and from the road itself. Unpainted roofs on buildings can BRIGHTON
add zinc pollutants to stormwater. BROMLEY O ut fal l D Hard surfaces such as roads and footpaths prevent rain from being ra WALTHAM in absorbed into soil. This means less water is soaked into the ground to r Ihutai Estuary ve replenish groundwater reservoirs, which can cause associated springs Ri te co WOOLSTON th to dwindle or even dry up. In addition, because more water flows into a e H MCCORMACKS FERRYMEAD streams during heavy rain, flooding occurs more frequently and more BAY ST ANDREWS OPAWA HILL
severely. REDCLIFFS
T
r u
ST. MARTINS s c
Changing waterways affects biodiversity in them. Using culverts and o
t MONCKS
t s BAY weirs, and piping of water creates barriers to the movement of fish and R m o MONCKS a a e m SPUR r a t e S insect species, potentially disrupting their life cycles. Lining waterways r S t HILLSBOROUGH t e S r g e n y a le a l with concrete increases the speed of water flow which can damage or R a
V e l
f
a i c reduce habitat for some species. Changing stream bank vegetation can o R v A CLIFTON reduce the availability of food and energy sources for plants and animals HEATHCOTE SUMNER in the water, increase water temperatures, degrade or reduce habitat HUNTSBURY and therefore reduce biodiversity. MT PLEASANT Canterbury’s natural waterways have been dramatically altered by Many waterways in Christchurch run into Te Ihutai/ the drainage. Drainage creates dry land out of swampy areas. Christchurch Avon Heathcote Estuary city is mainly located on drained land, as is Kaiapoi to the north. Habitat for fish and plants has been reduced or lost as a result. south of the Waimakariri River. There are other regionally significant landscapes close to urban waterways, such as Riccarton Bush (an Urban waterways are highly valued Ōtākaro/Avon River tributary flows through it), McLeans Island Despite the negative effects of urban development, many Canterbury woodlands and grasslands along the south bank of the Waimakariri waterways are highly valued, as shown by the work of numerous River, and Arowhenua Bush adjacent to the Opihi River, near Temuka. community stream care groups. Waterways near Canterbury’s urban Some waterways are among the natural features considered regionally areas, for example, are regularly used by those living in cities and large significant, a classification that local councils must consider when towns. Rivers and lakes can be important features of cities, for example urban development is proposed. Te Ihutai/ the Avon-Heathcote estuary the Ōtākaro/ Avon and the Ōpawaho/ Heathcote in Christchurch. and Travis Wetland, both in Christchurch city, are listed as regionally Urban waterways are also highly valued for recreational purposes. significant. Kayakers, rowers and those involved in waka ama used to train on the lower reaches of the Avon River in Christchurch until the 2010/11 Measuring water use earthquakes. The quakes damaged club facilities and the sewerage Water meters can provide information about how much water is used, system. High levels of pollution made the river unsafe for contact where and when. Some local councils (e.g. Christchurch City Council) recreation. Like the Ōtākaro, the Heathcote River is also used for raft have installed water meters for residential properties. At present, races, fishing and other forms of leisure. Until the sewers in Christchurch Canterbury’s urban residents either don’t pay, or pay very little, for are fixed, it seems likely that these kinds of activities will not be able to water based on how much is used. All Christchurch residents, for be enjoyed. example, all urban users, large and small, pay the same amount in rates to have water piped to the gate, even though some use more than Some urban waterways have regionally significant landscape values, others). However, in future years, there may be charges for using water including the Waimātaitai/ Saltwater Creek and the Rakahuri/ Ashley at home as well as in business. 64River estuary north-east of Rangiora, and Brooklands Lagoon, just 65 managing canterbury’s water | WAI
Using water- what are the issues?
Finn
Yes I’ve started washing my car on my lawn so that the detergent is Kiri-Anne filtered by the grass and doesn’t get into the waterways. But another issue is the number of ducks on the rivers. Aren’t their droppings one of the main reasons why the city rivers aren’t safe to swim in? The waterways in most of our urban centres are in poor condition. In fact the worst polluted rivers in Canterbury are the urban waterways in Christchurch. I think we each have a responsibility to help put that right. Jo That includes me, too. I used to wash my car on the driveway but now I take Well, my kids love feeding the ducks in the parks and along the river bank it to a car-wash. It costs me more but I near where we live. There are seagulls and other birds, too, sometimes don’t feel guilty about it anymore and I hundreds of them. People who have dogs should pick up the dog’s doings know that oil, grease and other harmful so it doesn’t get into the water, but the water is where birds live so we contaminants from my car aren’t going should let them be. I wouldn’t want the birds to be chased away. I think into the streams nearby when it rains. we have to put up with their effect on the water because they are neat to have around.
Finn
I use water on my vegie gardens and lawns. They are my pride and joy! By February I’m pretty keen to keep the vegies growing and the lawn in good shape so I do use a bit of water then. I could find alternatives, like rainwater, Trevor but I haven’t convinced my partner yet that water tanks would add to the landscaping and I’m with you on vegies, Finn. But I reckon the more demand we put on the they can be expensive to install. And the water water infrastructure, the more the cost goes up. By putting in a rainwater tank, is running past anyway, just underground, and changing how I view Canterbury’s landscape, I’ve found I can still enjoy my so all we’re doing is using it for a little while place. We can still be the ‘Garden City’, but maybe the garden should be more during its run to the sea. Growing food is really in tune with our natural environment and natural water resources. We don’t important. And green lawns make the city need to use our high quality water to feed lawns or wash clothes or cars for landscape attractive. We should all be allowed that matter. I reckon we should reserve that for drinking and keep the cost of to use water for that because it is fundamental. accessing and using it really low so everyone gets what they need. 65 WAI | Water And The Regional Economy 66
5. Water and the regional economy
A centre pivot irrigator Water is an integral part of our natural environment. It also plays an important role in the economic growth of the Canterbury region in agriculture and tourism, as well as in the urban uses of water outlined previously. Water contributes directly to regional prosperity (for example, by increasing agricultural production and therefore farming incomes, and by enabling water-based commercial recreation and tourism). Water infrastructure development and water use efficiency are therefore very important in Canterbury. Water contributes indirectly to regional prosperity, through stimulating employment in agricultural- and tourism-related services. Some 10-11 per cent of employment in Canterbury is agriculture-related, a higher proportion than the average for New Zealand as a whole. Natural ecosystems are important factors in gaining, and maintaining, international market share in tourism, agriculture, fishing, forestry, horticulture and the film industry. They are also important in providing ecosystem services (explained below). The ‘work’ the ecosystem Jet boating – important in tourism does supplies our water, but it is easy to overlook this ‘work’ until suddenly the ecosystem is not providing it free of charge any more and people have to pay to purify their water or store water in tanks for the dry months. The New Zealand economy relies heavily on both the appearance and essence of a healthy natural environment. New Zealand’s agricultural products are mainly sold in international markets and there are increasing challenges to securing these markets. This means that we must find ways to both produce new or higher value products while looking after the environment. Irrigation and water use Canterbury’s economic activity has increased significantly over the past 40 years as a result of agricultural irrigation. Approximately 390,000 hectares of land in Canterbury is currently irrigated. This makes up 70 per cent of New Zealand’s irrigated land and 58 per cent of the nation’s allocated water. This figure is set to grow because Environment Canterbury has consented another 210,000 hectares for irrigation, but some of this is not yet irrigated. Water is used in factories for cooling Irrigation contributed an estimated $800m net to national Gross 66 67 managing canterbury’s water | WAI
An example of intensive farming that could not happen in Canterbury without irrigation
Abstractive Uses of Water in Canterbury Stock water 8% Community Supplies 5.3% Industrial 3.2%
Irrigation 84% Source: Canterbury Water Management Strategy, Strategic Framework. November 2009
Domestic Product (GDP – a measure of national economic activity) Higher production rates have other economic effects. Food processing in 2007/08. This equates to well over $1000/ha more than dryland increases, stimulating activity in associated manufacturing industries farming can contribute to the economy because irrigation enables (such as packaging), and in construction, transport, communication, higher production rates (more plant and animal growth). Further, business services and retail industries. Demand for electricity and fuels because it increases production rates, irrigation increases export increases, as does demand for water in manufacturing processes. These earnings, with flow-on effects for all New Zealanders. In 2007/08, effects are widely acknowledged but there are not yet specific measures irrigation is estimated to have contributed $1.1b net in export earnings. for them on a regional basis. Overall, New Zealand exports more than 80 per cent of what it The various economic effects of irrigation increase employment, produces, and much of that is a result of having reliable irrigation. particularly in rural areas. Higher employment increases local Exporting more generates increases in real wealth for New Zealanders. populations in size and stability. This has flow-on effects such as retention of local services, including schools and, with increased local Irrigation provides greater spending, retail outlets. It also provides the conditions for strong reliability in growing conditions for a communities to develop and flourish. variety of products from farming. The flow-on effects beyond rural Canterbury are likely to be indirect: increased productivity from irrigated land use helps to balance the government’s books and provide more favourable exchange and interest Regional diversification in primary production is seen as a good thing rates for everyone in New Zealand. For domestic tourism, vibrant rural because it means the regional economy is not dependent on just one or communities are attractive to visit. Those near cities make attractive two commodities (e.g. sheep meat, or milk). Diversification improves commuter towns. economic resilience. It may also improve climate change resilience. 67 WAI | Water And The Regional Economy 68
Lake Opuha, South Canterbury, created by the Opuha Dam and also now a recreation reserve. Photo: Tom Henderson
Box 10: Case study: the Opuha Dam irrigation scheme – economic impacts
Background: Pressure of demand for fresh water in Canterbury has led to proposals to store river water behind dams so that it can be used for irrigation when rainfall is low. One such scheme was developed on the Opuha River in South Canterbury, where water is stored behind the Opuha Dam. This water is used to irrigate about 16,000 ha of mid-Canterbury farmland and it also produces 7mW of electricity. There is capacity to raise the level of Lake Opuha to improve reliability of supply, and to add storage in the upper Opuha River catchment by drawing water from Lake Tekapo/ Takapo, thereby increasing the area that could be irrigated. A study of farm management data from the 2002/03 and 2003/04 years reported that: ▪▪ total farm revenue is 2.4 times higher for irrigated farms than for dryland farms in the area of the scheme. ▪▪ the proportion of revenue needed for farm working expenses is similar on irrigated and dryland farms. ▪▪ irrigated farms generate twice as many jobs, and 3 times as much household income per hectare as do dryland farms. ▪▪ irrigation appears to improve sustainability of downstream businesses and local rural communities.
Approximately half the water used for irrigation in Canterbury comes rivers and streams in Canterbury during any one week is 290 cumecs from rivers and streams (the rest comes from groundwater bores). The (to get an idea of how much this is, the average flow in the Waitaki maximum rate of water flow that irrigators are allowed to take from River is 320 cumecs and the Ōtākaro/ Avon has an average flow of of 1.6 68 69 managing canterbury’s water | WAI
Inspecting some quality grain from a mid Canterbury cropping farm cumecs). At present, irrigation takes 83 per cent of the maximum that produce a dollar’s worth of milk than it takes to produce a dollar’s worth has been allowed across all Canterbury rivers. of grain and nearly four times more than it takes to produce a dollar’s worth of fruit and vegetables on similar land types (see Table 1). While Continued demand for water is associated mainly with dairy farming water use figures may be different in New Zealand, what is important but all farms are more productive when they have reliable access to to look at here is the ratio of water use for different production types. sufficient quantities of water. In comparison with other regions of New The ratios for Canterbury may differ slightly to those in Australia, Zealand, Canterbury has the highest dependency on irrigation during but growing grain and vegetables still requires much less water than dry periods. This is because it has a relatively low rainfall, and high producing milk. summer temperatures and strong winds dry out Canterbury soils during the summer. Table 1 Relative amounts of water required on similar land types to produce $1.00 of product Farming needs for irrigation Interest in irrigation development tends to rise when there is financial To produce $1.00 worth of: Amount of water required: pressure on farmers due to low product prices, during periods of Milk products 1470 litres drought, or when opportunities arise to benefit from new product lines. Fruit & vegetables 379 litres Irrigation also increases profits. Grain 245 litres At present, about 15 per cent of Canterbury’s land is used for dairy farming and the demand for water is much higher for this than for other * based on Australian figures (NZ data not available). types of production. New Zealand data is not available, but studies done in Australia indicate that dairy farming uses six times more water to 69 WAI | Water And The Regional Economy 70
Like dairying, modern crop farming is not viable without irrigation.
Like dairying, modern crop farming is not viable without irrigation. Irrigation and other water uses Crop farmers must sell their crops to buyers on contract by weight. Farmers need a secure or reliable water supply because their This means that they are committed to producing a certain quantity of investments in farming are very large and very long-term. Financial particular crops. The only way to be sure about crop growth is to have viability depends on having a consistent average annual level of water for irrigation. Crop farmers cannot secure contracts unless they productivity. The regional and national benefits of increasing farm have irrigated land. Similarly, horticultural businesses rely on irrigation productivity in Canterbury are reflected in the regional and national to ensure crop productivity. funding provided to assist with large-scale irrigation schemes. Dairy farming in New Zealand dates back to 1814 but large-scale, Farmers in any one area may have a range of opinions about a particular intensive dairying in Canterbury is relatively new. In recent years, irrigation proposal. Some will be supportive of it; some won’t want the groundwater bores have supplemented the older surface water extra cost of investing in it; some won’t want to bother with the extra irrigation systems in the region, allowing more intensive farming. work involved; some may not agree with increasing irrigation in their This occurs on individual farms (rather than via the larger communal area. schemes that off-take directly from rivers). Farmers understand that water, like other farm resources, is a finite resource and must be used Over the years, several big irrigation scheme proposals have foundered efficiently. They invest in new technologies, such as centre-pivot for want of farmer investment, the complexity and expense of securing irrigators, because compared with other systems (such as border dyke consents through the RMA system, insufficient government support, or irrigation), they take much less time to use and they are also better for objection from other groups (e.g. conservationists, anglers, kayakers). delivering the right amount of water for grass growth. 70 71 managing canterbury’s water | WAI
Increasing demand for irrigation can create competition for water use shallower aquifers. Nevertheless, deep aquifers can still supply more and conflict with other water users. During the late 1960s and early reliable water for farmers who can afford to tap into them, with less 1970s in central Canterbury, for example, the growing seasons were immediate environmental effect. However, groundwater and surface unusually dry and the prices farmers got for lamb, wool and crops were water are connected, so groundwater bores do not necessarily secure low. Drought distressed farmers eyed up the Rakaia River as a source of water supply over the long term, unless there is good management of irrigation to sustain their livelihoods. However, water was most needed entire catchments. during early February to May, the same time that adult salmon return up the rivers and spawn. Recreational and commercial (tourism) fishers argued successfully that this effect, plus the negative impacts on the A difficulty all water users face endangered migratory wrybill plover that relies on the Rakaia and other is that there is still much to learn about braided rivers, were too important to ignore. A Water Conservation the river systems and water flows Order (see Part 8 of this section for an explanation) was placed on above and below ground. the river, thus presenting a major obstacle to subsequent irrigation proposals. Some shallow bores have already run dry in Canterbury. To manage To date, pumping water from relatively shallow aquifers has often been a and use water sustainably, we need to make decisions that take into cheaper and faster means of securing irrigation than communal surface- account how upstream and downstream waterway values are affected water schemes. Not all farm properties have aquifers beneath them, by taking water. Environment Canterbury has spent a lot on research to but those that do have more options for irrigation. Aquifers deeper than understand this. Some farmer groups have also invested in studies of 70 metres tend to be more expensive to reach and to pump from than water flows and the effects of water takes.
