In the Arms of the Lord of Dance

It was 40 degrees above zero scorching Indian heat. We, spectators were bathing in sweat and sipping icy Pepsi. But the dancer after finishing two-hour performance full of quick and impetuous jumps came up to us fresh as a lotus flower. For all that she was thickly made up in a theatrical way and robed in magnificent garments, and the oil lamps were burning on the stage where she danced.

-Aren't you hot? - I asked the temple dancer quite forgetting to make a compliment to her art in amazement. However I little understood in a cascade of strange bent poses in which she stood motionless like a statue, in swift finger work taking shapes of complex figures and in the unusual playing of eyes.

-The thoughts about the heat would distract my mind from my thoughts of Shiva, - a devadasi, a maidservant of deity answered mysteriously. - But now it is clear to me that I had danced badly. If I danced the way my guru does you wouldn't have been hot too.

Only later I knew the gift of a true devadasi is like that of yogis who are able to melt snow and ice in Himalayas a few meters around them with the heat of their bodies. The matter here is in the perfect work with psycho energy. But I think that a classic dance even exceeds yoga. The yogi's aim is in self-transformation. The aim of an Indian ritual dancer is by becoming a vessel of divine energy also to lead viewers to the unity with the higher forces of the Universe. It is not by mere accident that the final and at the same time the culmination moment of dance is moksha, the deliverance from hardships of existence and blending with the divine source. A dancer acts like a great extrasensory person, a healer of body and soul illnesses. The amazing fact that quite a lot of people who watch temple dance not only feel a special feeling of pacification but also get rid of aches especially of psycho somatic nature is explained by the mighty emanation that is coming from a dancer. Something similar happens when a shaman performs his dance. Shamans are believed to be obsessed by ghosts. But Lord Shiva Nataraja, the Lord of Dance enters the body of an Indian dancer.

Almost everyone might have seen a figurine of four-handed Shiva in this position. In his one hand he holds a drum, the image of the initial sound, rhythm, vibration out of which the Cosmos sprung out. In his second hand he holds the fire that destroys all that becomes obsolete. The gestures of two other hands show that he will protect and save those who worship him. Dancing Shiva treads under his feet a demon that embodies stagnation and passivity not letting him to take possession of human souls. The god's dance is the symbol of the cosmic movement and renovation. When he stops there will be the end of all days.

Shiva is not only the Lord; he is also a Yogishvara, a divine yogi. The two incarnations of one god reflect the fundamental unity of two forms of meditation: one being static yogi, the other is dynamic and is embodied in temple dance. A dancer's deepest concentration on the meaning of gestures and poses rapidly changing each other during the performance leads to the complete estrangement from body. It starts to move as if by its own will without a slightest strain.

Both in yoga and dance a body is trained with the aim to completely forget about it in the end, - explains an outstanding Indian dancer Padma Subramanyam. - It is a means thanks to which the prevalence

1 | P a g e https://thebatmenbegins.wordpress.com/ of the corporal element in our consciousness is defeated. A dancer's ego liberates itself from all the earthly by blending with the cosmic dance in which the universe moves. The result of such dance is like that what yogi and priests are aiming at by making sacrifices. Rest in the middle of movement is the characteristic feature of basic figures in Indian dance and are called karanas. A dancer's body keeps firmly fixed positions in the swiftest jumps. This requires an extremely developed feeling of balance, ability for concentration and breath control - pranayama that makes yoga and dance related. The combination of statics and dynamics reveals the principles of Hindu world vision: the male principle is the passive and contemplating consciousness; the female principle is the active and world creating energy. It happens that a dancer stays in one position for a long time, only her fingers and hands dance showing the amazing flexibility and speed. The narration goes with the help of a language of gestures called hastas and mudras. For instance, little fingers of both hands fastened together signify intimacy, friendship, while joined index fingers on the contrary signify enmity. Two palms put one over the other with thumbs moved asides is the mudra "matsya", i.e. "a fish" one of Lord Vishnu's reincarnations. If you see thumbs start moving that means the fish has started to move.

The ancient Indian dance treatises tell about 28 positions for one hand and 24 positions for two hands. Hastas and mudras are mostly polysemantic; their meaning is determined by the context. Thus a position called pataka (all fingers are fastened together, the palm is open) can symbolize night, light, a river, a horse, heat, opening or closing of a door, a street, equality, oath, an ideal ruler, ocean waves, dream, praising. The execution of hastas and mudras has a considerable psycho physical effect connected with the size of hand projection upon cerebral cortex. This effect is well known to teachers and speech therapists that use finger games to develop speech and quickness of wit in children. Doctors see in hastas and mudras a stimulation of acupuncture points on fingers, as a result a head becomes clearer and lighter. The Hindus believe that hastas and mudras make Ajna-chakra, the third eye more active.

Another basic legs position is ardhamandali or semi-sitting position with knees widely moved apart. This is a position of rest that relieves the nerve system. It can be imagined as a combination of two triangles formed by a line mentally drawn between knees. Here again you can see the symbol of male and female principles: the triangle with its top down is the female principle, the triangle with its top up is the male principle. In ardhamandali these two principles are balanced that gives psychological and bioenergetics harmony.

The combination of triangles also remains in other legs positions, for instance on tiptoes position, when a dancer sits on toes with knees moved apart, and then out of this position she puts them on the floor in turns or simultaneously.

The same principle of harmonization of male and female, of solar and lunar energy lies at the basis of work with energy canals in hatha yoga. The word hatha consists of a combination of two syllables: ha that signifies the Sun and tha that signifies the Moon.

Generally, the possibilities of a spirit and body perfection found in Indian classic dance are hardly inferior to those inherent with yoga. Dance has its advantages in comparison with it. Quite a lot of people tried to practice asanas but gave up the idea because of its tediousness. Just as many women could not make themselves do physical exercises until aerobics and shaping appeared.

Padma Subramanyam disagrees that Indian classic dance requires a special inborn body flexibility or exhausting daily trainings. According to her words "the level of perfection in nritta (dance as it is without its subject component) directly depends on extent of a dancer's perception of his/her own spiritual essence and this has nothing to do with physique or even mastery". One fine day the moment comes when dance itself in a mysterious way starts to lead a person who sincerely desires to master it. Dance as if becomes an invisible guru-instructor who gives body hints and helps it to stand in certain positions.

2 | P a g e https://thebatmenbegins.wordpress.com/ Indian Classical Dance

Today there are a great number of various dancing traditions in India among which the following are marked out:

1. Classical dances 2. Semi-classical dances 3. Folk dances 4. Pop dances

The classical dance forms which trace back their roots deep into the Past, into the times of ritual temple divine services undoubtedly arouse the greatest interest. Altogether 7 of such forms are marked out:

1. Kuchipudi 2. Bharatanatyam 3. Kathak 4. Odissi 5. Kathakali 6. Manipuri 7. Mohiniattam

The three aspects - the Nritta, the Nritya and the Natya lay at the heart of each of these forms.

The Nritta is a rhythmic sequence that ends in either singing or in lyrics reciting. The Nritya is a sum of rhythmic patterns each following a certain pantomimic interpretation (or abhinaya) The Natya is a complete dance drama with a story-line and various characters.

Each dance form is a unique combination of these three aspects, each one possesses its own peculiarity, but Kuchipudi fully deserves its reputation of being the most beautiful and the most complex one among the above mentioned dance forms.

What is Kuchipudi? This is a unique charm that you get from subtle blending of unsurpassed technique with The Art of Drama that gets its inspiration in scriptures and mythology. Energetic jumps and turns, brave and sense full play of eyes, the vortex of uncommonly quick and skilled motions followed by a cascade of statuesque poses, that what Kuchipudi is!

A Kuchipudi dancer is required to possess not only perfect calisthenics but also perfect plasticity and developed sense of rhythm, be competent in mudras (hand-gestures with sacral meaning) and possess a thorough mastery of abhinaya (the art of pantomime). A combination of all these qualities in the presence of enormous inner energy and ability to instantly transform oneself into different characters allows the audience to perceive the dance art of Kuchipudi as light, igniting and bewitching act. Performing dances on the edges of a brass plate, executing complicated rhythmic patterns with dexterity, while sometimes also balancing a pot of water on the head is considered to be the highest level of mastery.

The Kuchipudi dance form developed in what is now known as the state of Andhra Pradesh in southern India. Kuchipudi derives its name from the village Kuchelapuram on the bank of the river Krishna. According to a legend, sultan Mohamed Kuli Kutab-Shahs' elder nephew Abdul Tana-Shah was sent to the village Kuchipudi to supply it with water. A well was dug out by the order of Tana-Shah. The joy of the village dwellers knew no limits and in order to express their gratitude they organized a grand performance where they demonstrated their art of dancing. Being a great connoisseur of art, Abdul Tana-Shah was so impressed by the dance drama that he granted the village of Kuchipudi to the artists with the promise that they would continue the tradition of performing. From that day onwards this dance form became known as Kuchipudi.

3 | P a g e https://thebatmenbegins.wordpress.com/ But Kuchipudi provides to have been popular long before Tana-Shah.

Over 3000 years ago Bharata Muni the author of Natyashastra (a holy writ dedicated to the Art of Drama) explained some aspects of dance referring to this particular dance form. Sculptural compositions undoubtedly belonging to the same tradition were found in ancient temples and Buddhist monasteries such as Nagarjunakonda, Amaravathi and Ghantsala.

Since the moment of its origin and up to the present day Kuchipudi has undergone multiple changes.

By its origin Kuchipudi was a dance drama where each character was given one and strictly assigned part, but now Kuchipudi is basically a solo dance form. Within one performance and often within one item on the programme a dancer transforms into several absolutely different characters.

In ancient times Kuchipudi could be performed only in temples, but nowadays performances can be set on stage as well as in the open air.

And, finally, the most important thing. Earlier Kuchipudi could be performed exclusively by menand women were not permitted to perform this dance form because their beauty was believed to draw attention of spectators from the divine meaning of the drama. Moreover, men used to play all female parts and not only put on women's dress but also had to make themselves up as women. Changes touched Kuchipudi in 1950s when indeed a revolutionary event took place: women were at last permitted to dance!

In this Kuchipudi owes a debt to the Great Guru Vempati Chinna Satyama who besides all other things holds the merit in spreading this style beyond India frontiers.

And we, a studio of classical Indian dance "Ananda Tandava" being followers of the Great Master Vempati Chinna Satyama, are happy to continue the glorious Kuchipudi tradition in Russia.