Box 11: Building resilient communities through irrigation: The Morven-Glenavy- Ikawai Irrigation Scheme (MGI) (A case study from Irrigation nz inc)
Historically, the Morven-Glenavy region on the north bank of the Waitaki River was an area of dry land sheep and beef farming. The advent of irrigation in the mid 1970s changed the area significantly. The MGI Irrigation Company now irrigates 26,500ha with the possibility for further extension, and there has been a shift in land use towards more dairying. MGI irrigators invest heavily in their scheme infrastructure, but to do so, they have had to work together with the community. They understand the importance the wider community place on social, environmental and cultural, as well as economic contributions that the river and stream system makes to the region. The MGI Scheme has a strong focus on water quality. Farm management plans required as part of the Scheme go beyond their regulatory requirement. Fencing and planting have maintained water clarity, sediment loads, instream phosphorous and E. coli concentrations over the last 10 years, despite increased production in the catchment. MGI irrigators work with environmental groups including the Waikākahi resource care group, the Waihao-Wainono Water Users Group and the Lower Waitaki River Management society. They aim to develop strategies and actions that will respect, maintain and enhance the natural assets of the region. For example, the Waikākahi resource care group is a partnership between Environment Canterbury and local farmers. Together they have fenced 93 per cent of the length of the stream and much of it has also been planted to improve riparian habitat and shading for aquatic and bird life. The Waihao-Wainono Water Users group includes MGI irrigators and local rūnanga. Together they are working on issues such as biodiversity, minimum flows and water quality associated with the culturally and nationally significant Wainono Lagoon. Water quality monitoring is a regular feature of waterways in the region, and MGI has undertaken an ecological report on the effects of irrigation in the District and completed an environmental strategy for the future. These measures were taken to show leadership and proactively manage irrigation practices. The social and economic impact of water on the region has been significant. By 2002 MAF had already identified a 16 per cent population increase as a direct result of the development of the community irrigation scheme in the Lower Waitaki District. More recently Waimate District Council records indicate a 50 per cent increase in demand for rural residential subdivision over the last 10 years. This growth provides ▪▪ A stepping stone for people wishing to become more involved in farming, ▪▪ Diversification of productive activities in the area and ▪▪ More support for rural schools, facilities and communities. WAI | Water And The Regional Economy 72
Rainfall: a great source of water but unreliable in Canterbury during summer Groundwater bore
Sources of water for irrigation ▪▪ Storing water is a way of evening out water supplies. Water can be stored in lakes then used later when rainfall or other Irrigation schemes are very costly and there are trade-offs for the sources are inadequate. Creating storage lakes in a river course different sources of water for irrigation. by damming a river can have large-scale environmental, social ▪▪ Rainfall is intermittent and doesn’t always happen when it is and cultural impacts, just as it does when we store water for needed, but it requires no environmental modification and costs generating hydro power. Fish movement within river systems nothing. can be disrupted; juveniles cannot go upstream and adults cannot go downstream. If spring-fed tributaries are flooded by ▪▪ Run-of-river irrigation schemes can provide a lot of water, but the storage lake, salmonid spawning grounds are lost. Without have some environmental impacts and depend on river flow natural floods, flow regimes in rivers can seldom maintain the being higher than the minimum flow allowed. As a result, riverbed and weeds can take over. Some recreationists, like run-of-river schemes do not reliably provide water when those who fish the rivers or kayak whitewater, lose out whilst farmers need it. others enthusiastically adopt newly created lake systems. Lake ▪▪ Groundwater bores provide a secure supply of water when it is Opuha, for example, was constructed in 1992 for irrigation and needed, as long as the aquifer they are using is being naturally some hydro-electricity generation and is now a popular venue replenished. The infrastructure impacts of groundwater for lake fishing, boating and water-skiing. extraction are limited to relatively small areas, usually private ▪▪ Another way of storing water is to take it when the river is property (i.e. individual farms). On the other hand, not all running high and store it in ponds away from the river. Storing properties have access to suitably large aquifers to provide for water from river flood flows provides large quantities of water irrigation needs, particularly to meet the needs of dairy farming. when it is available that can then be used later when farmers There is significant competition for available water. Further, need it. The water can contain high sediment loads though, that groundwater off-takes can affect downstream surface water can silt up storage ponds and canals. Settlement ponds are quantity. 73 managing canterbury’s water | WAI
Out-take for the Rangitata Diversion Race
usually needed to remove the sediment before it gets further products have been measured and can be used (in part) as a guide to into the irrigation systems. The high rainfalls during the 2010- sustainable food production. (See Table 2 below.) 2011 summer, for example, saw a lot of water run down the Waitaki River valley that might have otherwise been stored for later use, had the extra storage been available. Consumers want to know how The Rangitata South Irrigation project is an example of water storage for sustainable industry practices are irrigation. The scheme will supply water for land between the Rangitata and Orari rivers in South Canterbury. The water will be taken from the Rangitata River when its flow is greater than 110 cumecs, and stored on private land. Farmers in the scheme will also construct storage ponds Table 2: Water needed to produce some food items on their own properties, allowing nearly 20 million cubic metres of water to be stored in total. How much water is needed Item to produce it Irrigation practices and water “footprints” 1 glass of milk 200 litres Farming faces another challenge with regard to water: water footprint. 1 cup of tea 35 litres In many countries, water (like fossil-fuelled energy) is becoming scarce 1 glass of wine 120 litres or water allocation is becoming a major social and political issue. For these reasons, consumers want to know how sustainable industry 1 cup of coffee 140 litres practices are, including the practices associated with producing 1 potato 25 litres food. Global average volumes of water used in producing various food 1 hamburger 2400 litres 73 WAI | Water And The Regional Economy 74
RIGHT A precision irrigation system
FAR RIGHT Box 13: Federated Farmers’ view Tourism and recreation are on Canterbury water management very important economically to Canterbury. Many of the activities that bring people Water contributes massively to New Zealand’s economy and is here rely on high quality water key to our competitive advantage as a trading nation. Our task environments is to maintain that advantage. A threat to our water resource is a threat to both our environment and our economy. Land-based primary production* makes up 64 per cent of New Zealand’s total exports and demand is growing. There is considerable pressure to intensify land use, especially in Canterbury because of its potential for irrigation. However, the world is becoming increasingly environmentally aware, so we need to use land and water resources more effectively and efficiently. Box 12: Case study of water use Federated Farmers believes there is a need to develop water efficiency storage and associated irrigation infrastructure. Large scale storage will enable water to be managed for any desired “In 2010, Precision Irrigation won the first Irrigation Innovation purpose; environmental, social, economic or cultural. It will awards with a system that allows farmers control of how provide the reliability of supply needed to support efficient and much water is applied beneath centre pivot irrigators and the effective water use. like. The computer-controlled system allows every sprinkler The also see the Canterbury Water Management Strategy as on an irrigator to apply water at different rates. This means a collaborative way forward, based on broad discussion and water is applied only where it is needed, so pumping costs agreement across the wide diversity of interests people have in are saved and the irrigator runs to maximum efficiency. Even water. It will enable the development of water infrastructure better, this system can be retrofitted to existing sprinkler alongside environmental protection and restoration. “Trust systems – farmers don’t have to buy a whole new system to take is crucial and this requires that targets for a range of advantage of this technology of the future.” environmental characteristics and environmental limits, as (see www.irrigationnz.co.nz for more information). well as irrigation and infrastructure development, are met in a timely and cost effective way,” says Lionel Hume of Federated New Zealand’s agricultural industries face the double challenge Farmers. “Water must become a focus for solidarity, instead of a of sustainably producing high quality export foods in energy and source of conflict.” water-constrained times. Highly efficient water use that does not degrade waterway health will be vital if the nation’s farmers are to *The figures for land based primary production includes a range of sectors such as dairy, cropping, beef and sheep farming, viticulture, remain competitive in global markets. forestry, and horticulture. 74 75 managing canterbury’s water | WAI
Water metering New regulations introduced by the New Zealand government in 2010 mean that water meters must be installed in rural areas and that they Given the value of water to so many different people, and the growing must record the amount of water that they take for irrigation. This is demand for irrigation, it is important to know how much water is being discussed more in Part 8 of this section. consumed – particularly when the amounts taken can be very big and can affect downstream water users. Charging more water users for the amount of water they use is one of the tools available for managing water resources in Canterbury. Water meters are used to measure how much water is used for domestic purposes and for irrigation and other uses. This enables the local Water and tourism authorities to manage water resources. In some places, water meters help local authorities to charge fees for the volume of water used. In Tourism is also a vital component of the national economy. International Nelson, Tauranga and many areas in Auckland, water fees are charged tourism contributed 8.7 per cent to the national GDP in 2010 ($15.1b). based on how much water people use. It produced the highest export earnings of any individual industry in New Zealand, amounting to $9.5b in 2010 (18.2 per cent of total export In Christchurch, most properties have water meters installed at the earnings). By contrast, dairy farming earned $8.97b in 2010, 17.1 per water main. Ratepayers pay a flat fee for access to reticulated (piped) cent of exports). water. Christchurch City Council monitors residential properties for excessive water use but does not charge for it. Schools, churches, Further, tourism directly or indirectly creates an estimated 182,000 commercial and industrial organisations pay a flat fee and additional full-time jobs, roughly 10 per cent of the New Zealand workforce. fees are charged if the volume of water used is greater than their Canterbury water-based tourism accounts directly for only a part of allowance. these figures, but they indicate the importance of tourism regionally and nationally. Like agriculture, tourism in Canterbury utilises water not just for tourists’ activities but also for their accommodation and meals. 75 WAI | Water And The Regional Economy 76
Lake Heron, Hakatere/ Ashburton catchment
Information specific to water-based tourism in Canterbury is not readily Canterbury attracted the third highest number of nature-based tourists available, but national data provide an indication of its economic (just over 1 million) in 2008 (behind Auckland and Northland). The importance. Water use is related to nature-based tourism, which majority of these people are likely to have been attracted to marine is an increasing component of tourism activity in New Zealand. activities such as whale-watching and seaside visits, but approximately Approximately 70 per cent of international visitors to New Zealand, 70 per cent of visitors to the Upper Waitaki area participated in nature- and 22 per cent of domestic tourists, engage in nature-based tourism oriented activities and many of these are likely to be water-related. activities. Nationally the most popular water-related tourism activities International nature-based tourists tend to spend more on average than are, in no particular order: scenic boat cruises; visiting lakes, rivers, do tourists in general, partly because they stay in New Zealand longer. waterfalls and hot pools; glacier walks; jet-boating; canoeing, kayaking and rafting; fishing; snow sports; water-skiing; and sailing. Ecosystem services Opportunities to participate in many of these activities are available A recent innovation in thinking about the environment’s contribution to throughout Canterbury. the economy is ecosystem services. This idea comes from ecological The existence of water bodies contributes to overall tourist experiences economics, a discipline that views the environment as the basis for in Canterbury, as elsewhere in New Zealand. They are important the economy. This approach identifies and measures the services aspects of landscape and scenery that, even if not visited specifically, that nature provides for people, such as wetlands holding rainwater, draw tourists and make New Zealand an attractive place to live. The which minimise flooding, or riparian plant life absorbing nutrients blue and green colours in Canterbury’s glacial lakes, for example, are and chemicals that would otherwise pollute the waterways we use. It a unique and attractive feature of the region. Equally, infrastructure provides a way to work out the value (or cost) of those services, if they developments such as hydro-electricity constructions also provide were lost. Ecosystem services provide a way of valuing nature for its some tourism opportunities. The salmon farms in the Waitaki hydro benefit to us humans, and at the same time illustrating the value of canals attract many tourists. Similarly, holiday-makers camping around investing in ecosystem conservation. storage lakes during summer benefit from major modifications to the landscape. 76 77 managing canterbury’s water | WAI
Waihora/ Lake Ellesmere: an important ecological resource for Māori and Pākehā Cantabrians alike
One estimate of the value of New Zealand’s biodiversity reached Box 14: Nature, Ecosystems and $44 billion (for the 1994 year). In this study, different types of the Economy ecosystems were compared. The most important types of ecosystems for providing ecosystem services were: estuaries, wetlands, rivers and lakes. Our surface waterways, therefore, are vitally important to our ‘Capital’ refers to a stock of materials or other resources that ecosystems and our ecosystems support all human activity. can be used for the benefit of humans. The term ‘natural capital’ refers to these resources in the natural world (e.g. trees, water, sunlight). They are combined with other sorts of resources, Box 15: Case Study – Ecosystem such as machinery and people’s labour, to produce the things services and the need for more that support our quality of life. science “The services of ecological systems and the natural capital stocks that produce them are critical to the functioning of the Earth’s life-support system. They contribute to human welfare, Ecosystem services analysis requires information about both directly and indirectly, and therefore represent part of the biophysical and socio-cultural aspects of the environment. total economic value of the planet.” There is good information about freshwater supply in the Opihi River system but not for other ecosystems services. A study ▪▪ Costanza, R. et al (1997). The value of the world’s of actual impacts of the existing Opuha Dam development (see ecosystem services and natural capital, Nature, Box 10 above and Table 3 below for details) on the ecosystem 387:253. services of the Opuha and Opihi Rivers found that only “Natural capital contributes some 20 per cent of the per capita freshwater supply and protection from floods and droughts wealth in New Zealand, which is four times that of North were definitely enhanced by the dam development. Impacts on America and ten times that of Western Europe ... Those who many other ecosystem services were ambiguous or inconclusive focus primarily on economic growth as the priority for New because information about them is inadequate or missing. This Zealand’s future must also recognise and acknowledge the study illustrates the importance of science in informing water importance of New Zealand’s environment for its overall management decisions. It also gives a useful insight into the prosperity.” wide range of ecosystem services provided by waterways such as rivers. ▪▪ Parliamentary Commissioner for the Environment (2002). Creating Our Future: Sustainable development for New Zealand. 77 WAI | Water And The Regional Economy 78
Table 3: Effects of the Opuha dam on ecosystem services
Ecosystem Service Positive impact Negative impact Don’t know No change Providing food (fisheries – salmon, trout, mahinga kai X X X fish) Providing fibre, driftwood X Providing freshwater supply for: irrigation, X hydroelectricity, municipal, industrial, stock water Gravel extraction X Regulating parasites and toxic algae X Regulating river flows X X Removing pollutants X X Erosion control X X Pest species control X X Flood and drought protection X Conserving native biodiversity, habitat and native X X species Conserving significant ecological landscapes, historical, X archaeological and educational values Aesthetic values X X Māori values: Natural character X Mauri, life-supporting capacity X X Recreational boating X X Recreational fishing X X X Hunting, swimming, picnicking, walking X
Economy and Infrastructure development won’t invest and the potential benefits from the scheme, for individuals and for the wider public, are not gained. The balance of risks and One view of irrigation developments is that they are essential for our benefits must be weighed at local, regional and national levels. economy. Large developments that combine electricity production and irrigation help to achieve targets for economic growth, energy security Hopes for the future and low-carbon efficient energy supply, recreational opportunities, and possibly, environmental benefits from more regular water flow. If the Canterbury Water Management Strategy works successfully the However, all the easy, relatively cheap water has already been allocated suggestion is that there could be 850,000 hectares under irrigation and any future irrigation and hydro developments are likely to be more and it will be possible for farmers to get the water that they want, when controversial and more expensive to complete. they want it, at least 95 per cent of the time. This figure could change, because it will depend on what we learn about water use efficiency This raises the question of who should contribute to the costs involved. in different places and on things like environmental limits and the In one view, irrigation benefits individual farmers who gain higher willingness of investors to put money into irrigation schemes. incomes as a result (private benefit). In this view, the costs should be covered by private investors. Another view is that we all benefit from Alongside this farmers will be achieving very high standards in the more productive farms both through local spending and job creation management of riparian zones, nutrient budgets and water use. All and through increased tax contributions from farmers. In that view, irrigation and stockwater (like other industrial or commercial uses these public benefits should be supported by public contributions to of water in urban areas) will be used according to “best practice” to the cost of the irrigation infrastructure (e.g. via government investment minimise the take of water and to maximise production. One of the funded through taxes). targets suggests that by 2040 for every cubic metre of water used there will be 30 per cent more production achieved than was achieved in There are considerable risks involved in irrigation development. The 2010. cost of constructing dams, canals, water races and the like is not paid back until many years later. Investors want to be sure that their All of this will require the use of water meters to monitor water use. investment is going to pay off. If they think the risk is too high, they 78 79 managing canterbury’s water | WAI
Grapes are another crop that require irrigation in Canterbury 79 WAI | Water And The Regional Economy 80
Mary
Huia & Jono We need to have better price signals for water use, I think. I don’t have a problem with farmers using water If we had to pay for the volume of water we take, our costs from rivers and bores, but I think that any user – rural would go up and it would be harder to pay off our huge or urban – should only have access to a certain amount mortgages. That makes dairying less attractive but if we for drinking, cooking and washing and then above have fewer dairy farms, there’s less money coming in to the that they have to pay. Dairy farmers pay a lot for their country and local communities. The economy would take irrigation systems and they pay a lot to prepare for a hit – and that’s not good for any of us. Farming supports consents to take water, but they don’t pay by volume communities, not just farmers themselves. Shouldn’t used. That doesn’t seem right. Consumers have to pay the community have to pay for it through taxes, because twice – in taxes and rates for water infrastructure and farming is so important to our economy? then again in high prices for food. There is also the “cost” of losing access to recreational opportunities as water quality and quantity deteriorate.
Peter & Sue
Piri All the same, community support for irrigation is really important because access to water opens up all sorts of choices for a community. Everyone benefits. Well, my industry relies on water, too. Why should I have to pay for water Irrigation makes dairying possible and things like for your industry? Agriculture is important in our economy – overall, the crop farming and horticulture more profitable and agricultural sector earned about $14b nationally in 2010 and of that $14b, therefore more attractive. We do need a range of the dairy industry itself earned nearly $9b. But other industries contribute farm types and products, otherwise as a nation or a lot to our economy, too. I think we need to keep things in perspective. even a region we’re not resilient and can be subject to Tourism attracted $9.5b in export earnings in 2010 (18.2 per cent of all the effects of floods in Australia (for example) where export earnings) so that is important too. How much assistance should much of our wheat comes from. It’s not sensible to any one industry get? If other industries got public support, could they have so many dairy farms when we also need other contribute as much to the economy in the future as agriculture does now, products including meat, wool, grains, potatoes, perhaps with less environmental cost? seeds and vegetables, particularly when many of these can be produced using a lot less water. 80 81 managing canterbury’s water | WAI
Irrigation, tourism and the economy – what are the issues?
Rob
Irrigation is vital for the development of Canterbury’s economy. We have lots of good farmland that is limited only by water availability. I totally agree that we need to ensure that there is enough water in our rivers to support biodiversity during dry times and we must look after our aquifers. The obvious answer to this is to put in water storage so that we can collect water over the wetter months or at times of high river flow. Farmers can draw on stored water over the dry months. But equally importantly we can have higher flows left in the rivers and reduce abstraction for our aquifers.
Trevor
Put like that, putting in storage is a good idea, but I bet the Peter & Sue farmers whose land would be used might not like it. Likewise, local Māori might not be happy when water is moved from one Profitable farms can afford to invest more in environmental catchment to another as happens when canals are put in. Also mitigation and enhancement – unprofitable farms can’t more intensive farming from all this irrigation and the likely do that. Farmers want to have ‘clean green’ environments increased run off from farm properties is going to have a major and many of us have been ‘greenies’ for many years. I don’t impact on the rivers and streams downstream. I suppose it think we’ll find good solutions to water problems if farmers helps that soon, under the CWMS, environmental protection are left to foot the bill alone. We need to work together and will be legally required as a condition of any activity that invest in water management together as a community. might affect freshwater quality or ecosystems. So, no matter how much irrigation there is, all farmers will have to protect environmental values. Maybe the cost to all of us is worth that? 81 WAI | Energy From Water 82
Benmore power station, Waitaki Valley
meeting the electricity needs of all New Zealanders. And it contributes 6. Energy from water significantly to achieving targets for renewable energy generation. New Zealand currently produces 74 per cent of the electricity actually used from renewable sources, with a government aim for 90 per cent by 2025. Canterbury’s water is an important resource for meeting this We need energy for everything we do, every day. We use energy to stay target. So when we think about water, we must think about the energy alive, stay warm, to help us see in the dark, to travel, to run machines needs of those outside of Canterbury, as well as locals. and lots of other uses. Electricity makes up 27 per cent of our total energy consumption in New Zealand at present and we rely heavily on Why is hydro electricity important? water for generating electricity. Hydro electricity is an important source of energy because it produces predictable amounts of electricity, in a reliable and carbon-neutral way Using Canterbury’s electricity generation resources within the region (see Table 4). Electricity cannot easily be stored once it is generated so helps to ensure that local communities are self-reliant and depend generators have to produce just the right amount of power when people less on imported energy. This local resilience is likely to become want it. Instead of storing power, however, we can store water. Hence more important in the face of changing climate and changing global water storage is really important for managing the changing demands of commodity markets. electricity users across each day and each season. When we can store Around 55 per cent of our national electricity generation capacity comes water, for example in lakes, it is easy to increase or decrease electricity from hydro power schemes. Twenty per cent of this is generated in production to meet demand. Canterbury, mainly in the Waitaki River catchment. Some electricity Other electricity sources have less flexibility or emit more carbon also comes from smaller hydro power stations in the Rakaia and Opuha/ dioxide. For environmental reasons, more renewable energy production Opihi catchments. Canterbury’s water contributes significantly to 82 83 managing canterbury’s water | WAI
Benmore Dam control gates
is important for New Zealand’s energy security. However, the more These “run of the river” power schemes are also not flexible in the electricity we generate from the wind (for example), which blows amount of electricity they generate. intermittently, the more we need a flexible source such as hydro to fill in On the other hand, by storing water in a lake and then letting it run when the wind doesn’t blow. down a steep slope to turn the turbines at the bottom, the energy yield The amount of electricity generated depends on how fast the river is is higher and electricity generation can occur whenever there is demand running at any moment in time, and that’s a matter of how steep the for it. Generation from a power station at the bottom of a high dam can gradient is and how much water is in the river (its volume). Many of our be increased or decreased very quickly by allowing more or less water larger rivers run over quite shallow gradients in their lower reaches. This to pass by turbines in a power station. In New Zealand, our ability to do limits their capacity to generate energy in-stream. River volume also this is one of the main reasons we can usually use as much electricity as depends on the weather. All this means that some electricity can be we want, when we want to. generated from water running down rivers, but not very much. Table 4: Major current electricity generation options*
Type Hydro Gas Geothermal Coal Wind % current NZ electricity generating capacity 55% 26.4% 7.7% 6.9% 2.2% Flexibility to respond quickly to changes in demand High High Low Moderate Low Carbon production Low High Low High Low
Sources: Energy Information and Modelling Group, MED, 2010 and 2011. * This table shows current electricity generation capacity (what can be produced). This is different to electricity actually used, both in quantity and source. 83 WAI | Energy From Water 84
The ways in which we use power
Occasionally, our large storage lakes ‘run out’ of water for electricity. country rivers into hydro storage lakes. However, this will bring more This happened in 2008, for example, when there was less water running drying nor’west winds to the plains, so Canterbury can expect more in to Lakes Tekapo/Takapo, Pūkaki and Ōhau than usual. Most of the droughts. As a result, the summer peak in electricity demand will water coming into these lakes comes from nor’west rain. Snow melt become more of a problem because droughts tend to occur at the same in spring and summer is also important. The amount of rain and snow time as water is needed for irrigation, recreational fishing, nesting river- that falls in Canterbury and Otago’s high mountain ranges the previous bed birds and recreational boaters. winter dictates, to a large extent, the volume of water available to generate electricity in any one year. In ‘dry’ years, to make up for the Why do we need more power stations? shortfall in hydro electricity production, New Zealanders have to use Electricity use has increased over time. From 1974 to 2004, the amount more power produced by burning oil, gas and coal (fuels with a very of electricity that New Zealand as a whole used more than doubled, high carbon content). and on average, each person in 2004 was using 1.5 times what they Climate change is predicted to increase pressure on our water were using in 1974. This means that we are using more electricity both resources. It will probably also mean an increase in prevailing winds because there are more of us and because we each use more than we from the west, which in turn will increase average flows down the high did in the past.