Kuchipudi Style

One of the brightest events in the history of India of the second half of the last century besides achievement of its independence is the increased interest in the dancing tradition of Kuchipudi. It is amazing but this little known dance style practiced for many centuries by only Brahmans (i.e. the people belonging to the priests caste) from a small village in state Andhra-Pradesh could less then in 100 years spread itself all around India and acquired a great number of followers. The Kuchipudi style has completely saved its Spirit, taking into account that the style has undergone essential changes in comparison with the antiquity, the feminization of the tradition being one of its most significant changes.

4 | P a g e https://thebatmenbegins.wordpress.com/ The history of the Kuchipudi style in its present form begins in about XVI century AD, though there are earlier historical evidences undoubtedly belonging to this dance tradition, for instance Amaravati Stupa a historical monument of the II century AD where you can see a whole group of dancers (pindibandha) carved in stone, and sculptures of Nagarjuna. Starting XI century records of Kuchipudi are mentioned in such treatises as "Sarasvati Hridayalankara" by Nandideva, "Manasolasa" by Someshvara, "Sangita Chudamani" by Pratap Chakravarti and "Sangita Parijata" by Ahola. It is interesting that "Nrittaratnavali" written by Jayappa Senani a commander-in-chief of the Army of Elephants under ruler Kakatya Ganapati Deva who is also considered a scientist and a big connoisseur of dance, contains a record of Brahmana Mela one of the traditional families of Kuchipudi dancers. Historical evidences relating to Kuchipudi can be also found in "Manchupali Kaifiat" 1502 AD when a group of Bhagavatulus (traditional Kuchipudi dancers) had an audience with Immadi Narasimhi Nayaka, the ruler of Vijayanagra, and with the help of dance drama they could pass a word of oppressions from the local chief Sammit Guruva Raju from the place Siddhavatam, after that Raju was immediately banished.

Another interesting evidence dates back to the still not found brass plate which supposedly has an engraved inscription about the transfer of village Kuchipudi into the ownership of Bhagavatulu clan from the Golkonda nawob (ruler) Abdul Hasan Tani Shah who ruled from 1672 till 1687, as a sign of high appraisal of their art of drama that he was a witness to during his visit of Machilipatnama. The disappearance of this plate alongside with the existence of several villages with the same name Kuchipudi makes it completely impossible to exactly identify the village which is the initial keeper of the Bhagavatulu dance tradition.

The document of division of property in Kuchipudi village dated back to 24 August 1763 AD mentions 15 families, at least 12 of them are directly connected with dance today. The document also says that certain old records (sanadis) have been lost; but the document also keeps silence on which of Kuchipudi villages was after all presented to the dwellers by the nawob.

Near Vinukond there exists another Kuchipudi village famous for its strolling Brahmans players whospecialized in Kelika (game), Kirtana (musical performance) and the art of transformation. In the area of Tenali Telug near the Krishna river there is another Kuchipudi village that has its own and quite bright dancing tradition. Two temples still stand there - Ramalingasvami and Gopalasvami which priests are the direct descendants of either Vedantam or Pasumarti families which are located in quite another area. The matter is that matrimonial alliances were a common practice in old days and at some moment all activity connected with dancing could simply relocate into the area of Tenali Telug.

The term "Kuchipudi" now applied to women dancers etymologically derived from Potu Kuchi (literally a man dancer) and denoted simply Brahmin-dancer. Pudi is a term applied to a village built on an embankment. There are other versions. For instance, Sanskritists think the term "Kuchipudi" is a distortion of the word "Kuchelapuram", the

5 | P a g e https://thebatmenbegins.wordpress.com/ village where according to an ancient Indian epic a poor Brahman, Lord Krishna’s friend lived.

The Bhakti movement ("devoted to God") has its most eloquent expression in the Natya Mela tradition when dance troupes known as Vedi Natakam (street theatre) showed musical plays based on Vayshnavi’s themes (vaishnavis are Lord Vishnu admirers) on self-made stages. In order to recite poems an actor was required to have erudition and a good knowledge of Sanskrit dictated by Brahmans’ authority. This circumstance left its mark upon the whole art. Bhagavatulus in Kuchipudi specialized not only in dance drama or Yakshagana but also in a certain kind of opera called Kalapam.

Kalapam is a "total" theater where plots related to the same theme were closely interwoven with the structure of musical compositions called Daru or Daruvu. For instance, Bhama Kalapam that portrays unbelievably mobile and lively Satyabhama, Krishna’s spouse in her different moods, is a true "corner stone" among operas. To distinguish oneself in this part is the supreme aim of any dancer.

Another popular opera, Golla Kalapam is a dialogue between a perspicacious gopi (a shepherdess) and a Brahman about from-the-cradle-to-the-grave philosophy of life including mutual exchange of statements, poems and humor with metaphysical meaning. All these operas as well as a dance drama Parijatapaharanam are ascribed to Siddhendra Yoga a legendary Kuchipudi instructor. Nevertheless, there are a lot of versions of these plays composed in different times by unknown authors. There are no historical evidences to unambiguously identify Siddhendra Yoga’s period of life; it is between XIV and XVII centuries AD. Some researchers found a record of him even in Mellatura in Tanjor area (state Tamilnadu) from where he supposedly migrated to Kuchipudi village. He is described as an orphan picked up by kind neighbors. According to one of the legends, once returning from classes in Udipi where he took a training he tried to cross a suddenly overflowed river but got into a whirl and would not escaped a sure death if not the Divine intervention. It was then that he made a vow to become an ascetic singing and dancing ad gloriam Lord Vishnu who saved him from death.

Siddhendra Yoga is ascribed a merit for Abdul Tani Shah’s presenting the Kuchipudi village to Bhagavatulu dancers. Nevertheless, even if Siddhendra Yoga made a great contribution to the development of Kuchipudi dance which is mentioned in an ancient manuscript Bhama Kalapam, he did not create the style. Such predecessors of the Kuchipudi dancing tradition as Bayntavesham and Aatavesham were popular among the Bhagavatulus. Kalapam was also performed by devadasis (temple female dancers) as a rule in temple area. They were called bhogamvaru or saanulu and the main theme of musical performances was the main heroin’s appeal to her beloved. The Nayaka-nayiki (hero-heroine) theme was closer to them then Vaishnavis’ (Lord Vishnu’s worshippers) missionary message performed by the Bhagavatulus.

Another form of performance, Yakshagana, goes back to the ancient times and is the source of origin for Mahanatakams or main plays written by rulers of Nayaka dynasty in Tanjor. For instance, the famous Parijatapaharanam was written and staged by Vijayaraghava Nayaka (1633-1672). However, the Emperor Vijayanagara Krishnadeva Raya’s court poet Mukka Timanna wrote a poem with a similar plot much earlier.

Another great person in Kuchipudi history after Siddhendra Yoga was Narayana Tirtha who also wrote Parijatam but this time for performers of the Bhagavata Mela Natakam tradition from Mellatur who are a detached branch of the Bhagavatulus from Andhra Pradesh. They migrated to Tanjor (state Tamilnadu) after the battle at Talakota in 1565. Narayna Tirtha’s works clearly indicate that the Bhagavatulus settled down in a Tanjor village Achyutapuram. Unlike its double from Kuchipudi the Mela Natakam tradition was not a wandering one, but remained strictly localized in such villages as Mellatur, Saliyamangalam, Othukadu and Solamangalam. The Narayana Tritha’s unusually long musical composition written in Sanskrit and called Krishna Leela Tarangini took the first place in the Kuchipudi repertoire. Including 153 Kirtanas (lyrical extracts of specific structure), 302 Shlokas (couplets glorifying God), 30 Daruvus (solo parts for main heroes) and innumerable gadyas (prose citations) his work became a peculiar landmark in literature and art.

6 | P a g e https://thebatmenbegins.wordpress.com/ Represented by a great number of rare melodic modulations Tarangini covered the whole period of Lord Krishna’s both child's plays and romantic flirtations with gopis (shepherdesses).

Daruvu or a composition of a certain specific structure used to define a character in a play is the most important part of musical texts for Kuchipudi. Due to such poets as Virabhadraya, Kasinathaya and Venkatarama Shastri, the Kuchipudi repertoire started to include Natya Abhisheka Shabdam or poems glorifying gods and kings’ deeds. As strolling artists, Kuchipudi dancers borrowed ideas and compositions wherever they appeared. For instance, a famous XV century actor Hari Madhavya is said to borrow a libretto from some Mellatur plays such as Prahlada Charitam to serve as a model for his plays composed on the same theme for Kuchipudi. But notwithstanding the fact that both Bhagavata Mela and Kuchipudi dancers performed plays with similar plots, their interpretations let alone dance language were completely different.

It is interesting that in Kuchipudi which is an exclusively male dancing tradition, such female parts asSatyabhama, Rukmini, Usha, Mohini etc. were the most outstanding. Strivesham with its transformation into a person of opposite sex is highly influential, and men dressed as women is the first and the most common association that comes to mind at the mention of Kuchipudi. Such great dancer as Vedantam Satyanarayana Sharma famous for his Satyabhama role in drama Bhama Kalapam did not allow his " female identification" be asleep even being engaged in such a trivial activity as regulating a microphone position before a comment to a famous scene (lekha) from Bhama Kalapam. Satyabhama’s stage portrait when she writes a love letter to her spouse Krishna is the most poetical moment of the opera.

An actor’s role in Kuchipudi also included the uttering of excerpts from dialogues and even singing certain quotations. This universal mastery of a Kuchipudi artist in singing, dancing and playing has nowadays been replaced mostly by a "dance oriented art". A singer in a group of musicians accompanying to a performance has taken upon himself everything concerning singing. What concerns dialogue quotations in Telugus (the language of state Andhra Pradesh) they have become very rare amidst urban dancers. Only in traditional Yakshagana represented by a troupe in Kuchipudi village a text "uttering" can be heard. The only exclusion among modern dancers is Svapnasundari who can sing, pronounce and dance Kalapam. She thoroughly studied a solo devadasi tradition of Andhra Pradesh, worked over the renewal of dance called Velasini Nataym together with the now deceased Dr. Aruda a famous expert in dance.

Movements in Kuchipudi do not have common central position around which the technique is built. A semi-sitting position with knees bent and moved apart is used most often, but it is not the most important stylistic characteristic of Kuchipudi as in Bharata Natyam style. But as in Bharata Natyam, the movements in Kuchipudi are repeated from both sides of the body. There is an elegant and at the same time elastic up-and-down movement in Kuchipudi when a dancer constantly shifts the centre of gravity, feet contact with ground also changes constantly: at one moment a straight leg touches the floor, at another a heel does the same, now it is a toe, now a side surface of a foot slightly stamps on the floor.