84 85 managing canterbury’s water | WAI
Hydro-electric generation in Canterbury (total = 1808 MW)
Highbank Coleridge This increasing demand for electricity means that we Opuha Waitaki will inevitably face trade-offs between hydro-electricity Tekapo/Takapo A generation and other values for water. We face pressure Aviemore Tekapo/Takapo B to reduce our dependence on fossil-fuels, so we have to invest now in more renewable energy generation. One Ōhau A solution for providing energy for transport is electric vehicles. In this scenario, more hydro-development would likely be needed. It is possible to build more hydro-electric generation plants and, nationally, we have well-honed skills for this technology.
Benmore Ōhau B
Ōhau C
Electricity generation in New Zealand (total = 9193.65 MW)
1864.9 MW Hydro - North Island Some alternative new sources of electricity 3675.12 MW generation have yet to be proven at a commercial Non-hydro - North Island scale. The complex problem of meeting our energy needs into the future means that Canterbury’s rich water resources will continue to attract the attention of energy planners and 1808 MW developers for some time. Hydro - Canterbury
60 MW Non-hydro - South Island 1785.6 MW Hydro - rest of South Island 85 WAI | Energy From Water 86
In Canterbury, demand for electricity is increasing partly because estimates that many rivers could produce more power than they do the regional population is growing faster than most of the rest of the now as outlined in Table 5. (Benmore, one of the power stations on the country. It is also because new industrial uses in Canterbury – such as Waitaki River, is currently Canterbury’s largest hydro power generator dairy farming – require a lot of electricity, and because we are increasing and is also shown in the table below for comparison.) However, these our use of electrical devices such as air conditioning units during estimates are based on building new dams and there is no public summer and heat pumps during winter. appetite, industry intention or legislative incentive to do so. New generation is more likely to come from construction of tunnels, canals This increase in demand drives the development of new hydro power and diversions. The likely generating capacity from Canterbury rivers is schemes. There are, or have been, proposals for generating new also shown in Table 5. electricity from many of Canterbury’s waterways. The electricity sector Table 5: Potential generating capacity of Canterbury rivers
Theoretical generation given Likely range given Scheme Status head and flow development constraints Benmore existing 540MW Waimakariri potential 530MW 30-70MW Rakaia potential 570MW 100-200MW Waiau & Hope potential 400MW 40-60MW Hurunui potential 180MW 15-60MW 86 87 managing canterbury’s water | WAI
Lake Benmore and Benmore power station. Photo: Meridian Energy
It costs many millions of dollars to build a new hydro power station. Combining electricity generation and Such an investment takes decades to pay off, so energy companies irrigation need to be sure that demand will continue and they will be able to have continuous use of the water they need over that time. The electricity An important aspect of the Canterbury Water Management Strategy is companies that operate the hydro power stations in Canterbury seeking opportunities to reduce the amount of electricity used in the are bound by the conditions of resource consents which give them use of water. Most irrigation machines require electricity to make them permission to use the water but which also put limits on how much run. Both hydro-electricity and irrigation depend on the movement water they can use, including on the man-made lakes such as lakes of water, which makes them compatible. Large new irrigation Ruataniwha, Benmore, Aviemore and Waitaki. development schemes are likely to include electricity generation; some may not be economically viable without the revenue they produce from Table 6: Consented operating range for selected Canterbury hydro lakes electricity generation. Projects combining irrigation and electricity generation are already Maximum level of Minimum level of becoming more common. In the Hurunui catchment, for example, one Lake water storage for water storage for proposal is to develop two storage lakes, one in the South Branch of the electricity generation electricity generation Hurunui and one at Lake Sumner. These could provide supplementary Pūkaki 532m 518.2m water for the existing Balmoral irrigation scheme as well as generate some electricity. These proposals are still being considered as we write. Ōhau 519.75m 519.45m There is potential for many small, electricity generation structures Benmore 361.45m 360.50m around Canterbury, including some in places where irrigation races and Coleridge 509.30m 505.35m canals run downhill steeply and have good fast-flowing water.
Source: Eng et al, 2008. 87 WAI | Energy From Water 88
Whakamatau/ Lake Coleridge. Canterbury’s oldest power station began producing power in 1914
Effects of other water uses on hydro-electric If land uses increase the amount of pollutants in waterways, there may generation be pressure put on power companies to increase minimum flows down waterways and increase the number of ‘flushing flows’, both of which Our ability to generate electricity from Canterbury’s waterways depends can offset pollution to some extent. If this were to happen, less water on the conditions for electricity generation being available. Other water could be used for electricity generation, and peak demand for electricity uses can affect the amount, timing and cost of electricity generation. would have to be met from other generation options (such as coal and Changes to river flows and to water quality can reduce the power gas, with their carbon emission consequences). The cost of electricity companies’ ability to generate electricity with the flexibility needed generation would also increase. in the national electricity system. Hydro-electricity is very important Providing for recreational and environmental values of Canterbury’s to overall efficiency because it can be increased and decreased on waterways also has implications for electricity generation. Minimum demand. Reduction in water quality, for example, can have significant flows, such as those required for boating and river ecology, reduce the impacts on timing and cost of electricity generation. If increasing amount of water available for electricity generation. agricultural irrigation near hydro schemes results in algal growths in the waterways, generation may be reduced while the growths are cleared Effects of generation on other uses from intake structures. Another consequence of this can be higher Large-scale hydro generation projects have major effects on waterways prices for electricity. 88 89 managing canterbury’s water | WAI
Hydro lakes change the river environment, interfering with some recreational activities but creating opportunities for others
and waterway users. Construction of dams, canals, powerhouses and similarly destroyed, and in some places access to existing resources has other structures can have significant effects on local ecosystems, and been adversely affected. Dams interrupt the continuity of flow from the fish movement up and down the waterway can be impeded. Many mountains to the sea, which conflicts with the Ngāi Tahu philosophy of kilometres of river habitat can be lost due to the change in flow regime. “ki uta, ki tai”. Cultural landscapes are irrevocably altered. Dams trap sediment and coarser materials in the lakes behind Hydro lakes drown once-productive farm or horticultural land and them. These materials are needed to replenish the eroding coastal human settlements. Valued landscapes are altered by earthworks, environment. Most natural flood events cannot occur when rivers are roading and powerlines. dammed, though very high floods will spill over dams and water releases Kayakers, fishers and other recreational river users lose access to large can be managed to simulate floods. In many cases where flood events areas of waterway, at least during the construction phase. For some, are rare, riverbeds have to be dredged regularly to prevent gravel recreational opportunities are regained when the new lake is completed. build-up and plant pests have to be removed to allow river birds to Others, such as kayakers, can lose opportunities to access whitewater breed successfully. Both dredging and weed removal impact upon (power companies may schedule releases of water which allow kayakers organisms living in and near rivers. opportunities use the river with good amounts of water in it. However For Ngāi Tahu, wāhi tapu and wāhi taonga areas have been inundated this happens rarely. The Pūkaki River, for example, has scheduled and lost in hydro developments. Valuable mahinga kai areas have been releases only two days per year). 89 WAI | Energy From Water 90
Box 16: Project River Recovery
The development of the hydro schemes on the Waitaki River has affected the braided river habitat and wetlands, particularly those associated with the Tekapo/Takapo and Pūkaki rivers. Project River Recovery is managed by the Department of Conservation and funded by Meridian Energy as part of an agreement recognising these effects and seeking to restore, improve and protect the unique braided river and wetland habitat in the Upper Waitaki Basin, including the Tekapo/Takapo, Pūkaki and Ōhau rivers. Maintaining and restoring braided river habitat through weed control over tens of thousands of hectares is Project River Recovery’s core work. Department of Conservation employees who work on Project River Recovery work closely with others such as landowners and those involved in related research including species recovery for the kaki/ black stilt. Other examples of key initiatives undertaken as part of Project River Recovery are ▪▪ Creating and enhancing wetlands to provide habitats for birds such as black fronted tern, banded dotterel and kaki e.g., the Ruataniwha wetland complex adjacent to the Ōhau River. ▪▪ Using a range of predator control and monitoring techniques to increase the success of the birds breeding and raising chicks. ▪▪ Increasing understanding of the abundance and ecology of important riverbed plants and animals through research, including regular surveying. ▪▪ Communicating the Project River Recovery work to people by holding open days, fieldtrips, and production of brochures, posters, factsheets and the ‘River Life’ educational resource. For more information check out River Life – Explore the ecology of braided rivers in the Mackenzie Basin. Department of Conservation Education Resource 2010. 90 91 managing canterbury’s water | WAI
TOP LEFT Kakī/ Black Stilt
TOP MIDDLE Poaka / Pied Stilt at nest
TOP RIGHT Whakamatau/ Lake Coleridge
BELOW Lake Ruataniwha
Hydro developments can provide benefits to waterway users, too. New lakes, for example, can enhance opportunities for recreational fishing, Box 17: Example of an electricity camping, picnicking, sailing and motor-boating. New sport facilities generation company protecting are possible on hydro lakes – Lake Ruataniwha’s rowing complex is an example. New industries are sometimes possible; for example, salmon water quality farming is made possible by reliable flows in the Waitaki scheme’s hydro canals. Trustpower generates electricity at Lake Coleridge power station. To do this, water is diverted from the Wilberforce and Over time, hydro lakes and possibly other modified waterways Harper Rivers, which naturally drain into the Rakaia above can provide high landscape values for New Zealanders and the its gorge. In flood flows, when the river water is laden with dams themselves can become points of interest for domestic and sediment, Trustpower closes the diversion to prevent river international visitors. water entering the lake. This protects the quality of the lake environment and complies with a condition of the consent.
Hopes for the future Irrigation and power generation can sometimes “work together” in that water used for irrigation can first be used for power generation. This is a good thing because irrigation uses a lot of power to pump water across paddocks so the more irrigation we have the more electricity we will need to generate. One of the targets for electricity is to generate 40-45 per cent of the power used for irrigation from irrigation infrastructure (i.e. from the water races and storage dams put in for irrigation. Another target is to reduce the energy used per hectare for irrigation. 91 WAI | Energy From Water 92
Finn
Well, one hydro project per generation might work if each one is big enough! People don’t want high dams, Trevor though, and they do want all the latest electrical gadgets and the economic benefits of strong industries like dairy The electricity sector is motivated to keep producing and mining so there’s a problem there. Add to that our more electricity and to encourage increasing demand. growing population. More people wanting more gadgets We need to have a re-think about how we’re using equals more dams – or other similar impacts. Most people electricity, thinking of it as a treasure rather than a don’t want to go without electricity – we know that from right. It should be possible to reduce demand and our experiences with big storms and earthquakes. You’ve therefore eliminate the need to build so many new got a good point about energy efficiency. Another way generation plants all the time. I’d like to think that we can make better use of our existing hydro generation building a new power station is something we do only is spreading the demand for electricity more smoothly once in a generation and even then only after long and throughout the day and throughout the year. We really careful thought and consideration of other possibilities. need to work together to figure out how best to use our water for energy.
Piri Rob I’m with Trevor on wanting the rivers to stay free from Of course energy is also really important for irrigation. Currently it takes dams and other structures. Perfect for kayaking a lot of power to pump water for spray irrigation. We pay thousands of and fishing. I’m thinking do we really need to have dollars a year just to do this. That’s why it’s important to think about how all our rivers dammed? I can see what Finn’s saying, irrigation development can also be used to generate electricity or reduce too, about the gadgets and all that. I want to be able energy usage. The new water management strategy is big on the idea of to use all the latest gizmos because they make life increasing irrigation without increasing the need for electricity to drive it as easier. Cell phones and computers are just essential much. This is one of the reasons why having storage lakes in the foothills for work these days. And they’ll stay that way so we is so important. Firstly, generators can be installed in the dam structures need electricity for all those things. to generate electricity from the water that is released for irrigation and the desired environmental outcomes for consumers. Secondly, by piping the water from the main distribution canals to farm we can use gravity to deliver the water under enough pressure so that no on-farm pumps or electricity use is required to irrigate the land. 92 93 managing canterbury’s water | WAI
Water for energy – what are the issues?
Trevor
We need to focus on energy efficiency and conservation. Continuing to demand more will ultimately damage all our waterways. The whole Waitaki catchment is captured for electricity production now. Do we want the same for the other braided rivers? Or can we limit new schemes to small ones so that our remaining ‘wild’ rivers stay that way?
Finn
Energy companies want efficiency, too. It is in the companies’ Huia interests to use water really efficiently. That means running as much water as possible within our consents past our turbines It’s hard to see how we’re going to get on in the future with and not ‘spilling’ any water. We only build new dams, canals, the same amount of electricity we have now. There’ll be and generating plants when there is clear evidence that the more of us, for a start. But we could try to make better use investment of many millions of dollars in construction will pay of the waterways we’ve already got – like the North Bank off through the electricity market. So it’s up to consumers, project – and get more value out of it through irrigation as really. If industrial, commercial and residential consumers don’t well as electricity. I don’t know what Ngāi Tahu think but it demand more electricity, there will be no incentive to build new might stop another river being dammed. generation plants. 93 WAI | Recreation And Amenity Values In Water 94
Box 18: Canterbury waterways of national importance for recreation
Ministry for the Environment’s Potential Waterways of National Importance for Recreation Value (Canterbury) (2004) ▪▪ Te Waihora/ Lake Ellesmere and wetlands ▪▪ Rakaia River ▪▪ Rangitata River ▪▪ Te Ao Mārama / Lake Benmore ▪▪ Whakamatau / Lake Coleridge ▪▪ Opihi River ▪▪ Waimakariri River ▪▪ Hurunui River ▪▪ Waiau River Weaving with harakeke/ flax. Photo: Ngāi Tahu ▪▪ Ōtākaro/ Avon River ▪▪ Ahuriri River ▪▪ Waiau Toa/ Clarence River ▪▪ Lake Takapo/ Tekapo 7. Recreation and amenity ▪▪ Waitaki River values in water ▪▪ Wolds wetland ▪▪ Mahi Tīkumu/ Lake Aviemore
Ministry of Tourism’s assessment of waters of national importance for tourism (2004) Canterbury’s rivers, lakes, wetlands and estuaries are highly prized for recreational and amenity purposes. Our waterways are used throughout ▪▪ Ōtākaro/ Avon River (punting) the year by local people and visitors alike. More than 50 per cent of ▪▪ Waimakariri River (jet boating, kayaking) New Zealanders say that going to the beach, lakes or rivers is their main ▪▪ Rangitata River (rafting, kayaking) leisure activity away from home and 79 per cent of New Zealanders use ▪▪ Rakaia River (jet boating, swimming, fishing) freshwater bodies for recreation. The existence of recreational activities provides many wider benefits. ▪▪ Hanmer River ▪▪ Waiau River (jet boating, rafting, kayaking, fishing) Visitors who come to an area for recreational purposes also often stay in the area and spend money on accommodation and meals so they ▪▪ Percival River contribute to the local economy. Sport and recreation activities help ▪▪ Pahau River people to be physically and mentally healthy, and more connected to ▪▪ Hurunui Lakes their community. Some waterways provide opportunities for recreation ▪▪ Waiau Toa/ Clarence River (kayaking, fishing) and sports. ▪▪ Whakamatau/ Lakes Coleridge, Takapo/ Tekapo, Pūkaki, Activities in and on waterways help people enjoy outdoor spaces and Pearson, Ōhau (scenic value) nature; this benefits the people and can benefit waterways themselves when human enjoyment of rivers, lakes and wetlands stimulates active Note: Lists of waterways of national importance can give an indication engagement in waterway health. of the value associated with particular waterbodies. The lists above These benefits are part of what makes Canterbury an attractive place were compiled only once and may now be out of date in relation to user to live. views and waterway qualities. 94 95 managing canterbury’s water | WAI
Children in a mōkihi or reed raft. Photo: Ngāi Tahu
Recreation and history, culture, landscape Our waterways are part of our heritage. They contribute to our social Waterways are very important parts of city landscapes: they contribute and cultural identities. Old bridges, river ferries, boat sheds, and to shape, character and identity. Christchurch City, for example, landforms such as flood protection banks, all provide important surrounds two spring-fed rivers (the iconic Avon/ Ōtākaro and its ‘sister’ connections to the past. the Heathcote/ Ōpāwaho) and their estuary (Ihutai). In the north of the city, the Styx/ Pūrākaunui and Brooklands Lagoon/ Puharakekenui Waterways are cultural, recreational and transport assets. They can are also important visual markers, and natural assets. There are many be venues for swimming, waka ama, boating, picnicking, observing other small streams throughout the city. Some have been re-formed nature, fishing, playing, relaxing. Paths along their banks are used as into swales with native riparian plantings and provide attractive park-like pleasant alternative routes for walking and cycling. They are also used areas around the city. for educational purposes. 95 WAI | Recreation And Amenity Values In Water 96
Jetboats at Lake Camp
Until the earthquakes in 2010/11, Christchurch’s waterways were used Whitewater rafters may want a ‘wilderness’ experience in unmodified, for swimming, kayaking, wind-surfing, kite-surfing, and yachting. high volume rivers. Whitewater kayakers enjoy the same places as well Rowers and kayakers trained on the lower reaches of the Waimakariri, as modified river runs. Jet-boaters want scenic waterways with good Kaiapoi, Avon/ Ōtākaro and Heathcote/ Ōpāwaho Rivers. The flows but whitewater is less important to them. Mōkihi (a unique form earthquakes damaged the sewer system so a lot of sewage ended up of raft made from raupo) are becoming a form of recreation for rūnanga in these waterways, making them unsafe for contact sports. They who are revitalising the art of making them and travelling on them. also destroyed the facilities at Kerrs Reach in the lower Avon. Over These craft were once widely used on South Island rivers and were time, however, these kinds of recreation will once again take place in particularly suited to the swifter, braided rivers of the southern regions. waterways around Christchurch. Holiday-makers and campers may want more slow moving water People also use the banks of the waterways for recreation. They picnic safe for families to go tubing or canoeing. Those who enjoy fishing and take their work breaks on their banks, and walk and jog along them. (approximately 20 per cent of all New Zealanders) may also want placid The banks of the large alluvial braided rivers such as the Waimakariri are water, but away from other users. Some anglers, though, prefer rivers popular spots for trail biking, 4-wheel driving and mountain biking and that are in their natural state and run unimpeded to the sea. Picnickers the different parts of these rivers are popular for jet-boating, water- and natural history enthusiasts may also find waterways more attractive skiing, fishing and white-baiting. when there are not many other people around. What do recreationists need from our Some recreational activities are based around the scenic beauty of waterways. Trampers, for example, typically want ‘wilderness’ waterways? experiences with good river crossing places and the ability to drink We need more good information about recreational use of Canterbury’s clean water directly from streams. Many tramping routes follow rivers waterways, but current information tells us that different users of or pass from one to another: for example, the St James Walkway waterways require different flow conditions at different times. We also links the Maruia, Ada, Waiau and Boyle Rivers. Trampers often enjoy know that different users often compete for the same water resource. swimming as part of their trip. Some mountain-biking and multi-sport 96 97 managing canterbury’s water | WAI
Rafting on the Hurunui south branch
events are made more attractive by including river crossings. Some are the same practical activity is possible in another place, it is the specific only possible because they use rivers – the popular Coast to Coast race location that brings cultural meaning to it. traverses parts of the Mingha, Deception and Waimakariri Rivers. Recreation and water quantity and quality One river or lake cannot provide a substitute Recreationists are concerned about access to waterways, flow for others levels and management regimes, and deteriorating water quality. To provide for recreation and tourism in Canterbury, access to a Infrastructure projects such as hydro-electricity developments impact wide range of waterway types, characteristics and flows is needed. on recreational use of waterways, as does taking water out of a People who use rivers to go kayaking or jetboating cannot get the waterway for irrigation or municipal uses. same satisfaction from using a lake. They may not even get the same The Hurunui Water Project, for example, proposed in 2011 to construct experiences from different rivers. The Waiau, Hurunui and Clarence a river intake structure, a control structure on Lake Sumner, a dam and Rivers are highly valued for recreational fishing, kayaking, jet-boating, reservoir, and a network of water races. At this time, the predicted rafting. One river may provide good kayaking opportunities for kayakers impacts of this project included scenery changes and less access to of all abilities where another river may be safely navigated only by Lake Sumner beach areas for fishing, boating, swimming and camping. experts. For tourists and locals alike, whitewater rafting with a view of The altered flow of water in the river would affect fishing, boating and farmland is not the same as whitewater rafting through native bush. kayaking. People also thought that the project might provide more Trout fishers do not necessarily want to fish for salmon or, if they do, opportunities for swimming, fishing and boating on the completed they see them as very different activities. The lower Waitaki and Rakaia reservoir. At the time of publication this project was still being debated. Rivers offer some of New Zealand’s best salmon fishing areas. Other Good water quality is essential for recreational activities in waterways rivers don’t offer the same experiences. and enhances people’s enjoyment of waterways. Where a waterway is Similarly, sites of significance to manawhenua and the cultural practices polluted, people who swim, kayak, raft, windsurf, jet boat, jet ski, wade and uses they sustain cannot be relocated to other places. Although and fish risk getting sick through their recreational activities. 97 WAI | Recreation And Amenity Values In Water 98
Avoid swimming and fishing in contaminated water
If there is faecal contamination of water, people can get tummy bugs, based on: (a) an assessment of how likely a water body is to become skin infections, respiratory and ear infections. Escherichia coli (E. coli) contaminated with faecal matter and (b) microbiological data from is a bacterium commonly found in the intestines of people, animals and the last five years at the site. The grades are available to the public on birds. It is used as an indicator of faecal contamination of river and lake Environment Canterbury’s website at the start of the summer bathing water. Enterococci bacteria are the indicator bacteria used for saline season so that people can make informed choices about where to swim. water, such as in estuaries or the sea. In addition to the annual grades, the weekly results are compared to Environment Canterbury samples around 100 freshwater and coastal “trigger” values and the action taken depends on the concentration recreation sites weekly over summer to check on indicator bacteria of indicator bacteria found in the samples (Table 7). Environment concentrations and potential faecal contamination. The national Canterbury works closely with public health agencies and local councils microbiological guidelines for recreational water quality provide a to ensure the public is aware of places where contact with water may be framework for informing the public whether sites are suitable for a risk to public health. contact recreation. How suitable a site is for recreation is calculated
Table 7: Summary of response modes for recreational water sampling
Mode Marine waters Freshwater Requirements Surveillance mode less than 140 enterococci/100 ml less than 260 E.coli/100 ml routine sampling Alert mode more than 140 enterococci/100 ml more than 260 E. coli/100 ml increase sampling and look for sources increase sampling, look for sources and erect Action mode more than 280 enterococci/100 ml more than 550 E. coli/100 ml warning signs and inform the public 98 99 managing canterbury’s water | WAI
Figure 2: Pie graphs showing grades for river, lake and coastal sites following the 2010/11 summer.