The movement forward with toes of both feet crossed is a typical gait for Kuchipudi executed under a certain rhythm. Kuchipudi is a very vigorous and "jumpy" dance form. A piquant slowed down pace which can often be found in other dance traditions is of rare occurrence in Kichipudi. Even abhinaya (excerpts of meaning) does not last in an unhurried rhythm for long.

The rhythm of a song and the rhythmic pattern of lyrics are as a rule easy to remember and fill the dance with mighty and vibrating energy. The dance-music correlations are less structured then in

7 | P a g e https://thebatmenbegins.wordpress.com/ other dance traditions, usually one line of a verse and music is repeated in various rhythmic variations. For instance, in Krishna Shabdam and Tarangam (certain dance compositions) such a repeat provides a greater expression of dance mood, and a dancer in fact presents a whole story woven out of pantomime and rhythm in a tala cycle (a unit of rhythm in Indian musical system).

A cheerful way a dancer walks into a stage and a graceful springy gait when she leaves the stage holding a long plait decorated with flowers in her left hand are characteristic features of Kuchipudi. When a traditional drama is performed, the main characters are presented in the following way: two people come out into the stage holding a curtain (tera) and a dancer hides behind it, only her plait is visible and the spectators try to guess who there is. Only in a Bhama Kalapam solo performance the main characters are presented in such a way.

Since there are not many records left of the ancient Kuchipudi, we only know the names of some of the most popular dancers. They are Hari Madhavja (XV century), brothers Chinta Venkatratnam and Chinta Ventkatramaya (1860-1949), Tadepalli Peraya Shastri (1886-1942) and Vedantam Lakshminarayana Shastri (1875-1957). Tadepalli Peraya Shastri is said to often act as Sutradhara (a presenter) and a Vidhushaka (a joker) in Atta Bhagavatams, a traditional devadasi Kuchipudi performance, thus proving there is a cooperation of two parallel traditions.

Guru Vedantam Lakshminarayana Shastri was the first to start training devadasis. Thus, his is the merit that women were again permitted to dance Kuchipudi. Solo numbers in Kuchipudi also appeared due to Guru Vedantam Lakshminarayana Shastri. Nowadays a solo performance in Kuchipudi contains elements not connected with each other, some of them being independent parts from long plays. For concert programs of single dancers all these elements (numbers) are grouped according to the theme of the performance.

The name of Guru Vedantam Lakshminarayana Shastri is known not only to Kuchipudi dancers, among his pupils were many acknowledged dancers from other schools: Balasarasvati, Gouri Ammal, Ram Gopal and Tara Choudhuri, all of them in their time sought his teaching in Chennai (former Madras). He was the main guru of Vempati Chinna Satyam who later on achieved recognition for Kuchipudi not only in India but also all around the world. Guru Vedantam Lakshminarayana Shastri also tought S.R. Acharyala who became a Kuchipudi teacher in Mrinalini Sarabhai Academy in Ahmedabad. Nataraj Ramakrishna who renewed several old devadasi dance traditions such as Janardhana Parijatam belonging to Andhra Natyam tradition, also studied at Lakshminarayana Shastri. His outstanding contribution to the preserving of the Kuchipudi cultural tradition was highly appraised and he was awarded with Simhatalamu (a chased golden bracelet) when he was 68 years old already. The eminent cultural workers of Chennai gave him the Balagopala Tarangama performed by a female dancer Samrajama as a present. In its time Tarangam for the first time staged by Guru Vedantam Lakshminarayana Shastri surprised spectators. This dance is a measure of high level of mastery for a Kuchipudu dancer because it is executed on the edges of a brass plate while beating complex and tangled rhythm with feet.

In spite of the fact that such Gurus as Chinta Narayanamurti, Yelesvarupa Narayanappa, Vedantam Raghvaya, Chinta Venkatramaya and Lakshminarayana Shastri were experts in Strivesham (the art of performing female roles), starting 1950s female dancers began firmly taking their place in the Kuchipudi tradition. In his article on Guru Lakshminarayana Shastri’s award, Mohan Khokar wrote that the Minister of Finance of India B. Goppala Reddi said in his speech that Kuchipudi would have no future if women were not allowed to dance performance.

8 | P a g e https://thebatmenbegins.wordpress.com/ The caste barrier was also broken. In Nuzvida, S.R. Acharyala trained Korada Narasimha Rao who did not belong to traditional Kuchipudi families. Korada Narasimha Rao who later studied at great guru Lakshminarayana Shastri became famous for his bright and convincing performance of demon Bhasmasura. Besides, Korada was the first partner of the acknowledged Bharata Natyam female dancer Indrani Rehman. This duo marked the beginning of the "pair" trend in Kuchipudi which is still popular today. The examples of such pairs are such famous dancers as Radja and Radha Reddi, Narasimhachari and Vasantha Lakshmi, Vanashri and Jarayama Rao and many other tandava-lasya duos which participants are not necessary married.

For the first time in 1955 two female dancers Mohana and Samanti presented two numbers in the Kuchipudi style at the National Dance Festival in Sangit Natak Academy in Mumbai (former Bombay). At that time Kuchipudi was not acknowledged as a true classic dance tradition that’s why their numbers were announced as "Kuchipudi-Bharata Natyam" compositions. Even in 1958 at Sangit Natal Academy Festival there still was not a special place for Kuchipudi and the only Kuchipudi dancer was Kanchamala who demonstrated a small fragment of dance. Only in 1959 The Music Academy in Andhra Pradesh with support from Bandhi Kanakalingeshvara Rao, Ayanka Tandava, Lanka Suryanarana Shastri and Ramakottai organized a seminar in support of the idea to recognize Kuchipudi as an independent dance form equally with other classic styles of dance. This resulted in the opening of Siddhendra Kalakshetra Kuchipudi’s branches in Elluru and Gudivat. Yakshagana named "Abhijnana Shakuntalam" presented at the seminar by Sampatkumar and Kumar Sambhavam convinced such connoisseurs of dance as E. Krishna Iyer, Damayanti Josti and Nayna Jhaveri that Kuchipudi quite deserved to be considered a classic dance tradition.

Later the famous Raja and Radha Reddi who by the way did not belong among the traditional Kuchipudi families either, founded several quite prosperous dance schools. The great Yamini Krishnamurti demonstrated the art of Kuchipudi almost in every corner of the world by virtuosic performing Bhama Kalapam and Krishna Shabdam. Her teacher Guru Chinta Krishnamurti said not without pride that Kuchipudi had seen its new "star" hour thanks to Yamini. As a result of all these events the village of Kuchipudi proved not to be able to accommodate the dance tradition that acquired new perspectives, that’s why many teachers fixed their eyes on Chinnai, the cultural capital of India and the place of flourishing of the film industry. Dancers were mostly women then. They paced proudly with moustaches on portraying typical male characters of Yakshagana: demons Hiranyakashipa, Jarasandhi, Bali and even Bhasmasura everywhere besides village Kuchipudi. But the city demanded new roles and spectators saw the images of Divine Rama, Krishna and Shrinivasa performed in a soft and delicate way due to the new interpretation by female dancers. Thus Kuchipudi has drawn a full circle in its development.

Today men playing female parts are very rare. Even such Kuchipudi veteran as Vedantam Satyanarayana prefers demonstrating strivesham in usual male clothes limiting him with the make-up necessary for the role. Vedantam Venkatachalapati, the son of the deceased Guru Vedantam Rattaya Sharma, while playing male and female parts allowed himself a wider scope for creative self-realization than his uncle Satyanarayana Sharma who specialized exclusively on female parts. Only Pasumarthi and Yelesvarupa Shrinisvan still dance exclusively female parts, but today there are so many female Kuchipudi dancers that necessity for men to take on woman appearance has almost fallen away. In spite of the fact that the most part of traditional Kuchipudi training takes place in towns, Siddhendra Kalakshetra located in Kuchipudi village still works and the process of study there requires greater efforts of teachers and students.The appearance of a more sophisticated version of dance in the Kuchipudi tradition owes a debt to Guru Vempati Chinna Satyam and his Kuchipudi Art Academy in Chennai within the walls of which the most part

9 | P a g e https://thebatmenbegins.wordpress.com/ of modern dancers of this style "grew up". Many of the Kuchipudi Art Academy graduates later on founded their own schools in India as well as abroad, for instance: Shobha Naidu, Ratna Kumar, Kamala Reddi, Sasikala, Kalpalatika, Anuradha Neru, Anuradha Jonnalageda, Manju Bhargavi and Guru Vempatti Chinna Satyama’s son Vempati Ravi.

The result of close cooperation of several years' standing among Vempati Chinna Satyam and poet Bhujanga Sharma and composer P. Sangita Rao was the staging of a great number of dance dramas first in India and then abroad. Thus, Guru Vempati Chinna Sayam holds the merit of spreading the Kuchipudi dancing tradition all over the world.

Vempati was an innovator in everything. He unconditionally supported female dancers playing male parts, because he felt that men playing female parts had lost its actuality. For the first time in the Kuchipudi history he started to use such beautiful ragas (musical compositions) as Mohan, Muhari, Bhayaravi and Kamboji and also some ragas not belonging to Karnatik tradition as a musical accompaniment to his dance dramas. Besides he brought many elements of the technique to perfection due to which the complexity of their executing has increased. It was Guru Vempati who insisted on using vachika-abhinaya in dance (synchronization of a dancer’s lips with lyrics), which is a characteristic feature of Kuchipudi today and distinguishes it from other classic dance forms. If before Vempati Chinna Satyam satvika-abhinaya was mostly used when a dancer had to take full possession of his emotions and express them in minimal but rather intensive motions, then due to Vempati it became possible to use angika-abhinaya when all body serves for expressing emotions.

Many experts in the field of the art of dance still treat Vempati Chinna Satyam’s phenomenon ambiguously, ones honour him beyond all measure and the others on the contrary criticize him. But nevertheless, everyone recognizes that without him Kuchipudi would not exist in the form it is known today.

Bharatanatyam Style

Bharata Natyam is a subtle and complex form of dance art from state Tamilnad. This is a dynamic, earthly and very clear dance style. Its distinctive features are variety of motions with emphasis on foot stamping, jumps and turns. The main figures are balanced poses with stretched hands and legs that add certain linearity to the dance. Beauty and power, slow-downs and speed-ups, pure dance and pantomime are equally felt in this dance. This style is equally good both for solo and group performance.