Very poor 0% Very good 0% Poor 12% Very good 24% Very poor 25% Good 22% Fair 12%
Lake RIVER sites sites
Poor 11%
Fair 42% Good 52%
Poor 7% Very good 18%
Fair 16%
COASTAL sites
Good 59%
Box 19: Recreational Water Quality Assessment
The two components to grading an individual recreation site are: ▪▪ The Sanitary Inspection Category, which provides an assessment of how likely a water body is to become contaminated with faecal matter; and ▪▪ Recreational sites can be put into a Microbiological Assessment Category. The category is decided by analysing 5 years of microbiological data from the site, which provides a measure of the actual water quality over time. What the grades mean: ▪▪ The Suitability for Recreation Grade describes the general condition of a site at any given time. ▪▪ The risk of becoming sick from swimming increases from sites graded ‘very good’ to ‘very poor’. ▪▪ Sites graded ‘very good’, ‘good’ and ‘fair’ are considered suitable for contact recreation, although ‘good’ and ‘fair’ sites may at times not be suitable (for example after heavy rainfall when there are high bacterial counts). ▪▪ Sites graded ‘poor’ and ‘very poor’ are generally considered unsuitable for contact recreation, and public notification of this, via permanent signage at the site and/or through the media, is recommended (Stevenson, 2010, p.2) . 99 WAI | Recreation And Amenity Values In Water 100
Orari River, South Canterbury
Fishing Hopes for the future Water quality and quantity affects fish, too, and this affects recreational Recreation and amenity values are important for many Cantabrians, fishing. Salmon and indigenous fish species do not spawn as much in no matter what their walk of life. If things are going as planned, 80% rivers when they have cattle in them, due to siltation and disturbance of river bathing sites will be graded as suitable for swimming and other of the gravel beds that the fish lay their eggs in. Further, the eggs are contact activities by 2015, and by 2020 all lake and river sites used vulnerable to nitrogen toxicity. Irrigation and hydro developments for contact recreation will meet the water quality guidelines for those have reduced flows in some rivers, and fish habitat there has often activities and will have enough water in them for these activities. deteriorated as a result. Another target in the Canterbury Water Management Strategy suggests In the 1970s and 1980s the LII, Selwyn/ Waikirikiri, Irwell and Harts Creek that by 2040, most lowland streams will be good for fishing once again were popular fishing places, with fish being landed successfully every and that in every zone, their will be at least one more recreational day. By 2000, low flows in these creeks had reduced the fisheries and opportunity than was the case in 2010. anglers moved to other waterways. Natural events (e.g. storms altering the Lake Ellesmere/ Waihora catchment) and water taken for irrigation have both contributed to the decline of fish stocks in these and other lowland Canterbury streams and rivers. 100 101 managing canterbury’s water | WAI
Activity Box 2
Activity 1: How do I use water? Make a list of all the different ways you use, or rely on, water. Then think about where that water comes from and the other users who also rely on it. How would you respond if it was no longer possible for you to have the water quantity and quality you currently have? Search the internet and or your library for books/ pictures/ information about the plants and animals that live in different water habitats in Canterbury or even just in your zone.
Activity 2: Water Pressures Imagine yourself as one of the stakeholders in this web, then make a list of the pressures on you with regard to water (e.g. I need a lot of water for XX because … I need very clean water because …. ). Take a different position and make a list of the pressures for someone else in the stakeholder web. Find some friends, classmates or family members and role play a conversation between different people in the web based on the lists you have made.
Activity 3: Paying for water In most places in New Zealand and especially in Canterbury, we pay a water rate to get the water piped to our houses, and big water users pay for consents to take water, but we do not pay for water on the basis of how much we use. In other places such as Australia, where it is dry, or in some cities where there is a high demand for water, such as Auckland, people have to pay for the amount of water that they use. People who use more, pay more. If this were to happen in Canterbury and you had to pay for all the water you used, how would it change the way you use and think about water? Discuss this with some friends and see if it would change the way they use water. What sorts of things could you do to change the amount of water that you use?
Fishing at the Waimakariri River mouth 101 WAI | Recreation And Amenity Values In Water 102
Piri
For my work and play, wild rivers are essential. My clients are tourists. Their recreation is my business. They prefer to visit unmodified, scenic rivers and will pay top dollar to do that. If we dam all of our rivers, we can still have guided fishing but we won’t command the highest prices – those clients will have less fishing success here and may decide to go somewhere else in the world. Our rūnanga is discussing these issues too. We want to be financially independent, so we need to find opportunities for development – but they need to be feasible and fit with our values. We need to keep some rivers in a natural state. That’s important for kayaking, too.
Finn
Kiri-Anne In backcountry areas you will find great places to fish and swim because electricity production doesn’t impact those areas. Hydro developments I really enjoy tramping and water is a big part of that. My favourite do provide even more places for fishing and tramping trips are the ones when I get to swim in a clear running stream or swimming and kayaking and canoeing and jet- river at the end of a long, hot day. Then dry off on a warm rock. Being with boating and waterskiing and more … the lakes my whānau and having my son tell me stories about the place and why it is behind dams are really important for recreation. important to Ngāi Tahu is something I love. That’s when I feel closest to our Many more people can get to water for recreation natural environment, most relaxed and refreshed and most at peace with after a dam is completed. the world. I want everyone to be able to do that, so I’m keen for our rivers and streams to be really healthy. 102 103 managing canterbury’s water | WAI
Recreation and water – what are the issues?
Jo
We really love to go summer camping near Lake Ruataniwha near Twizel with the kids and do lots of swimming and messing around in the water. It’s a great place to hang out and relax in the sunshine. Mary
This is all good, but what about the irrigation that’s being developed along with new hydro schemes? That irrigation often enables dairy conversions and some dairy farming contributes to water pollution in streams and rivers. We used to swim in the streams near our place but don’t now because it isn’t safe to any more.
Jono
Yes, dairy farms can contribute to water pollution but quite a lot can be done by managing it carefully. And because we can’t get away for long family holidays in the summer, we really appreciate being able to take the kids swimming and fishing or boating in our local rivers. We have spent lots of time and money developing catching ponds at the bottom of our place so that the poo and the nutrients don’t run off into the local waterways and ruin them for everyone, including ourselves and our kids.
103 WAI | The Regulatory Environment 104
A range of laws, policies, tools (e.g. guidelines, resource consents 8. The regulatory and water conservation orders) and processes (e.g. the Land and environment: Who is Water Forum) are used to protect and manage water. New Zealand’s democratic form of government allows people concerned about an responsible and what issue (stakeholders) to engage in decision-making processes through processes are used many of these instruments. It is also increasingly recognised that, with something as complex and contested as water management, it is important to involve people with a range of interests in the decision processes. The Land and Water Forum was one such process in which a range of different stakeholder The regulatory environment associated with water management is groups (from irrigators and electricity generators to recreationists complex and is currently changing very quickly, both at national level and conservationists) worked over several months to develop and in the Canterbury region. For example, just before this resource recommendations about water management in New Zealand. Many was completed, Central Government put in place a programme called A of their recommendations align well with ideals and processes that Fresh Start for Fresh Water which resulted from ongoing work to improve underlie the CWMS. water management in New Zealand. This means the information here could change soon after this resource is published. The Resource Management Act 1991 (RMA) Prior to this, the Canterbury Water Management Strategy (CWMS) was The Resource Management Act 1991 (RMA) is currently the most developed and is now being implemented across the region, bringing important piece of legislation for water management. The RMA makes significant change to a some of the processes currently used here for regional and, to some extent, local councils responsible for decisions water management. It may also have effects on policy and legislation at about how water in their area can be used, and how much of it. They are national level. also responsible for managing water quality. 105 managing canterbury’s water | WAI
Members of the Ashburton Zone Committee learning about their catchment, 2011
Under the RMA, Central Government, local and regional councils of 2010 (see page 106) requires that regional policy statements and develop policy statements and plans which allow or control activities plans must have particular regard to the vision and principles of the that use or impact on water. These policies and plans can: CWMS. ▪▪ set priorities for water management activities Water Conservation Orders (WCOs) ▪▪ set environmental limits (e.g. water levels in lakes, water flows Water Conservation Orders recognise the outstanding values associated in rivers, water quality standards) with particular water bodies. Before 1991, Orders were made under the ▪▪ set out what water efficiency measures are required Soil and Water Conservation Act 1967 but after 1991 they were (and are) made under the Resource Management Act 1991. They are regulations ▪▪ provide guidelines for resource (water) consent decisions made under these Acts of Parliament. Orders can be applied over ▪▪ allocate water to various uses and users fresh water or geothermal water in rivers, lakes (natural or manmade), streams, ponds, wetlands, or aquifers. They are used to protect the ▪▪ review and transfer existing water permits. natural state of a water body or to preserve characteristics such as: At Central Government level there is a range of “instruments” used ▪▪ habitat or fishery value in managing water resources. These include such things as Water Conservation Orders, Moratoria, National Environmental Standards, ▪▪ biodiversity value Regulations and National Policy Statements. ▪▪ recreational, historic, spiritual, cultural or scenic values At regional and local levels, there are regional policy statements, ▪▪ significance for tāngata whenua. regional and district plans and resource consents. A Water Conservation Order can be changed, but not until two years after The Canterbury Water Management Strategy and the regional and its start date. Then, any person can apply to amend or revoke the Order. national policies and plans must align. The Environment Canterbury Act 105 WAI | The Regulatory Environment 106
Rangitata Gorge
Table 8: Examples of Water Conservation Orders in Canterbury
Water Date of Conservation What the Order recognises Order Order ▪▪ Outstanding natural braided river formed by the main river and tributaries of the waterway R akaia River 1998 ▪▪ Outstanding wildlife habitat, fisheries and recreational, angling and jetboating values Ahuriri River 1990 ▪▪ As above but without jetboating and recreational values.
▪▪ Outstanding wildlife habitat of the waterway, restricts land drainage and mandates lake openings and Lake Ellesmere 1990 closings. This WCO is currently being amended based on an application by the Dept. of Conservation and Ngāi Tahu. ▪▪ As for Rakaia River, above Rangitata River 2006 ▪▪ Habitat for terrestrial and aquatic organisms, ▪▪ Scientific and ecological values. 106 107 managing canterbury’s water | WAI
Box 20: Water Conservation Orders
Information about Water Conservation Orders is available from Ministry for the Environment: www.mfe.govt.nz/issues/water/freshwater/water- conservation/
and Environmental Defence Society www.rmaguide.org.nz/rma/otherprocesses/ waterconservationorders.cfm
You can search for specific Water Conservation Orders on the New Zealand Legislation website: www.legislation.govt.nz/regulation/searchquick.aspx
A Moratorium A moratorium stops people applying for, or granting resource consents for water use. A moratorium provides a period of time during which important information can be developed or obtained, or contested issues may be resolved or clarified. There was a moratorium, for example, on the Hurunui River and its tributaries from 2 August 2010 until 1 October 2011, and a related moratorium on the Waiau River, also ending on 1 October 2011. National Environmental Standards National Environmental Standards are a way for a Minister for the Environment to set minimum standards for the quality of freshwater bodies (and other resources). Once set, these standards apply throughout the country. They are developed in a similar way to National Policy Statements. An example of a National Environmental Standard is the standard for sources of human drinking water that came into effect in June 2008. Under this standard, councils must take the standard into consideration in decisions on resource consents and regional plans. The Ministry for the Environment has also developed a proposed National Environmental Standard on Ecological Flows and Water Levels. This standard proposes minimum flows and limits to water allocation so that there is more consistency in decisions about the quantity of water in waterways. Regulations The RMA allows the Ministry for the Environment to impose conditions directly on existing consents (permits) without the consent coming up for review first. This provision has allowed the Ministry to bring in new regulations for measuring and reporting water takes. The Rakaia River heading out across the The Resource Management (Measurement and Reporting of Water Canterbury Plains Takes) Regulations 2010 took effect from 10 November 2010. Until this time only about one third of the water taken through the 20,000 107 WAI | The Regulatory Environment 108
resource consents granted across New Zealand had been monitored. This means little information was available for those trying to manage water in New Zealand. This regulation requires water users to take continuous measurements of water using a suitable water measuring device or system and to keep good records that can be given to the regional council each year. We need to know how much water is being taken in Canterbury so that we can: ▪▪ keep track of and make efficient use of allocated water; ▪▪ collectively manage how much groups of water users take; ▪▪ make sure water users are complying with their resource consent conditions; ANNUAL PLAN 2011/12 ▪▪ understand water resources and ecosystem responses; ▪▪ plan for future economic growth. Measuring water take can also provide information about how efficiently water is being used and how to make better use of it. It can help users to know what they are paying for water delivery (e.g., pumping costs), whether their water delivery systems have any leaks, and whether there is spare water available for other uses. The regulations apply to anyone who takes water at the rate of 5 litres/ second or more. Those who use large quantities of water have to comply with the new regulations earlier than those who use smaller quantities. National Policy Statements As set out in the RMA, the Minister for the Environment can direct her/ his ministry to develop national policy statements for freshwater Everything is connected management. National policy statements are tools to guide and set
PROPOSED CANTERBURY REGIONAL POLICY STATEMENT 2011
TOP LEFT Environment Canterbury Annual Plan 2011/12
BOTTOM LEFT Environment Canterbury Proposed Canterbury Regional Policy Statement 2011 108 109 managing canterbury’s water | WAI objectives for using and protecting water resources. The new National Policy Statement on Freshwater Management, effective from 1 July 2011, is intended to bring consistency to freshwater Canterbury planning and decision-making nationally while providing for regional Water flexibility. It requires local and regional councils and other decision-makers under the RMA, to take it into consideration during consenting decisions. Regional and local plans and policy statements must be amended, where relevant, to give effect to the National Policy Statement. Regional Policy Statements Just as national resource management policy statements provide an overview of national resource management issues and guide their Draft Lower Waitaki resolution, regional policy statements are a way for regional councils South Coastal Canterbury to facilitate and guide resource management at the regional level. The Canterbury Regional Policy Statement first came into effect in 1998. A Zone Implementation Programme revised Regional Policy Statement was released for public consultation in June 2011, and at the time of publication it is currently in public consultation. It sets out objectives, policies and methods to resolve resource management issues. This policy statement incorporates relevant aspects of the Canterbury Water Management Strategy. O ther Legislation Two other Acts of Parliament that affect water use in Canterbury are: The Environment Canterbury (Temporary Commissioners and Improved Water Management) Act 2010 and the Local Government Act (LGA) (2002). The first of these made it possible for the elected Canterbury regional councillors to be replaced by government-appointed commissioners for a period from 2010 to 2013. This Act changed some
TOP RIGHT Lower Waitaki South Coastal Canterbury Zone Ashley River/Rakahuri Implementation Programme Draft Management Strategy BOTTOM RIGHT A Community Vision Ashley River/ Rakahuri Draft Management Strategy
Prepared for: The Ashley River/Rakahuri Advisory Group July 2008 109 WAI | The Regulatory Environment 110
Introduction Fresh water is an essential natural resource, locally, regionally and nationally for all New Zealanders. Canterbury’s groundwater and its wetlands, lakes, rivers and their margins have many values and CHAPTER 7 uses. Fresh drinking water is essential for all living things. Fresh water bodies are habitats for aquatic ecosystems, they have important natural character, FRESH WATER cultural, recreational, amenity and aesthetic values; and support a variety of economic and Introduction social activities associated with those values. The Issues of resource management significance to abstraction and use of groundwater and surface CHAPTER 4 Ngāi Tahu outlined in Chapter 2 recognise the water is also necessary for a variety of economic relationship between Ngāi Tahu and natural and activities, for example irrigation, hydro-electricity physical resources. This chapter provides for generation, and various industrial, manufacturing PROVISION FOR NGĀI TAHU AND THEIR Ngāi Tahu and their relationship with resources and commercial activities. We need water to live; by setting out the tools and processes that the we need water to provide for our economic, social, Canterbury Regional Council will use to engage with cultural and environmental well-being. RELATIONSHIP WITH RESOURCES Ngāi Tahu as tangata whenua in the management Water is an essential and integral part of the of natural and physical resources. Many of these connection between Ngāi Tahu, as tangata whenua, Introduction tools and processes have been identified by Ngāi and their tribal territory. Wai Māori or fresh water Sections 30 and 31 of the Resource Management Act Tahu as key measures to achieve desired outcomes is a tāonga. The life-giving and life-sustaining CHAPTER 3 1991 (RMA) set out the functions of regional councils and sustain good working relationships with the properties of water are intrinsically linked to the and territorial authorities for giving effect to the RMA. Canterbury Regional Council. spiritual, cultural, economic, environmental and Integrated management is a key function for local social well-being, survival and identity of Ngāi RESOURCE MANAGEMENT authorities, with regional councils having the function of: Tahu whānui. The particular cultural, spiritual, historic and traditional association of Ngāi Tahu “the establishment, implementation, and review with many of the rivers, lakes and wetlands in of objectives, policies, and methods to achieve PROCESSES FOR LOCAL AUTHORITIES Canterbury is recognised by the Ngāi Tahu Claims integrated management of the natural and physical Settlement Act 1998, through instruments such as resources of the region” Introduction Statutory Acknowledgements. Within Canterbury, This chapter is prepared in accordance with and territorial authorities having the function of: there are eleven lakes, nine rivers and two wetlands recognised within Statutory Acknowledgements. CHAPTER 2 Section 62(1)(b)(i) of the Resource Management “the establishment, implementation, and review Act 2991 (RMA), and sets out the resource of objectives, policies, and methods to achieve Canterbury has significant fresh water resources, management issues of significance to Ngāi Tahu, integrated management of the effects of the use, but due to a combination of climate and geography, ISSUES OF RESOURCE MANAGEMENT the tangata whenua of the Canterbury region. This development, or protection of land and associated water is not always available at the required places acknowledges Ngāi Tahu as a Treaty of Waitangi/Te natural and physical resources of the district.” and times, to satisfy all the competing demands Tiriti o Waitangi partner. and values. Surface water resources can be split SIGNIFICANCE TO NGĀI TAHU Integrated resource management has two key elements: The chapter has been developed in consultation into three catchment types: with representatives of Te Rūnanga o Ngāi Tahu 1. ensuring that the impacts of management of and papatipu rūnanga. The specific purpose of the one resource on another, or on the environment chapter is to: generally, are taken into account; and 2. ensuring that agencies involved in (1) Identify who are the relevant organisations PROPOSED CANTERBURY REGIONAL POLICY STATEMENT resource management work together in49 an representing tangata whenua in the Canterbury effective and coordinated way to promote region, and the geographical extent of the sustainable management. authority of those organisations. Collaboration between the Canterbury Regional (2) Set out natural resource issues of significance Council and the territorial authorities will help to to Ngāi Tahu, and provide a cultural context for ensure that matters addressed in the Canterbury those issues. Regional Policy Statement (CRPS) are efficiently and (3) Set out the relevant matters recognised in Part effectively implemented. It is also necessary to have 12 of the Ngai Tahu Claims Settlement Act 1998 processes for managing: (NTCSA), including fulfilling the Canterbury23 1. new issues of regional significance as they arise PROPOSED CANTERBURY REGIONAL POLICY STATEMENT Regional Council’s obligations to note in the 2. issues which cross local authority boundaries Canterbury Regional Policy Statement (CRPS) or issues between territorial authorities, or the existence of statutory acknowledgements of between regions statutory areas. 3. matters which are administered by two or more While the focus of the chapter is issues of agencies, such as activities requiring consent from resource management significance to Ngāi both the territorial authority and the Canterbury Tahu, it is important that the chapter is not read Regional Council. in isolation from the other CRPS chapters. The approach adopted in the CRPS is to integrate 19 issues of significance to Ngāi Tahu throughout PROPOSED CANTERBURY REGIONAL POLICY STATEMENT the document, and ensure that policies resolve issues and achieve outcomes consistent with those desired by Ngāi Tahu.
9 PROPOSED CANTERBURY REGIONAL POLICY STATEMENT
aspects of the Resource Management Act 1991 as they apply to water The Canterbury Natural Resources Regional Plan is the overarching management in Canterbury, particularly Water Conservation Orders. It regional plan to sustainably manage the region’s natural and physical also removed the right of appeal to the Environment Court on issues resources. It has chapters that specifically deal with management of relating to water management policies and plans. water quality and quantity and provides a regulatory framework for considering resource consent applications. It is complemented by The Local Government Act 2002 enables regional, district and city a number of specific catchment or location-based plans and water councils to operate. It requires councils to have a 10-year plan for conservation orders. It has been developed with significant input from the services they must control, including water allocation, use and the community over a number of years. In coming years the plan will management. From 2012 these plans will be known as Long Term Plans. continue to change to reflect community driven priorities, in particular Regional Plans priorities developed through the Canterbury Water Management Strategy and the water management zone committees. Regional plans set out how people may use resources such as water. Regional councils do not have to develop regional plans for water District Plans management, but most do so. Submissions from the public are District plans are developed by district councils and are focused on considered before these plans are adopted. managing land. They are relevant to water management because some Regional plans contain rules for water resource use, for example. Some land uses affect freshwater. Examples mentioned earlier in this book water uses are ‘permitted’ or are not covered by the RMA (e.g. these are include providing riparian reserves alongside waterways, draining usually non-consumptive activities such as swimming or fishing), and wetlands, developing new housing and industrial areas, and clearing therefore don’t need a consent. Other water uses, such as storage for vegetation. hydro-electricity generation, irrigation and municipal drinking water, require consents. Regional plans set out the criteria for making water Associated Plans management decisions in the region. Other types of plans can be used for a range of purposes, such 110 111 managing canterbury’s water | WAI
Introduction Canterbury’s coastline runs for nearly 800 kilometres, from Kēkerengu in the north to the mouth of the Waitaki River in the south. Canterbury’s coastal environment has distinctive CHAPTER 8 and important features, including the natural beach dune vegetation of Kaitorete Spit and coastal river THE COASTAL ENVIRONMENT mouth wetlands. It is home to populations of unique species that contribute to Canterbury’s identity, including hector’s dolphins, white-flippered, yellow- eyed and little blue penguins, hutton’s shearwater Introduction and katipo spiders. Resident and migrating whales This chapter addresses issues relating to exotic CHAPTER 9 also spend time in regional waters. and indigenous ecosystems and indigenous The coastal environment will vary from place to biodiversity, including the impact of plant and place depending upon the extent to which it affects animal pests. As well as wider issues relating to ECOSYSTEMSor AND is (directly) affected INDIGENOUS by coastal processes and the ecosystems and indigenous biodiversity generally, management issue concerned. It includes: this chapter particularly addresses wetlands as important ecosystems. Whilst this chapter provides BIODIVERSITY(1) the coastal marine area; an overview of issues associated with land, water (2) the active coastal zone; and the coastal marine area, the focus is on the Introduction (3) the land back drop; requirements of Section 6(c) of the RMA in relation to the management of land use and its effects on This chapter addresses the beds of rivers and lakes (4) islands within the coastal marine area; ecosystems and indigenous biodiversity. Other and their associated riparian zones, including their (5) areas where coastal processes, influencesCHAPTER or 10 chapters in this policy statement also address banks and margins. A river’s bed is the land that the qualities are significant, including coastal lakes, ecosystem matters specific to those chapters, waters of the river cover at its fullest flow without lagoons, tidal estuaries, saltmarshes, coastalBEDS OF RIVERSincluding AND the protection LAKESof the natural character of overtopping its banks. A lake’s bed is the land that wetlands, and the margins of these; the coastal environment (Chapter 8) and of rivers the waters of the lake cover at its highest level (6) areas at risk from coastal hazards; and lakes and their margins (Chapters 7 and 10), without exceeding its margin. The riparian zone is AND THEIR RIPARIANand the protection of the ZONES wider landscapes and an area where there is direct interaction between (7) coastal vegetation and the habitat of indigenous natural features Chapter 12). terrestrial and freshwater ecosystems, and it extends coastal species including migratory birds; from the water’s edge across the bank of a river and Introduction Ecosystem means a system of interacting terrestrial (8) elements and features that contribute to the across the margins of a lake. Riparian zones are Landscape is an integral component of the natural character, landscape, visual qualities or or aquatic living organisms within their natural and important areas for indigenous biodiversity. environment. It reflects the influence of amenity values; physical environment. In Section 2 of the ResourceCHAPTER 12 Management Act, ecosystems and their constituent River and lake beds, and their associated riparian environmental processes and human activity over (9) items of cultural and historic heritage in the parts are part of the environment and include zones, are important natural features in Canterbury time. Canterbury’s landscape varies significantly, coastal marine area or on the coast; people and communities. LANDSCAPE which is characterised by its many large braided including the rugged main divide ranges with its (10) inter-related coastal marine and terrestrial rivers. These rivers and their beds are especially intermontane basins; downlands and foothills; the However, in Chapter 9 “ecosystems” are limited to systems, including the intertidal zone; and distinctive, and an important part of the regions expansive Canterbury plains created by river shingle natural ecosystems that do not include people and natural and geological processes. Foothill streams deposition from braided river systems; the volcanic (11) physical resources and built facilities, including communities. and rivers and lowland spring-fed streams are features of Banks Peninsula; and remnant limestone infrastructure, that have modified the coastal Indigenous biodiversity includes all plants and also important at a local level. Canterbury is also formations from marine deposits. Many of these environment. animals that occur naturally in New Zealand and characterised by its many lakes of varying sizes, areas have been through significant change over have evolved or arrived without any assistance including the large lakes created by hydro-electric PROPOSED CANTERBURY REGIONAL POLICY STATEMENT the period of human settlement in Canterbury. 71 from humans. Indigenous species include migratory dams. species visiting New Zealand on a regular or Landscape can be considered as: Lake and river beds and their riparian zones are irregular basis. “The physical and characteristic products of the vital elements of the Canterbury landscape and Ngāi Tahu as tangata whenua have a significant important habitats for indigenous flora and fauna. interaction between human societies and culture with interest in the protection, management and These provide birds and fish with essential pathways the natural environment. They can be considered restoration of indigenous ecosystems and between the coast and inland habitats. The riparian to be spatial areas where place specific elements biodiversity. This stems from their close interaction zone is an important area for the management of and processes reflect a particular natural and with Canterbury’s indigenous biodiversity over water quality and ecological resources. It provides cultural history. This unique combination of attributes a buffer for effects between land and rivers or lakes. may be expressed visually or in terms of meaning 87 PROPOSED CANTERBURY REGIONAL POLICY STATEMENT Riparian vegetation, both indigenous and exotic, and spirituality. Because the underlying human is important for mitigating the effects of non-point and natural processes are subject to change and source discharges, moderating in-stream water evolution, landscapes are dynamic systems.” temperature, maintaining the stability of shorelines “Allan Rackham - Banks Peninsula Landscape Study” and stream banks, providing habitats for flora and fauna, and its contribution to the overall natural Landscape is relevant to a number of provisions character of rivers and lakes. However, in some in Part 2 – Purpose and principles of the Resource cases, the presence of exotic vegetation within the Management Act 1991(RMA). Section 6 requires, as riparian zone can adversely affect the flow and level a matter of national importance, for all persons of the adjoining waterway and can also displace exercising functions under the RMA, to recognise 99 indigenousPROPOSED vegetation. CANTERBURY REGIONAL POLICY STATEMENT and provide for (1) the protection of outstanding natural features and landscapes from inappropriate, subdivision, use and development; and (2) the preservation of the natural character of the coastal environment (including the coastal marine area), wetlands, lakes and rivers and their margins 121 PROPOSED CANTERBURY REGIONAL POLICY STATEMENT
as managing specific freshwater species. The Department of fishing grounds have been depleted, to restrict use and to allow the Conservation’s New Zealand mudfish recovery plan 2003-2013 is an fish populations to grow before they are fished again. This practice will example, as is the South Canterbury/Waitaki Eel Management Plan. ensure the long-term survival of that fish population. There is currently a rāhui on shellfish gathering at Port Levy/ Koukourārata because the Cultural Instruments shellfish beds have been severely depleted and need time to regenerate. Cultural instruments draw on existing cultural practices to allow, or limit, use of waterways and water. Rāhui, mātaitai and taiapure are Mātaitai cultural tools sometimes applied in water management. They apply to A mātaitai is an identified traditional fishing ground that has special all users of waterways. status under the Fisheries Act 1996 to protect customary fishing values. Restrictions may be placed on taking fish, aquatic life or seaweed in Rāhui the reserve. A Māori Committee or kaitiaki can be empowered to make A rāhui is a restriction on either the use of, or access to, a resource bylaws over the reserve. South Island (Customary Fishing) Fisheries or area. Rāhui are mentioned in New Zealand legislation such as the Regulations 1998 enable tāngata whenua to apply for a mātaitai. A Resource Management Act 1991 and the Fisheries Act 1996, and they number of rūnanga are in the process of seeking mātaitai for freshwater have been used, for example, where Māori are involved in managing systems within their takiwā. local fisheries. Taiapure There are different types of rāhui but only one or two are used Taiapure are areas that are given special status to recognise commonly. The first, a spiritual rāhui, is a response to a death that can rangatiratanga (local fisheries). Management arrangements can be affect the land, water and the resources in that water. Thus, if someone established (under the Fisheries Act 1996) for taiapure that recognise drowns, an area may be closed off so that the tapu (prohibition) can the customary special significance of the area to iwi or hapū as a food be allowed to disperse and become harmless. The second type of source or for spiritual or cultural reasons. rāhui is used for conservation. It may be used, for example, where 111 WAI | The Regulatory Environment 112
Local government boundaries within Canterbury’s regional boundaries
Box 21: Eel management in South Canterbury
During the development of the South Canterbury/ Waitaki Eel Management Plan, Ngāi Tahu identified the Ahuriri Delta as an area that provided significant opportunities for mahinga kai restoration. There were numerous productive wetlands located along the true left bank of the Ahuriri River, which, before the creation of Lake Benmore/Te Ao Mārama, was a part of the lower reaches of the Ahuriri River. Eel and other native fish species were abundant. The area provides a diverse network of habitat ideal for both juvenile and adult eels, including slow moving meandering riffles, wetlands and pools. It is also in close proximity to the Omarama Stream, which is considered an ideal nursery for elver (young eels) and into which elver are released as a part of the trap and transfer programme. The measures that have been taken to date to give effect to the restoration aspirations of Ngāi Tahu include a successful application to the Minister of Fisheries in 2004 to close the Ahuriri Arm of Lake Benmore/Te Ao Mārama to commercial eeling. 113 managing canterbury’s water | WAI
The Canterbury Water Management Strategy water management including environment, farming, industry and (CWMS) recreation. This Steering Group developed the CWMS. Although the CWMS came out in 2010, work on it began as far back as What does the Canterbury Water Management 2002 in the form of studies and discussions about what sort of demand Strategy (CWMS) do? for water would occur in the future and how the issues arising in water management might be managed. The CWMS is the blueprint for a new more integrated approach to water management in the region. Under the CWMS, different kinds of water Canterbury water is considered an issue of national importance. The management committees have been established. A Canterbury-wide national Government’s work programme is therefore interacting closely committee (the Regional Water Management Committee) focuses with the processes around the CWMS. Water management is a very on issues that affect the whole region while zone committees focus on complex issue with many stakeholders, many urgent needs and many specific districts. high risks. This complexity is increased by the many different local government bodies that have a role in it (see Box 22). Each zone committee has 7-13 members who are either drawn from the local area or are people with a special relationship with the zone. These people have been selected for their ability to work collaboratively, and Box 22: Regional and local collectively they have a range of interests and perspectives on water government bodies in Canterbury use. Their work will go on in communication with the regional council and the relevant district councils. Councils and committees agree to responsible for water abide by Standing Orders. Standing orders are a set of instructions management that tell Council and committee members how they must operate and what they must do. They set out, for example, how often committees must meet or report and how they are to make decisions. Environment ▪▪ Canterbury Regional Council (Environment Canterbury) Canterbury has a standard set of standing orders that tell all of the ▪▪ Kaikōura District Council committees and other bodies associated with it how to run their ▪▪ Hurunui District Council meetings. You can find these at www.ecan.govt.nz. ▪▪ Waimakariri District Council The Regional Water Management Committee was put in place to foster greater coordination between zone committees, particularly ▪▪ Christchurch City Council where there are problems that many or all of them share. The Regional ▪▪ Selwyn District Council Committee includes representatives from each of the zone committees. ▪▪ Ashburton District Council ▪▪ Mackenzie District Council ▪▪ Timaru District Council ▪▪ Waimate District Council ▪▪ Waitaki District Council.