Professional dancers deeply understand the ideological and philosophical content of Indian myths and legends, and besides they possess a perfect command of the technique. The ability to transfer various forms of a poetical text is a real test for a dancer's mastery. She/he plays the role of the main heroine of the play and portrays her various states. A dancer must be a really creative and inspired person to be able to express the finest nuances of feelings. A dancer's mastery in rendering the dance contents on different semantic levels attracts the audience attention. In a solo performance the individuality of interpretation depends on a dancer's age, training level, artistic taste, experience, knowledge and talent.

There is a widely spread opinion that the name Bharata Natyam means "Indian dance". This misunderstanding originates in how this style from state Tamilnad is generally accepted in both India and abroad. However, the devoted admirers of this style notice that the name appeared not longer than fifty years ago. Earlier it was first known as sadir kacheri (sadir stands for a dancer, kacheri

10 | P a g e https://thebatmenbegins.wordpress.com/ stands for spectators), then as chinnamela (a small audience in contrast to periyamela - a large audience), and then as dasiatta that derived from devadasis (female dancers) who performed the dance. The more probable version says that Bharata consists of the first syllables of the following words: bhava (feeling), raga (melody) and tala (rhythm) and quasi unites the three pillars on which the style is based. There is another version according to which Bharata Natyam that firmly sticks to the behests of Natya Shastra got its name after sage Bharata the author of this ancient book.

Bharata Natyam traces its roots back to Hinduism and more specifically to Hindu myths and rituals. This especially manifests itself in the texts chosen for performance, in sculptural portrayals of dancers in ancient Hindu temples and in the very philosophy of this dance style. The sculptures in the south Indian temples tell us that both music and dance were given to people by Gods and Goddesses.

That's why it is quite obvious that the spiritual meaning of Bharata Natyam can not be ignored. Hinduism is called "a live religion". In every myth there is a moral that simply teaches the ethics of everyday life and its connection with the transcendental. Events develop on a very simple human level that has led to a certain simplification in dance performance. Under such interpretation the sublime may seem quite materially-minded.

Up to the beginning of the XX century the dance had been the integral part of a temple ceremony. According to a tradition a local ruler or highest officials patronized the temple. A dancer, her guru and their musicians were highly respected and supported by the temple. During religious processions a dancer walked in front of a horse-drawn vehicle with the idol of a deity. She was perfectly acquainted with the temple ritual, the rules of offerings and prayers and played a significant role of tributes carrier to the image of a deity.

A female dancer was revered as the god's wife and her most important duty was the participation in ceremonies connected with his cult. That reminded the status of high priestesses in temples of Ancient Greece. She was called a devadasi, a maidservant. The dance itself besides complex ritual ceremonies used to be also performed on other occasions in the right time under favorable circumstances for instance on occasion of a festival, the crowning and marriage ceremonies, birth of a son or entering a new town or a house. Territories around temples were considered the only comfortable place where people could gather to see the dance. A dancer herself was a rich and respected person.

During the British reign the dance starts to lose its ritual purpose. Devadasis started to dance at princes' courts and in the houses of rich landlords. Poets in their flowery style glorified the greatness of their patrons and dancers danced to the lyrics. A temple dancer turned into a court dancer and often used to have a bad reputation. The complicated political situation in the country and the new understanding of social and cultural values presented by educated and prosperous Indians adversely affected their attitude to the art of dance. The social status of a dancer declined, the shadow was cast upon the very art and for many years the public was deprived of the pleasure to enjoy Bharata Natyam.

Perhaps it the threat of Bharata Natyam's complete disappearance that caused the scope of the movement for the revival of the dance and the returning of its one-time glory. Balasarasvati and Rajalakshmi's initiative was taken up by Rukmini Devi and I. Krishna. The music academy in Madras made the major contribution to the cause of the

11 | P a g e https://thebatmenbegins.wordpress.com/ dance revival and put the area for public performances at Balasarasvati' disposal. The excessive erotic bias was soon equalized, good taste and aesthetic delicacy returned to Bharata Natyam performance. The first public Rukmini Devi's performance in 1935 marked the irreversibility of return to the past.

Bharata Natyam is a many-facet kind of art. It includes music, poetry, the art of drama and pantomime. While considering the most important aspect of dance, nritta (pure dance), first and foremost the body and hands positions and a dancer's movements in combination with the musical context must be taken into account. Rhythm, the main constituent part of the dance, interweaves with melody, that's why it is important to know what music and what rhythms accompany nritta. Nritta is the heart of the dance style while nritya is its soul. Melody, rhythm and lyrics are its constant accompaniment and the source of inspiration.

According to "Abhinaya Darpana" which Bharata Natyam's followers still firmly stick to, there are ten basic body positions. However, nattuvanaras (dance teachers) do not often use Sanskrit terms and prefer to use simpler Tamil terminology in class. That's why instead of ayata they use araimandi that simply means "semi-sitting" in Tamil language. Just the same muramandi means "fully sitting"; this is the squatting position when a dancer sits on tiptoes with her knees moved apart. Out of this position a dancer moves into motita when knees touch the floor in turns or into parshvasuchi when one knee rests against the floor, or into samasuchi when both knees rest against the floor. Guru and dancers can interpret and execute these positions in different ways. However, merely visual perception of the basic positions gives a clear idea of the stylistic limits of this dance. This is the main structure within which a dancer works.