Any single catchment can have more than one council responsible for part of it. The Waitaki River catchment, for example, runs through land administered by the Waitaki District Council, the Mackenzie District Council, the Waimate District Council, Environment Canterbury and the Otago Regional Council. Timely and coordinated decision-making about regional water management in this context proved to be almost impossible. In response, the Canterbury Mayoral Forum began tackling the problem of how to achieve collaborative water management in the region overall. The Canterbury Mayoral Forum is made up of the mayor (or chairperson) and chief executive officer of each of the 11 councils in the Canterbury region. The Forum established a Steering Group to work specifically on the water management problem. The steering group included representatives from the Forum itself, central government, tāngata whenua, and community groups with a range of interests in 113 WAI | The Regulatory Environment 114
/ Clarence River
KaikouraKaikōura Zone
Kaikōura
Conway River
Waiau River Hurunui - Waiau Zone
Lake Sumner Hurunui River
Waipara River
Ashley River/Rakahuri Waimakariri Zone Waimakariri River Christchurch - Lake Coleridge Christchurch West Melton Zone Selwyn - Waihora Zone
Lake Heron Selwyn River/Waikirikiri
Lake Ellesmere/ SOUTHERN ALPS/KA TIRITIRI O TE MOANA Te Waihora Banks Peninsula Ashburton Zone Zone Rakaia River
Aoraki/ Mount Cook Ashburton River/Hakatere Lake Tekapo Hinds River
Orari - Opihi - Pareora Zone Rangitata River Orari River Lake Pukaki Opihi River
Timaru Upper Waitaki Zone
Lake Pareora River Ohau Lake Benmore
Lake Waihao River Aviemore Lower Waitaki - South Coastal Canterbury Zone
Waitaki River
Canterbury Water Management Strategy – the 10 zones
0 20 40 60 80 100
Km T:\Water MGMT\CWMS\RegionA4Sat101110PubVersion.mxd 114 115 managing canterbury’s water | WAI
A committee (yet to be formed) working at national level will also help At national level, the Land and Water Forum is a recent initiative in ensure that the work that is done at local and regional levels is well collaborative management. Originally called the Sustainable Land integrated with water conservation orders, national environmental Use Forum, the Land and Water Forum was established in 2008. The standards, national policy statements and matters of national Ministers of Environment, and of Agriculture and Forestry requested importance, such as the generation of electricity. that the Forum investigate how water is managed in New Zealand and make recommendations on how it could be better managed. The Forum From 1 July 2011, a new national governmental organisation – the decided to take a collaborative approach to this task, so that the many Environmental Protection Authority (EPA) – will handle environmental different stakeholders learned from each other before deciding together matters of national significance under the Resource Management Act. on what to do. Major infrastructure projects, such as large-scale irrigation or hydro- electricity developments, may be considered nationally significant and The Forum is made up of representatives from 58 different organisations so will fall under the jurisdiction of this body. and some government officials with a wide range of interests in water. Amongst others, it includes recreationists and conservationists, Collaborative water management structures electricity generators, irrigators and Māori. Over the past decade, agencies and local people concerned about The Forum’s report, A Fresh Start for Freshwater, provided advice to the their waterways have been working to engage local communities in Ministers and much of it has now been taken up in the Government’s the management of water resources. This has resulted in a number of work programme (using the same title). Subsequently, the National groups who work in different ways to protect and enhance the quality Policy Statement on Freshwater Management has been finalised as has of their local waterways. These groups aim to engage a wide range of the Canterbury Water Management Strategy. To be effective, all these people from the local community, to help them learn about the effects documents and their related plans and regulations, need to align. This that they have on waterways, and to encourage them to help improve or may take some time. maintain the health of the waterway. 115 WAI | The Regulatory Environment 116
Kayaking on the Hurunui. Photo: Shaun McCracken
Box 23: Case Study: Kayakers in the Hurunui
Kayakers are a major recreation group using the Hurunui River. The first recorded canoe trip up the river was in the 1890s and today kayakers can be found enjoying the upper catchment on almost any day of the year. Kayakers and fishers applied for a national Water Conservation Order to protect the upper river, but the Environment Canterbury Act in 2010 effectively stopped that legal process, and a whole new set of rules were established. There has been a number of water storage schemes proposed, many of which involve modifying Lake Sumner or damming the South Branch. Most environmental and recreational groups see these schemes as irrevocably damaging to the values that make the upper Hurunui catchment so highly treasured. Under the CWMS, the emphasis is on collaborative processes, and kayakers decided to enter this new management regime with an open mind. They set out to see if they could devise a water storage scheme that would attract the support of the iwi, recreational and environmental groups, and still meet the economic needs of the rural community at an affordable cost. The result is a water storage scheme proposal involving canals, pumped storage, and the integration of environmental flows, in the Waitohi catchment. This scheme may involve electricity generation, and it will provide restorative flows to the Waitohi and the Waipara rivers. The scheme will deliver positive outcomes as measured against most, if not all, of the targets of the CWMS. Kayakers spoke to fishers, iwi, farmers, local community leaders, irrigators, generators, environmental groups, Environment Canterbury staff, and the Hurunui-Waiau Zone Committee. At every meeting positive advice and feedback was given. Many changes have been made to the proposal as a result, and the proposal is now being taken to the next stage of feasibility study. At present it is the only scheme proposal with the support of the majority of recreational and environmental groups. The next steps are to refine the scheme details to reduce uncertainties, and to establish more confidence in the proposal’s economics. (A case study from Whitewater New Zealand) 116 117 managing canterbury’s water | WAI
The Trust aims to educate people about the values of Te Waihora/ Lake Ellesmere, and to promote better management practices to improve the health and biodiversity of the lake and its catchments. This involved working with residents in the whole catchment of the lake. A similarly collaborative group is the Avon-Heathcote Estuary/ Ihutai Trust. Like the Waihora Ellesmere Trust, the Avon-Heathcote Estuary/ Ihutai Trust is a non-profit organisation formed by interested members of the general public and supported by local government agencies such as Christchurch City Council and Environment Canterbury. The Estuary is affected by the activities of people all over Christchurch City so the Trust must work with a very large number of local residents to achieve a good standard of water for all users. The Styx Living Laboratory Trust is another example of a group interested in the health of a local waterway. The Styx is one of Christchurch’s highest quality waterways and the Trust wants to keep it this way. Recent urban development near the waterway is a key challenge. The Trust’s primary aims are to achieve good quality and quantity of water, and education for long-term sustainability of the river. Further south, in Timaru, many organisations are collaborating on the restoration of the Otipua Wetland and Saltwater Creek ecology. They include regional and local councils, local rūnanga, ratepayers, schools, environmental organisations, sports organisations, farming groups and others. Collaborative management groups may also work with local stream care Kayaking on the Hurunui. Photo: Shaun McCracken groups and land care groups that aim to look after local water and soil resources.
Ngāi Tahu value kotahitanga (unity) and take a long-term view to Box 24: Get involved in improving resource management and problem-solving. However Ngāi Tahu also local waterway health recognise that to exercise their mana and achieve the sustainable use of Canterbury’s water resources, best results are achieved when working collaboratively, showing respect for the needs and perspectives of all For anyone keen to get involved with learning about and looking involved. after waterways, there are a number of groups throughout Canterbury in both urban and rural areas. In urban areas Consistent with the cultural concept of kotahitanga, integrated groups have been involved in weed and pest control, planting management requires different stakeholders to work together stream sides and getting rubbish out of streams. They may effectively. Stakeholders include government agencies (e.g. regional also work to educate local people about how their activities can councils, local councils, the Department of Conservation), and affect the health of their streams. communities including farmers, Ngāi Tahu, power companies, recreationists, tourism operators, rural and urban citizens, and so on. In rural areas groups may work to fence streams to stop stock Each of these stakeholders must come to understand and respect the walking in the stream and also to plant natives on the banks to values and understandings of the others. They must be able to talk, help stop erosion. They also work to manage weeds and pests argue and learn together about their local resources. This is a very that can cause problems for our waterways. complex process, particularly when, people are not used to working this Contact Environment Canterbury to find out about groups way. near you. Locally, there are many organisations dedicated to collaborative management of local waterways. An example is the Waihora Ellesmere Trust, a charitable trust that was formed after an engagement process started by Environment Canterbury. Environment Canterbury and interested residents in the area wanted to see local people helping to manage the quality and quantity of water in Waihora/ Lake Ellesmere. 117 WAI | The Regulatory Environment 118
Activity Box 3
Activity 1: What zone am I in? Check out the map on p114 to find out what CWMS zone you are in. To find out about what your zone committee is doing go to ecan.govt.nz/canterburywater Think about what issues there might be around water use in your zone. What groups of stakeholders will need to be involved in managing the water in this zone (e.g. think of groups like farmers or anglers or residents) and how they will use water. Is their use of water consumptive or non-consumptive? What websites can you find that provide information about the different perspectives of water users in your zone. Activity 2: What can I do? Do you know about local waterways; their uses or even about local water use needs? You may know things that others don’t. If you are not already in contact with regulatory bodies, or zone committees, you might like to contact them. Or perhaps find some others to share your knowledge with and possibly make a joint approach or submission on a particular issue to do with water management in your local area. Activity 3: Useful websites Here are some websites for further information about water and water management.
Environment Canterbury www.ecan.govt.nz
Water management strategy info ecan.govt.nz/canterburywater
Land and Water Forum www.landandwater.org.nz
Ministry for the Environment www.mfe.govt.nz
Te Rūnanga o Ngāi Tahu www.ngaitahu.iwi.nz
Integrated Catchment Management for the Motueka River – try starting with the icm.landcareresearch.co.nz/ videos that reflect on the overall research icm.landcareresearch.co.nz/knowledgebase/video.asp programme
NZ Landcare Trust www.landcare.org.nz
Environmental Protection Authority www.epa.govt.nz
118 119 managing canterbury’s water | WAI
Governance – what are the issues?
Jim
I’m on the Zone Committee for water management in my area. I have to say it’s a complicated business and it took a while for me to work that out. But I can see that if people are willing to listen to one another and learn from one another, it might be possible to come up with a good solution.
Finn
In my work I’m involved with consent processes, Jo so I get to see how other people view water issues. What we do is go and talk to all the I really don’t know much about all these different plans and different user groups before we put in a consent policies and processes. It’s all so mind-boggling! I can’t see application, so we can work with them to iron how I could ever be involved in water management. I don’t out problems and work on solutions before have much spare time and reading complicated reports the paperwork goes in. We are effectively is not a lot of fun. But my neighbour down the road said collaborating, and have been for a long time, and something the other day about the local stream, so perhaps it works. We see it as an investment up front that if I joined a group in my area, I could learn more and make a pays off because we’re more often working with small contribution. I might even meet some new friends. the community rather than against them.
Piri
I’ve learned that it’s really important to be involved. So I encourage you, Jo, to join that group! At our hui, we have lots of people come along. They don’t all talk a lot or have a lot of information, but sometimes someone says just one thing that brings the issue into perspective and helps us Kiri-Anne make a good decision. Collaboration with other water users isn’t always easy, though. It can take a lot of time and isn’t I’ve been an expert witness in Environment Court hearings many always comfortable. We’ve had to learn how to disagree, times. I like Finn’s approach. It is much more pragmatic and respectfully, and how to find joint solutions that people can less expensive to collaborate than compete, as long as there is live with while not compromising fundamental principles. sound knowledge going in to the decision-making process, and everyone is open to change and learning including those leading the consultation. 119 WAI | What Do We Need To Know? Science – What It Can Answer And What It Cannot 120
REE REE H T H T ection ection S ection ection
S
REE
REE H T H T REE REE H H T T ection ection S ection ection
S
ction ction e REE e S
S REE H
T H T REE REE REE H H H REE T T T H
T
ection ection Canterbury S ection ection Water REE S
ction H ction e T ection ection REE e S
S S REE
H
ection ection T S H
T REE REE REE H H H REE ection ection T T T S H
T ection ection S ection ection Lake Mason, a small high country lake REE S
ction H ction e T ection ection REE e S
S S REE
H
ection ection T S H
T REE REE REE REE H H H H REE ection ection T T T T S H
T ection ection S ection ection REE S ction H ction e ection ection T ection ection e S S S S ection T H REE S ection ection T H REE S ection S ection ection T H REE T H REE S ection S ection ection T H REE S ection T H REE S ection S ection ection T H REE T H REE S ection T H REE S ection T H REE S ection S ection 121 Learning for water management | WAI
ion EE Sect THR
LEARNING FOR WATER 3 MANAGEMENT
As our community members have found, a large part of water Many people think of science as giving us the answers to everything. management processes involves learning about the water Scientists can tell us something about how nutrients move through resources, others’ uses of water, and ways of solving problems. On the soil into groundwater, or they can tell us something about the top of that, there can be much to learn about how to work together, animals found in our rivers and lakes, for example. Science can tell something that can be surprisingly challenging. All up, that’s a lot us a great deal, but not everything, about water and how it works in of learning! Canterbury. This section focuses on the different kinds of knowledge needed to There are many things that scientists do not yet know about our manage water in Canterbury well. It also looks at ways of working water resources. For example, our knowledge is still building about together to make good decisions for the long-term sustainability of the particular pathways that water in aquifers moves through water resources, industry and community well-being. across the plains and how these pathways are linked to springs, rivers and streams. There are also some important things to learn about how activities such as farming might affect our underground water supplies or how bacteria are transported through soil over What do we need to time. These are some of the things that we know we don’t know. know? Science – what it There are also many things that we don’t yet know that we don’t know! The more people learn about something complicated, can answer and what it the more they discover that new questions need to be asked and cannot answered. That is, there are gaps in our knowledge that we are 121 WAI | Adaptive Management 122
People can get involved with looking after their local water resources in different ways
not even aware of. It is very common to find that new questions arise when we start trying to deal with new ‘gnarly’ problems such as water management. The trouble is that it can take a long time for science to answer those questions and research comes at a cost. Some questions may take decades of collecting data to fully answer. For example, it may take years for us to know for certain how fast water moves through all the different aquifer layers on the Canterbury Plains and what can affect the flow of water within and between each layer. On top of this, events such as the recent earthquakes in the region can change how water moves underground. Therefore, some of the science may need to be done again for us to know what is currently going on and what has changed. This will take significant time. We may have to make decisions about what to do in a much shorter timeframe – today, this month, this year or the next five years. All this means that although people may agree that science is a good tool to use to understand our water resources, there will still be times when decisions about how to manage water will have to be made without having all the answers. It seems that we are unlikely ever to have complete knowledge of how our water resources work, because we will always be discovering things that we hadn’t thought about and because the water resources themselves change over time. This means that we will always have to work with a considerable amount of uncertainty. 122 123 Learning for water management | WAI
Adaptive Management
Entry & contracting Scoping goals & objectives Needing to operate in an environment with high social capital Problem Accessing relevant data, info & characterised by: reformation knowledge (local and science) • TRUST • Norms for sharing • Reflective individuals Community dialogue – developing • Strong networks a shared understanding & co-operative plans for: i) action & ii) monitoring Information capture & dissemination (including Internet)
Ongoing Implementation feedback (action on the ground)
Monitoring & evaluation (task & process)
wetland. If nothing adverse happens, they may experiment with taking Adaptive management a little more water, but if the plants and animals are badly affected they may have to take less water so that no further damage is done. In the same way, at regional and national levels, we could monitor the effects of large developments, such as storage dams, before making decisions The good news is that there are different ways of using science to assist about new dams. In this way, we would not be experimenting with every in deciding how best to use our water. Scientists interested in how to river. manage large scale complex systems such as catchments have come up Of course these decisions must also sit alongside some judgement with the idea of adaptive management. This concept has been used about the importance of the benefits from taking the water and the in a number of projects on catchment management as well as in other importance of keeping the wetland and the plants and animals in and forms of resource management. around the stream in good health. Science cannot always give us direct Adaptive management can most simply be defined as systematically answers to these value judgements so it can be important to discuss “learning and changing as we go”. It is a process of integrating and debate them thoroughly. different kinds of knowledge, developing workable solutions and testing These are the kinds of things that people who are elected onto zone decisions and assumptions. Monitoring what happens and putting that committees will have to decide as the Canterbury Water Management information together with new science knowledge is a key to learning Strategy is implemented. It is also important that other stakeholders about the effects of our decisions. We can then apply this learning to can contribute what they know, and what they value about their later decisions. This means the outcomes of management improve over local water resources. So it is vital to use as many different forms of time. knowledge as we can in our decision making: different types of science, Say, for example, a community wants to know how much water they can matauranga Māori, local knowledge and institutional/ legal knowledge. take from a stream without endangering the fish and without drying out The Canterbury Water Management Strategy has this understanding as a nearby wetland. To find out, they may decide to take a small amount a guiding principle. of water and monitor what happens to the animals, plants and local 123 WAI | Learning To Work Together 124
Banks Peninsula Zone Orientation, 2011
Learning to work together The zone committee includes: ▪▪ An Environment Canterbury appointee ▪▪ A local territorial authority councillor ▪▪ A Ngāi Tahu Rūnanga appointee As well as learning about the water resources in Canterbury, it is very likely that people are going to have to learn how to participate and work ▪▪ Between four and seven local members nominated from together to contribute into water management. the community who come from a variety of backgrounds and interests. These interests can include such things as Both the Land and Water Forum and the Canterbury Water Management conservation, biodiversity, energy, agriculture/ horticulture, Strategy highlight the need for people from different backgrounds and economic development and recreation. with different interests to work together to make decisions. In the CWMS this will be done by Zone Committees and a Regional Water Committee members are expected to work collaboratively and Management Committee. constructively with others and to contribute their knowledge and perspective, but not to promote the views or positions of any particular Zone committees interest or stakeholder group. Under the CWMS, water will be managed in “Zones” (see page 112). The different zone committees are in very different stages of operation There are ten zone committees. Each zone committee has between as we write. The Hurunui-Waiau Zone committee, for example, is well seven and 13 members selected to make sure they contain a range of established whilst others such as the Christchurch-West Melton Zone expertise and interests. Committee are in the early stages. 124 125 Learning for water management | WAI
A group at the Canterbury Plantout, 2011, on the Selwyn Delta
After their appointment, zone committees will operate for three years All the committees, including the regional committee must: before going through a nomination and appointment process again. At ▪▪ Be open to learning about the water resources and the range of this point, people can be reappointed for another three years as long as perspectives people have on those resources. all parties agree. Others may choose to leave and will be replaced by new people. If this happens, then the new people will be able to learn ▪▪ Work towards achieving the fundamental principles, targets and from the experienced ones. goals of the CWMS. Committees may bring in other experts or advisors as needed to learn ▪▪ Be culturally sensitive and observe tikanga Māori. about and manage their local water resources. This represents another ▪▪ Balance the interests of different water stakeholder groups way that committees can augment their expertise base and perhaps through debate and discussion. may be a way for new people to learn about the committees and their processes. ▪▪ Promote the idea that we must think and act collectively and collaboratively to manage water fairly for all Cantabrians, rather The Regional Committee than seeing it as something for individuals to own or use for The Regional Committee was established in 2010 and includes their own benefit. representatives from each of the zone committees and from different sectors such as fisheries; energy; environment/ biodiversity; primary What do zone committees have to do? production/agriculture; recreation; and regional development including Each zone committee has to produce a zone implementation tourism. Like the zone committees, it will work together for three years programme (also known as a ZIP) in consultation with their local before going through another appointment process. communities. These programmes must take account of: 125 WAI | Learning To Work Together 126
Team work is as important for water management as it is for Dragon Boating: We are all in this together
▪▪ Water resources, uses and issues; What does the Regional Committee do? ▪▪ Community interests; The Regional Committee works with the zone committees to coordinate water management at a regional level. The Regional Committee will ▪▪ Regional targets and legal requirements; develop a 10 year regional implementation programme (also known ▪▪ Work going on in nearby zones; as the RIP) that will be reviewed every three years. The regional implementation programme must take into account the plans of the ▪▪ Future needs, foreseeable change and issues for the water zone committees as well as dealing with: management in the area; ▪▪ Cross-zone boundary issues such as water demand, storage ▪▪ What financial resources are available; and and distribution options, biodiversity issues, land use practices, ▪▪ What is known and not known about local water resources. energy security and water use efficiency; Having done this they must outline what will be done and what priority ▪▪ The protection of landscapes, and natural features that are different actions have. These plans will be reviewed regularly. important to Canterbury as a whole; In addition zone committees are charged with monitoring the outcomes ▪▪ Ways of improving the management of water at a regional level; or the implementation of the plans to see if they are meeting their ▪▪ The development of big infrastructure projects that require targets. They also have to work with local communities to keep an eye significant investment and/ or involve stakeholders from the on how water users are doing with things like implementing efficiency wider region; measures. Another important task will be to contribute to district and regional plans that are developed as a requirement of the Local ▪▪ Ensuring that kaitiakitanga is exercised and that Iwi Government Act and the Resource Management Act. Management Plans are taken into account. 126 127 Learning for water management | WAI
The Committee must also consult with communities across Canterbury But all this learning is what helps the group function well when issues when developing the regional implementation programme. and arguments come along and when difficult decisions have to be made. Like the zone committees, the Regional Committee will also be involved in monitoring and planning activities. Building trust Working together can be difficult Perhaps the most important thing for a zone committee will be building trust in each other. This does not mean that they all have to agree The successful operation of the Canterbury Water Management Strategy on everything! Instead it means that they must understand where relies on many people being able to work with each other and to debate, they disagree and they must also feel that they can safely put those discuss and decide on issues that may be very complex and highly disagreements “on the table” so that they are understood by everyone contested. and that they can be discussed respectfully. Strangely, people say that However, in other places where this has been tried, people have found it is through having difficult conversations that they learn the most and that it can be very difficult to do. Here, we are going to take a look at the also build the greatest trust. kinds of things people have said about the process of learning to make However, if they go wrong these conversations can build mistrust too. decisions and learn about their water resources together. This is where a facilitator becomes very important. When a group first At the beginning of a process, groups of people can find it difficult to starts working together, they need to discover their differences and know what they are doing and many people feel that they are not doing learn how to work with them. A good facilitator helps by encouraging anything much. This is an important stage where people are getting people to express their perspective and by ensuring that the discussion to know each other and building an understanding that leads to trust. around it is open and respectful. In the case of water management in Canterbury, they may also have A facilitator in this role cannot take part in the discussion. Instead their to learn a lot about water and its management. This means things like role is to be impartial and to take care of how the discussion happens. learning about the science, the regulatory environment that they are Facilitators are vital for making sure that everyone in the group gets a working within, what has happened in previous years and about how fair hearing, and for helping people to build trust and to learn. Also, other people in their community think. It may not feel very exciting, facilitators often have a store of useful techniques for helping people to and many people can get impatient to do something. Some may even work together effectively. An example is provided in Box 25 below. withdraw from the group because it doesn’t seem to be doing much.
Box 25: Six Hats Thinking
This technique, suggested by Edward de Bono, is remarkably simple but can be highly effective. It is built on the premise that we can all think in different ways and all types of thinking are useful. However, group processes can be stymied when different people are thinking in different ways. So, for example one individual may be being creative whilst another is being critical, and thinking of reasons why these new ideas won’t work. De Bono offers the strategy of getting everyone to think in the same way at the same time by imagining themselves putting on 6 different coloured hats and playing different roles. The six hats are: White: collecting together facts and information Red: Emotions – instinctive gut reaction or statements of emotional feeling (but not any justification) Black: Bad points judgment – logic applied to identifying flaws or barriers, seeking mismatch Yellow: Good points judgment – logic applied to identifying benefits, seeking harmony Green: Creativity – statements of provocation and investigation, seeing where a thought goes Blue: Thinking about thinking Hence, a group or a public meeting might start by putting on a white hat and documenting the facts of a situation they are puzzling over. Then, they may use the yellow and black hats to assess positive and negative aspects of the situation, before putting on the green hat and brainstorming some possible solutions. Once again, they may put on the black hat to think of all the problems and the yellow hat to think of all the good points of the solutions they came up with. Finally they can put on the red hat and reflect on their gut reactions to it all. Finally, it is good to think about the process, how it worked and how it might be improved. 127 WAI | Learning To Work Together 128
Box 26: The travelling river Working with wider communities Zone committees are engaging with their local communities on water management issues and as part of planning and decision processes. In 2003, a science research group focused on understanding Most people think about this in terms of having public meetings or catchment management in the Motueka Valley in the Nelson collecting written submissions. However, in projects around New region were looking for new ways of engaging with the local Zealand and around the world, it has become clear that there are many community. A small group of artists and scientists got together more ways to communicate and consult – many of which are both more to think about this and after learning a lot from each other fun, and provide better results. In addition, there are considerable and wondering what to do, they came up with the idea of the benefits in getting community members to engage with each other as Travelling River Exhibition. Local communities, scientists and well as those running the consultation. managers were all asked for photos of something in the Motueka catchment and the stories behind them. Photos ranged from Facilitated workshops, hui on marae, field days, community events, pictures of events and people from the past, to community lectures from visiting speakers, exhibitions, using photos and videos, events and landscapes, and from microscopic snow algae to social media, online forums, learning groups, discussions about satellite images of the entire catchment. outcomes, “futuring,” “diagramming,” adapted rapid rural appraisal techniques, or tapping into existing community groups and networks, The exhibition opened in the Suter Gallery in Nelson in August are all examples of communication that could be useful for helping 2004, where it brought in the widest range of people that the communities to learn about the issues and to provide feedback. gallery had ever seen. The amount of community dialogue and learning that came out of this was enormous, in the gallery, Not all communication has to be formal. In fact, much can happen by in the conversations leading up to the exhibition and in later talking about issues in informal community settings such as over the conversations in the catchment and in some of the communities back fence, in the local shop or pub, or at local events. around the catchment where the exhibition was set up later. The thing to be aware of here is the need for a range of approaches. Not everyone is comfortable speaking out at a public meeting or writing a formal submission. Many people feel that they don’t have time to 128 129 Learning for water management | WAI
contribute and many are not comfortable working online. There may be ways to broaden the net of consultation by thinking about the range of Box 27: Some other options for both formal and informal options available. consultation
A Canterbury community put people into groups to come up with ideas for how to clean up their catchment. They talked in small groups and wrote them on pieces of butcher paper which were put up on the wall. Everyone walked around looking at the ideas and added comments with post-it notes. People could vote on what they thought were the best options using a limited number of sticky orange dots. In the Motueka Catchment, a group of about 20 people with a wide range of backgrounds from the local community were asked to take photos that showed where people cared about the land or the catchment. These photos were then used as the basis for discussions and learning about the catchment and the effects that people can have on it. Children from a community in the East Cape area were asked to draw the kind of river that they wanted to see in their catchment when they grew up. The pictures were put up in the local hall where the community gathered to hear, see and discuss what the children had drawn. 129 WAI | Learning To Work Together 130
▪▪ Ngāi Tahu will be increasingly able to exercise kaitiakitanga and What will success look like? rangitiratanga and their right to do so will be well recognised. ▪▪ Recreational opportunities will be returning and improving. ▪▪ Water users will have access to reliable water, which will be Here is what The Canterbury Water management Strategy suggests used efficiently and productively. success will look like: ▪▪ Primary production and employment will be increasing, and the ▪▪ People will feel they are being treated fairly and involved in net value added by irrigation to the Canterbury economy and decision-making. the national balance of payments will be increasing. ▪▪ Decisions about who gets what water will be mostly made ▪▪ Opportunities for tourism activities based on and around without have to go to the courts. water will be returning and improving, and the net value to Canterbury’s economy from these activities will be increasing. ▪▪ Most people will look after the land and water that they are responsible for so that compliance action will be needed only ▪▪ Efficiency in the use of energy will be improving and renewable for a small number of water users who are not looking after electricity generation will be well integrated with irrigation their land and water as they are required to do. infrastructure. ▪▪ Ecosystems, habitats and landscapes will be protected and ▪▪ Rural community viability will be improving and community progressively restored, and indigenous biodiversity will show cohesion will be maintained. significant improvement. ▪▪ Understanding and empathy between rural and urban dwellers ▪▪ Water quality will be protected and starting to return to within will be increasing. healthy limits for human health and ecosystems. ▪▪ The water management system will be better able to adapt to climate change in the future.
Overall, the Canterbury Water Management Strategy heralds a new era in water management. Hopefully this book has shown how complex the task of water management is and how important it is for Cantabrians to work together to manage this precious resource so that we can all flourish and so future generations have access to high quality water resources – even better than those we enjoy today. 130 131 Learning for water management | WAI
131 WAI | Glossary / Papakupu 132
Glossary / Papakupu
A systematic way to manage resources while at the same time learning more about how to manage them better. Adaptive management Adaptive management is often characterised as “learning by doing”. Ahi kaa Continued occupation and/or resource use. Alluvial Loose deposits of gravel (or soil or other sediments) laid down or shaped by the action of fresh water. Natural or physical qualities and characteristics of an area that contribute to people’s appreciation of its pleasantness, Amenity Values aesthetic coherence, and cultural and recreational attributes. Aquifer An underground gravel channel through which groundwater flows. Ara tawhito Trails. Aruhe Edible fernroot. Biological diversity – the range of forms of life including the differences between members of the same species, Biodiversity between species, and between ecosystems. Catchment The whole area of land drained by a river or body of water and all its tributaries. A form of resource management that uses whole catchments as their unit of operation. It contrasts with approaches Catchment management that separate land management from water management. An economic term meaning a good or thing that everyone owns and has a right to use, although that use can be Common good regulated. Consents give the consent holder to use or do something. People who want to take water from our waterways must Consent/ Resource consent apply for a resource consent to do that. A consent may also have a number of conditions attached to it – e.g. consent holders may have to keep records of their water use and present them to the Council on a regular basis.
Ecosystem A system of interacting living organisms within their physical environment.
Ecosystem services Services to humans that ecosystems provide such as water purification, soil production, moderating of flood flows. A plant or animal species in danger of extinction and whose survival is unlikely if the adverse causal factors continue. Endangered The International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN) defines an endangered species as one that “faces a very high risk of extinction in the near future”. Endemic Refers to species only found within a certain area. “Endemic to Canterbury” means only found in Canterbury. The point or range of conditions beyond which there is a significant risk of abrupt irreversible, or difficult to reverse, Environmental limits changes to the benefits derived from natural resource systems with impacts on human well-being. Evidence-based Based on systematically-gathered evidence. Groundwater Water flowing underground. The environment within which a particular species or group of species lives. It includes both the physical and living Habitat characteristics that are relevant to the species concerned. Hapū Extended family/ sub-tribe. Hapua Coastal lagoon. Harakeke NZ flax. Ika Fish. Inanga The most common species found in whitebait – common Galaxius. In relation to non-human species, a species is defined as indigenous to a given region if its presence in that region is Indigenous the result of only natural processes, with no human intervention. (The term is used in slightly different ways in relation to people.) Kai Food. 132 133 Learning for water management | WAI
Kai awa Food and other resources from rivers. Kainga Residential (permanent) settlement, village. Kai moana Food and related resources from the sea. Kai roto Food and related resources from lakes. Kaitiaki Guardian(s) – those who exercise kaitiakitanga. loosely translated as guardianship but meaning more than this. Kaitiakitanga is concerned with the interface between the physical and spiritual worlds. This involves ensuring that resources are used wisely (by observing kawa and tikanga) so that their mauri remains in tact for future generations. To be tāngata tiaki, the people who Kaitiakitanga exercise kaitiakitanga, people must have rangatiratanga or the authority to make, alter or enforce decisions about the management of the resources or taonga in question. The big issue here it that Ngāi Tahu have been denied their rangatiratanga and have been unable to exercise their roles and responsibilities as kaitiaki. Kākahi Freshwater mussels. Kaupapa Strategy or process. Kawa The laws of nature. Literally “from the mountains to the sea” – continuity of flow. Rivers are seen to connect up diverse landscapes Ki uta ki tai and to be a source of life. The concept highlights the necessity of integrated approaches to management or natural resources. It is a holistic approach to kaitiakitanga. It is a whole ecosystem approach. Kōtare Kingfisher. Kōtuku White heron. Kōwaro Canterbury mudfish (Neochanna burrowsius) A mixture of natural and semi-natural elements, that may, and often do, include humans and man-made components. Landscape A landscape is the product of the appearance, uses and perceptions of a place. Mahinga kai The customary gathering of food and natural materials and places where those resources are gathered A piece of land where pests such as possums, mice, rats and even wasps are managed intensively to keep their Mainland Island numbers very low as a form of protecting native plants and animals. Mana Good standing/ status. Implies both a “mandate” to look after a piece of land but also a responsibility to do so. Relates to individuals rather than political structures such as rūnanga It involves elements of both occupation (ahi kaa) and political authority. Manawhenua Manawhenua are judged by the quality of their resources and the capacity of those resources to produce food and other resources necessary for life. Manu Birds. Māori traditional knowledge held about many things, including waterways. Matauranga or knowledge is acquired Matauranga Māori through everyday observations, trial and error, experiment and from being passed down from the similar learning of earlier generations. An identified, traditional fishing ground that has special status under the Fisheries Act 1996 to protect customary Mātaitai fishing values. Restrictions may be placed on taking fish, aquatic life or seaweed in the reserve. Mauri is the life force (or life-giving capacity) that comes from the spirit or wairua that is naturally present in all things. Mauri can be defiled by the unwise and uncaring actions of human beings but cannot be damaged by natural Mauri processes. The mauri of a waterway can be characterised by environmental factors, including: size water quantity, water quality, velocity, force, volume, flow, quality and quantity of its mahinga kai, utility for other cultural purposes, and its “working ability”. Mōkihi Rafts. Native plants/ animals Plants or animals naturally found in an area and not there as a result of human intervention (similar to indigenous). The qualities of an area that taken together give it a particular, recognisable character. These qualities may be Natural character ecological, physical, spiritual or aesthetic in nature. A temporary camping area or place where food is gathered and/or processed and knowledge is transferred through Nohoanga social interaction and activity. Nohoanga sites are listed in Section 95 of the Ngāi Tahu Claims Settlement Act 1998. 133 WAI | Glossary / Papakupu 134
Can refer to any Māori village or settlement, but in traditional use it referred to hillforts fortified with palisades and Pā defensive terraces and also to fortified villages These are modern day forms of representation and governance centred on the whānau and hapū of marae based Papatipu Rūnanga communities. There are 18 Papatipu Rūnanga (ngā rūnanga) who are represented at the “top table” of Te Rūnanga of Ngāi Tahu. Ten of these are found in the Canterbury Region. Pārera Grey duck. Patiki Flounder. Pukio Sedge. A form of tapu restricting access to, or use of, an area or resource by unauthorised persons. With the passing of the Rāhui 1996 Fisheries Act, a rāhui can also be imposed by the New Zealand Ministry of Fisheries. This is about having the mana or authority to maintain the requirements of the relationship between the culture Rangatiratanga and traditions of the people and the natural world. Because both culture and nature are dynamic, maintaining the relationship between them requires the capacity to change and enforce decisions made about a resource. Raranga Weaving. Refers to species that are uncommon or scarce. Some organisms may be naturally rare but not endangered or Rare threatened with extinction. Raupō Bulrushes. Repo raupō Wetland. Repo wai Coastal wetland. Reticulated water Water made available through a network (reticulation) of pipes, usually underground, as in most urban areas. In relation to a river or lake, the riparian zone is the area of land within and beside their beds. The riparian zone Riparian zone includes the banks of a river, the margin of a lake and the relevant parts of any wetlands or islands contained within their beds, and all aquatic areas within the beds. Rūnanga The governing council or administrative group of a Māori hapū or iwi. Water from the land surface that accumulates as a result of heavy rainfall. In urban areas, it is collected in Stormwater underground sumps and piped into nearby waterways. Water on the surface of the land (as opposed to groundwater). It includes all waterways, such as rivers, streams, Surface water lakes, and wetlands. The ability to keep a system running indefinitely without depleting resources; a sustainable system maintains Sustainable management economic viability, and nourishes the needs of present and future generations. Swales are vegetated hollows or depressions used instead of curbs or paved gutters to transport stormwater runoff. Swale The allow for water from roads etc to be filtered through the soil before it gets into the stormwater system and into streams A set of interacting components forming an integrated whole. A catchment, for example, is a system of land, water System and living organisms that are all affected by each other. Takiwā / Rohē An area over which a particular hapū or whānau has manawhenua. These areas are defined geographically by natural boundaries. The takiwā of neighbouring communites can sometimes overlap. Literally “people of the land”. The people who belong to a particular area that they claim through their whakapapa or past family relationships/ genealogy. The Canterbury region is the home place (turangawaewae) of the Ngāi Tahu iwi. Tāngata Whenua Ngāi Tahu encompasses the earlier Kāti Mamoe and Waitaha peoples. Collectively, these three iwi and contemporary hapū are known as Ngāi Tahu Whānui. Taonga Treasures; taonga are protected by kaitiaki. Tapu Sacred; prohibited. Threatened species A collective term referring to any species that is rare, vulnerable or endangered. Tikanga The rules, management framework or custom. Tī kōuka Cabbage tree. Tohunga Priests/ wise men. 134 135 Learning for water management | WAI
An area of land which has Ngāi Tahu values, and is declared as Tōpuni under the Ngāi Tahu Claims Settlement Act 1998 and recognised in by other laws. The concept of tōpuni derives from the traditional Ngāi Tahu tikanga (custom) Tōpuni of persons of rangatira (chiefly) status extending their mana and protection over a person or area by placing their cloak over them or it. New Zealand’s founding document. Its name comes from the place in the Bay of Islands where it was first signed, on 6 Treaty of Waitangi February 1840. The Treaty is an agreement, in Māori and English, that was made between the British Crown and about 540 Māori rangatira (chiefs). Tuna Eel/ eels. Tūpuna Ancestors. Urupa Burial site. Significant sites that hold the respect of iwi in accordance with tikanga. This term is sometimes used to describe Wāhi Taonga significant places that are not wāhi tapu. Sacred sites. These include a wide range of sites such as tauranga waka (canoe landings), pā sites, urupa (burial sites) Wāhi Tapu and tohu or markers. Water that has been polluted or spoilt. The mauri has been changed and the supernatural forces associated with the Waikino water can cause harm to people and other entities. Waikōura Freshwater crayfish. Waiora Pure water (Te Waiora a Tāne). Rain is waiora; it is the tears of Rakinui at the loss of Papatūānuku. Waipuna Freshwater springs. Wai Māori Water that is healthy and normal; its mauri is benevolent and can be controlled through ritual. Waimate Water that has lost its mauri; this water can cause harm to the mauri of other living things. Wairua Spirit. Waitohi Dedications. Waiwhakaheketūpāpaku Water burials. Waka ama Outrigger canoe. Water that has been used by humans and is no longer fit for human consumption. It includes laundry, kitchen, Wastewater bathroom and toilet water. Wastewater is piped to treatment stations in urban areas, and to septic tanks or other treatment systems in small towns and rural areas. Genealogy and lineage; in Māori culture, people are related to the natural world through geography and genealogy. Whakapapa Welfare of the natural environment determines welfare of the people. The resources (and state of those resources) of a rohe are both a statement of identity of the tāngata whenua and a source of their mana. Whakatauki Proverb. Whānau Family. Whanaungatanga Kinship; connecting as one people. Whānui See entry for ‘Tāngata Whenua’. Whare wānanga Learning house/ school/ place of learning. Wiwi Rushes.
135 WAI | References 136
References
Allen, W., Fenemor, A., Kilvington, M., et al. (2011) Building collaboration and learning in integrated catchment management: the importance of social process and multiple engagement approaches. In process. Anon (2009) Rangitata South consents granted. Irrigation NZ News, p19. Atkinson, M., Kilvington, M. & Fenemor, A. (2009) Watershed Talk. The cultivation of ideas and action. A project about processes for building community resilience. Lincoln, NZ: Manaaki Whenua Press. Atkinson, M & Peacock, S. (2004) Travelling River: A collaboration of artists and scientists and the people of the Motueka River catchment. Lincoln, NZ: Manaaki Whenua Landcare Research NZ Ltd. Ausseil, O. (2010) Hurunui River – Influence of the middle reach tributaries on water quality of the lower Hurunui River (2005-2008). Report R08/55. Report prepared for Environment Canterbury. Christchurch: Environment Canterbury. Ball, A. (2003) Microbial Water Quality in the Vicinity of the Waimakariri River. Report CSC0310. Report prepared by ESR for URS. Christchurch: ESR Ltd. Boffa Miskell Ltd (2010) Canterbury Regional Landscape Study Review. Report prepared for Environment Canterbury. Christchurch: Environment Canterbury / Kaunihera Taiao ki Waitaha. Bolton-Ritchie, L. (2010) Healthy Estuary and Rivers of the City. Water quality and ecosystem health monitoring programme of Ihutai. Water quality for contact recreation. Summary report on data collected over the summer of 2009-2010. Report 978-1-927137-99-4. Christchurch: Environment Canterbury / Kaunihera Taiao ki Waitaha. Bolton-Ritchie, L. (2011) Coastal water quality for contact recreation, Canterbury region: Annual report 2010-11. Unpublished report. Environment Canterbury / Kaunihera Taiao ki Waitaha. Brooking, T. (1992) Economic Transformation. In: Rice, G.W. (Ed) The Oxford History of New Zealand. Auckland: Oxford University Press. Cameron, B. (2009) Liquid Gold. A Mid Canterbury Irrigation History. Ashburton, NZ: Brian Cameron. Clarkson, B. & Peters, M. (2010) Wetland Restoration: A handbook for New Zealand freshwater systems. Lincoln, NZ: Manaaki Whenua Press. Department of Conservation (2003) New Zealand Non-migratory Galaxiid fishes recovery plan 2003-2013. Threatened Species Recovery plan Number 53. Wellington, NZ: Department of Conservation. Sourced from: http://www.doc.govt.nz/upload/documents/science-and-technical/tsrp53.pdf Dreaver, A. (1997) An Eye for Country. The Life and Work of Leslie Adkin. Wellington: Victoria University Press. Eng, G., Bywater, I. & Hendtlass, C. (2008) New Zealand Energy Information Handbook. Third Edition. Christchurch: NZ Centre for Advanced Engineering. Environment Canterbury (2009) Canterbury Natural Resources Regional Plan. Chapter 2: Ngāi Tahu and the managemenet of natural resources. Report R09/76. Christchurch: Environment Canterbury / Kaunihera Taiao ki Waitaha. Environment Canterbury (2008) Ashley River / Rakahuri. Management Strategy. A Community Vision. Prepared for The Ashley River / Rakahuri Advisory Group. Christchurch: Environment Canterbury / Kaunihera Taiao ki Waitaha. Environment Canterbury (2008) Canterbury Regional Environment Report 2008. Report R08/83. Christchurch: Environment Canterbury / Kaunihera Taiao ki Waitaha. Environment Canterbury (2010) Draft Proposed Pareora Catchment Environmental Flow and Water Allocation Regional Plan. Report No. R10/33. Christchurch: Environment Canterbury / Kaunihera Taiao ki Waitaha. Environment Canterbury (2010) Proposed Waipara Catchment Environmental Flow and Water Allocation Regional Plan. Christchurch: Environment Canterbury / Kaunihera Taiao ki Waitaha. Environment Canterbury (2004) Waiau River Catchment: Tāngata Whenua Values Report. Technical Report U04/72. Christchurch: Investigations and Monitoring Group, Environment Canterbury / Kaunihera Taiao ki Waitaha. Fairweather, J., Swaffield, S. & Simmons, D. (1998) Understanding visitors’ experiences in Kaikōura using photographs of landscapes and Q method. Kaikōura case study report # 5/1998. Lincoln University: Tourism Research and Education Centre. 136 137 Learning for water management | WAI
CAENZ (c.2009) Canterbury Regional Statement of Opportunities for Energy. Technical Report U09/03, prepared for Environment Canterbury. Christchurch: NZ Centre for Advanced Engineering. Canterbury Mayoral Forum (2009) Canterbury Water Management Strategy – Strategic Framework. Christchurch: Canterbury Mayoral Forum. Christchurch City Council (2003) Waterways, Wetlands and Drainage Guide. Ko Te Anga Whakaora mo Nga Arawai Repo. Part A: Visions. Christchurch: Christchurch City Council. Christchurch City Council (1999) Restoring and Protecting Smacks Creek. Christchurch: Christchurch City Council. Christchurch City Council (2000) Vision 2000-2040. The Styx. Community Planning for the Future. Christchurch: Christchurch City Council. Costanza, R., d’Arge, R., de Groot, R., et al. (1997) The value of the world’s ecosystem services and natural capital. Nature, 387: 253-260. Crengle, H. with Te Rūnanga o Kaikōura, Te Rūnanga o Tūāhuriri and Te Rūnanga o Ngāi Tahu (2002). Hurunui River Catchment: Tāngata Whenua Values. R02/23. Report prepared for Environment Canterbury. Christchurch: Environment Canterbury / Kaunihera Taiao ki Waitaha. Energy Information and Modelling Group, MED (2011) New Zealand Energy Data File. Wellington: Ministry of Economic Development / Manatū Ōhanga. Sourced from: www.med.govt.nz/templates/StandardSummary____15169.aspx Energy Information and Modelling Group, MED (2010) New Zealand Greenhouse Gas Emissions. Wellington: Ministry of Economic Development / Manatū Ōhanga. Sourced from: www.med.govt.nz/energy/ghg Eng, G., Bywater, I., Hendtlass, C. (2008) New Zealand Energy Information Handbook. Third Edition. Christchurch: NZ Centre for Advanced Engineering. Ford, S. (2002) Economic and Social Assessment of Community Irrigation Projects. MAF Technical Paper No: 2002/13 Prepared for MAF Policy by: Agribusiness Group, Christchurch. Johnson, P. & Gerbeaux, P (2004) Wetland Types in New Zealand. Department of Conservation, Wellington, New Zealand. Gray, D. & Harding, J.S. (2007) Braided River Ecology. A literature review of physical habitats and aquatic invertibrate communities. Science for Conservation 279. Wellington: Science and Technical Publishing, Department of Conservation. Grey, A. (1994) New Zealand and New Zealand: A Historical Geography. Christchurch, NZ: Canterbury University Press. Harris Consulting and Partners (2005) Regional Economic Implications of Water Allocation and Reliability. A report prepared for Environment Canterbury and MAF Policy. Christchurch: Environment Canterbury / Kaunihera Taiao ki Waitaha. Harris, S., Butcher, G. & Smith, W. (2006) The Opuha Dam. An ex-post study of its impacts on the provincial economy and community. Timaru: Aoraki Development Trust. Harte, P (2010) Waimate District Plan Review – Report 15, 22 September 2010 prepared for Waimate District Council by Davie Lovell-Smith. Hearnshaw, E.J.S., Cullen, R. and Hughey, K.F.D. (2010) Ecosystem Services Review of Water Storage Projects in Canterbury: The Opihi River Case. Report prepared for Environment Canterbury. Christchurch: Environment Canterbury / Kaunihera Taiao ki Waitaha. Hughey, K.F.D., Kerr, G.N. & Cullen, R. (2008) Public Perceptions of New Zealand’s Environment: 2008. Christchurch: EOS Ecology. Jolly, D. (2004) Waiau River Catchment: Tāngata Whenua Values Report. Technical Report U04/72. Christchurch: Investigations and Monitoring Group, Environment Canterbury. King, M. (2003) The Penguin History of New Zealand. Penguin Books. Auckland, New Zealand. Land and Water Forum. (2010). Report of the Land and Water Forum: A Fresh Start for Fresh Water. Land and Water Forum. Sourced from: http://www. landandwater.org.nz/land_and_water_forum_report.pdf Lange, M. (2010) Draft Canterbury Regional Context Document. Prepared for the Canterbury Water Management Strategy. Report R10/144. Christchurch: Environment Canterbury / Kaunihera Taiao ki Waitaha. Lobb, A. (2009) Ngāi Tahu Participation and Relationship with Te Ihutai and The Avon-Heathcote Estuary Ihutai Trust. Advisory report prepared for Avon- Heathcote Estuary Ihutai Trust, June. Christchurch: Mahaanui Kurataiao Ltd and Environment Canterbury / Kaunihera Taiao ki Waitaha. Lockhead, L.E. (1994) Preserving the ‘Brownie’s Portion’: A History of Voluntary Nature Conservation Organisations in New Zealand 1888-1934. PhD Thesis. Lincoln University, Canterbury, NZ. McIntyre, W., Tucker, D., Green, M. Syme, G., Bates, L., Porter, N. & Nancarrow, B. (2006) . Water Benefits Accounting and Assessment : Lake Mulwala Case Study. Canberra, Australia. CSIRO: Water for a Healthy Country National Research Flagship. 137 WAI | References 138
McMath, M. (2000) The Styx. Community Perceptions of the Styx River & its Environs. Christchurch: Christchurch City Council. Meredith, A.S. & Hayward, S.A. (2002) An Overview of the Water Quality of the Rivers and Streams of the Canterbury Region. Report R02/25. Christchurch: Environment Canterbury Kaunihera Taiao ki Waitaha. Ministry of Tourism (2009) Tourism Sector Profile. Tourism Activity: Nature Based Tourism. Series B3. August. Wellington: Ministry of Tourism. Sourced from: http://www.tourismresearch.govt.nz/Data--Analysis/Tourism-Sector-Profiles/Tourist-Activity-Profiles/Nature-Based-Tourism-/ Ministry for the Environment (2001) Managing waterways on farms. A guide to sustainable water and riparian management in rural New Zealand. Wellington: Ministry for the Environment. Sourced from: www.mfe.govt.nz. Ministry for the Environment (2004) Water Programme of Action: Potential Water Bodies of National Importance. Technical Working Paper, Ref. ME562. Wellington: Ministry for the Environment. Sourced from: http://www.mfe.govt.nz/publications/water/national-importance-jul04/index.html. Ministry for the Environment (2011) A Fresh Start for Fresh Water. http://www.mfe.govt.nz/issues/water/freshwater/fresh-start-for-fresh-water/index. html Mosley, M.P. (2001) Rangitata River: Natural character, amenity values and flow regime. Revised edition. Report R01/23. Prepared for Environment Canterbury. Christchurch: Environment Canterbury Kaunihera Taiao ki Waitaha. Mosley, M.P. (2002) Hurunui River: Instream values and flow regime. Report R02/1. Prepared for Environment Canterbury. Christchurch: Environment Canterbury Kaunihera Taiao ki Waitaha. Mulcock, C., Cumberworth, S., & Brown, I. (2009) An Environmental Management System for Irrigation Schemes in New Zealand. Darfield: Ritso Society. Sourced from http://www.irrigationefficiency.co.nz/knowledge-base/all-data/An-Environmental-Management-System-for-Irrigation-Schemes-in-New- Zealand/ New Zealand Biodiversity Strategy – Massey University Study. 1997. Nga Wai o Waitaha – Waters of Canterbury. What do we use Canterbury’s freshwater for? Environment Canterbury poster. 2010. Nga Wai o Waitaha – Waters of Canterbury. What’s special about Canterbury’s freshwater? Environment Canterbury poster. 2010. NIWA (2008) Making Concrete: Ecological implications of gravel extraction in New Zealand rivers. Sourced from: http://www.niwa.cri.nz/pubs/wa/ma/13- 1/concrete Park, G. (2002) ‘Swamps Which Might Doubtless Easily be Drained’. Swamp Drainage and its impact on the indigenous. In: Pawson, E. & Brooking, T. Environmental Histories of New Zealand. Melbourne: Oxford University Press, pp 151-165. Parliamentary Commissioner for the Environment (2002) Creating Our Future: Sustainable development for New Zealand. Wellington: Parliamentary Commissioner for the Environment. Pauling, C., Lenihan, T.M., Rupene, M., Tirikatene-Nash, N. & Couch, R. (2007) State of the Takiwā / Te Ahuatanga o Te Ihutai. Cultural Health Assessment of the Avon-Heathcote Estuary and its Catchment. Christchurch: Te Rūnanga o Ngāi Tahu. Peart, R., Mulcahy, K., & Garvan, N. (2010) Managing Freshwater. An EDS Guide. Auckland: Environmental Defence Society. Peat, N. & Patrick, B. (2001) Wild Rivers. Discovering the Natural History of the Central South Island. Dunedin: University of Otago Press. Peter Rough Landscape Architects Limited (2009) Hurunui Water Project. Assessment of Landscape and Visual Effects. Report prepared for Hurunui Water Project Limited. Roche, M. (2002) The State as Conservationist, 1920-60. ‘Wise use’ of forests, lands and water. In: Pawson, E. & Brooking, T. Environmental Histories of New Zealand. Melbourne: Oxford University Press, pp183-199. Rodgers, M. (2009) Canterbury’s Wicked Water. Politics, Progress and Prosperity Imperilled. Christchurch: CWW Solutions. Royal Society of New Zealand (2009) Virtual Water. Emerging Issues. Wellington: Royal Society of New Zealand. September. Ruffo, S. & Kareiva, P.M. (2009) Using Science to Assign Value to Nature. Guest Editorial. Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment ,7(1): 3-60. Scadden, P. (2009) Sustainable Energy – without all the hot air. A New Zealand perspective. Sourced from: http://hot-topic.co.nz/wp-content/ uploads/2009/11/ScaddenEnergyNZ.pdf Sorrell, B. (2008) Effects of land uses and discharges on wetland water quality. Report prepared for Environment Canterbury by NIWA (R08/39). Christchurch: Environment Canterbury Kaunihera Taiao ki Waitaha. 138 139 Learning for water management | WAI
Statistics New Zealand (2010) Tourism Satellite Account 2010. Wellington: Statistics New Zealand. Stevenson, M, Wilks T, Hayward S. (2010). An overview of the state and trends in water quality of Canterbury’s rivers and streams. Environment Canterbury technical report. Report no. R10/117. Christchurch, NZ: Environment Canterbury / Kaunihera Taiao ki Waitaha. Stevenson, M. (2011) Freshwater quality monitoring for contact recreation: Annual summary report 2010-11. Unpublished report. Christchurch: Environment Canterbury / Kaunihera Taiao ki Waitaha. Te Rūnanga o Ngāi Tahu (2008) Submission to the Ministry for the Environment on behalf of Te Rūnanga o Ngāi Tahu on National Environmental Standard on Ecological Flows and Water Levels. Discussion Document. August, 2008. Sutherland, N. (2006) Waihao River Report. Status of Gravel Resources and Management Implications. Report R06/11. Report prepared for Environment Canterbury by MWH New Zealand Ltd. Christchurch: Environment Canterbury / Kaunihera Taiao ki Waitaha.. Tau, Te M.; Goodall, A.; Palmer, D. & Tau, R. (1990) Te Whakatau Kaupapa. Ngāi Tahu Resource Management Strategy for the Canterbury Region. Wellington, N.Z.: Aoraki Press. Te Matauranga Pu Taiao Trust (2006) Cultural and Environmental Flows Values Report. Waihao River Tributaries and Wainono Lagoon. Te Matauranga Pu Taiao Trust Board. Te Rūnanga o Ngāi Tahu /Department of Conservation (2005) Te Waihora Joint Management Plan / Mahere Tukutahi o Te Waihora. Christchurch: Te Rūnanga o Ngāi Tahu and Department of Conservation. Te Taumutu Rūnanga (2003) Te Taumutu Rūnanga Natural Resource Management Plan. Christchurch: Te Taumutu Rūnanga. Te Rūnanga o Arowhenua and Gail Tipa (2001) Rangitata River. Tāngata Whenua Values. Report prepared for Environment Canterbury. R01/9. Christchurch: Environment Canterbury / Kaunihera Taiao ki Waitaha. Te Rūnanga O Ngāi Tahu (n.d.). Freshwater Policy. Christchurch: Te Rūnanga o Ngāi Tahu. Te Rūnanga O Ngāi Tahu (2009). Proposed National Policy Statement on Freshwater Management. Christchurch: The Board of Inquiry – Proposed National Policy Statement on Freshwater Management, Te Rūnanga o Ngāi Tahu. Tipa, G. & Tierney, L. (2006) A Cultural Health Index for Streams and Waterways: A tool for nationwide use. Report prepared for the Ministry for the Environment. Christchurch: Environment Canterbury / Kaunihera Taiao ki Waitaha. TRaCK (2010) Water planning in Australia’s tropical north. Collaborative Water Planning Summary Report. Tropical Rivers and Coastal Knowledge. Report available from http://www.track.gov.au/ Wilson, D.D. (1985) Erosional and Depositional Trends in Rivers of the Canterbury Plains, New Zealand. Journal of Hydrology (NZ), 24(1): 32-44. Wood, S.A.; Hamilton, D.P.; Safi, K.A. & Williamson, W.M. (2008) New Zealand Guidelines for Cyanobacteria in Recreational Freshwaters. Appendix One. Wellington: New Zealand Ministry for the Environment / Ministry of Health. Sourced from: http://www.mfe.govt.nz/publications/water/guidelines-for- cyanobacteria/page7.html Young, D. & Foster, B. (1986) Faces of the River. New Zealand’s Living Water. Auckland: TVNZ Publishing. Young, D. (2004) Our Islands, Our Selves. A History of Conservation in New Zealand. Dunedin: University of Otago Press.
139 WAI | References 140
Websites: Auckland Council, rates information: www.aucklandcouncil.govt.nz/EN/AboutCouncil/Rates/aboutrates/Pages/howwesetrates.aspx BrownTeal.com: www.brownteal.com/ Christchurch City Council water rates information: http://ratesinfo.ccc.govt.nz/settingofrates/waterrates.aspx Environment Canterbury: www.ecan.govt.nz & http://ecan.govt.nz/our-responsibilities/regional-plans/nrrp/Pages/Default.aspx Environmental Protection Authority: www.epa.govt.nz Land and Water Forum: www.landandwater.org.nz/ Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry, international trade statistics: www.maf.govt.nz/news-resources/statistics-forecasting/international-trade.aspx. Ministry for the Environment: www.mfe.govt.nz/issues/water/freshwater/new-start-fresh-water.html Ministry for the Environment (c2011) A fresh start for fresh water www.mfe.govt.nz/issues/water/freshwater/fresh-start-for-fresh-water/index.html Ministry for the Environment, measuring and reporting water takes: www.mfe.govt.nz/publications/water/measuring-and-reporting-water-takes/index. html Ministry for Economic Development, Tourism Strategy Group, waters of national importance: www.mfe.govt.nz/publications/water/national-importance- rec-dec04/html/page7.html Ministry for Economic Development, Tourism Strategy Group, tourism economic data: www.tourismresearch.govt.nz/Data--Analysis/Economic--Satellite- -Data/Tourism-Satellite-Account-/Tourism-Satellite-Account-Commentary/ Nelson City Council water charges information: http://ratesinfo.ccc.govt.nz/settingofrates/waterrates.aspx Paul Gregg. ‘Soil erosion and conservation’, Te Ara – the Encyclopedia of New Zealand, updated 1-Mar-09: www.TeAra.govt.nz/en/soil-erosion-and- conservation Simon Nathan. ‘Conservation – a history’, Te Ara – the Encyclopedia of New Zealand, updated 2-Mar-09: www.TeAra.govt.nz/en/conservation-a-history Tauranga City water charges information: www.tauranga.govt.nz/rates-water-rates/water-rates.aspx The Fishing Website: http://www.fishing.net.nz/asp_forums/taiapure-mataitai_topic1695.html The Styx Living Laboratory Trust: www.thestyx.co.nz/new-zealand/styxlivinglaboratorytrust Robert Peden. ‘Farming in the economy – Refrigeration and sheep farming’, Te Ara – the Encyclopedia of New Zealand, updated 1-Mar-09: www.TeAra. govt.nz/en/farming-in-the-economy/3 Waikākahi Stream Restoration: www.fishandgame.org.nz/Site/Regions/CSI/fishingNews/July20085.aspx Wikipedia, territorial local authorities of New Zealand: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Territorial_authorities_of_New_Zealand
140
Canterbury Water I WA
TER WA I I A W
WA
TER TER WA WA I I A A W
W
I TER WA TER
WA WA I TER I A A I W WA
A collaborative Canterbury process W
I WA A He puna wai, he puna tāngata TER W TER The pool of water sustains the pool of people TER WA WA I TER I I WA W
W
I WA canterbury water management strategy management water the canterbury supporting WA TER WA TER TER WA A WA A TER I TER WA I TER WA I WA TER WA I WA TER WA I WA TER WA I WA TER WA I WA TER WA I WA TER WA I WA TER WA I WA TER WA I WA TER WA WA WA I WA TER WA I WA TER WA I WA TER WA WA I WA TER WA WA canterbury water management strategy strategy management water the canterbury supporting