The system of arranging adavas, a row of static poses connected with each other in a certain way tocreate a motion, was for the first time legibly formulated about forty years ago. Teaching them was casual, the things still remaining as they are in some schools. Dancers often studied the subject as a whole considering each motion separately only when they came across in choreography. The absence of well written manuals and teachers' excessive haste to finish the course now leads to the situation when students master the ABC of the style insufficiently. As a result dancers often have a rather vague idea of the structure of the dance style. Fortunately, nowadays gurus have started to systematize their syllabuses thus allowing the students of various schools using them.

Rukmini Devi was the first classifier in Bharata Natyam training. She worked out her own system of "developing adavu" so that a student was able to move from simple movements to more complex ones gradually: from static figures to the ones performed in motion; from the motions performed in araimandi to the motions in more complex positions, then move to turns and jumps and finally to the figures with a very complex combination of hands' and legs' positions. Her contribution to Bharata Natyam training is immeasurably great; the variety of motions and figures in this dance style owes a lot to her talent and creative genius.

During the process of study it is very important to stick to the system when a student masters every motion by going through three speeds in its performance. It gives her the feeling of balance and allows mastering the basic rhythm on the initial phase of study.

The combination of figures in dance allows quick changing of the direction in body motion. Some figures seem dynamic, the others seem soft; some figures are performed on-site in the rhythm of dance, the others fall out of it; some positions provide more freedom to move asides, the others are performed with a certain purpose of moving into the front from the back of the stage. Jumps and turns allow carrying out the motions on the floor and the whole stage space. All this gives choreographer rich opportunities for arranging various compositions. A good dancer is able to effectively dance even a short nritta combination. A performance of longer combinations does not prove a dancer's mastery but rather is the evidence of her stamina and self-control.

12 | P a g e https://thebatmenbegins.wordpress.com/ Bharata Natyam is based on the karnatak musical system and its rhythmic cycles or talas. Musicalaccompaniment must contain rhythmic potential for the pure dance and the corresponding literary content for the plot dance. Mridangam, the main percussion instrument in south India has one body unlike the northern tabla that consists of two separate parts, with lower and higher registers; each one is played on with one hand. Syllables or rhythmic sounds of mridangam are distinctive characteristics of Bharata Natyam; they are pronounced or sung as an accompaniment to dance parts - nritta.

Like the notes in music have their names "sa-ri-ga-ma-pa-dha-ni", so the dance has its drumming syllables: tat-dhita, taka-dhimi, naka- djham, tadhin-djina etc. Various combinations of these phrases during their sounding add savour and expressiveness to the fragments of pure dance, nritta. Combinations of these phrases are called jatis. In every dance performance the virtuosity and mastery of nattuvanar are estimated by the correct arrangement of jatis into complex rhythmic figures in a certain timing loop.

The word tala derives from the word denoting "palm surface" by which the rhythm is beaten. There is a version about the word tala according to which it consists of the first syllables of two words: tandava and lasya that romantically means the junction of male and female principles or rhythm forms. There are seven talas. Each can use any of the five variants of jati that gives the total of 35 various talas.

In the past a dancer was accompanied by an orchestra placed behind her on stage. It consisted of one or two nattuvanars who played cymbals and sang songs, a boy whose only task was keeping up the monotonous sound or shruti (tone pitch) with the help of a small box, and a clarinetist. Clarinet once being rather popular was later replaced by flute. This was demanded by "Abhinaya Darpana" and this situation had preserved up to the 1920s when stage conditionality changed. In today's concerts musicians sit to the dancer's right closer to the front edge of the stage. The orchestra consists of a nattuvanar, a female singer, a tanpur player that replaced the primitive box shruti, a flutist, a violinist and a vina player.

Performers of Indian classic dances are very effective in their outward appearance. A Bharata Natyam dancer is not exclusion. She wears a bright costume and so many jewels that you hardly understand how she simply moves let alone dancing enthusiastically.

A dancer's hair is plaited with entwined flowers and ornaments. The traditional headdress consists of a long and flat hoop that envelopes the head and edges the face and two big hairpins on top of the head on both sides of the middle hair parting that symbolize the sun and the moon. These red and golden decorations look extremely advantageous against black hair. A dancer also puts on golden bracelets, small chains on hands, a necklace with a big pendant in the middle, a belt, foot bracelets and small bells. Similar decorations can be found with performers of other Indian classic dance forms. The metal used for decorations may vary depending on the dance style as well as the tracery and the stones used. In Bharata Natyam they use red, white and green gemstones framed in gold or gilded silver.

A dancer's costume is a rich sari from Kanchipuram. Kanchipuram is the town famous for its wonderful silk saris with a traditional ornamentation embroidered with golden thread along the edges. For stage performances contrasting colours are preferable so that the colour of the ornamentation could stand out against the background of a sari. Mustard-yellow, green and red colours are usually associated with Bharata Natyam dance.

13 | P a g e https://thebatmenbegins.wordpress.com/ A sari is worn in different ways; its length is as a rule a little below calves. Costumes imitating sari are in fashion now. Thanks to the costume a dancer looks neat and gets rid of the necessity to wind six yards of thick material around her.

Odissi Style

Odissi, the classic dance from state Orissa developed in the temple atmosphere. This is a lyrical dance style; it has rules of body motions completely different from other dance forms. Its main quality is elegance; its aesthetics is built on close connection of poetry and music.

The state of Orissa can fully be proud of having experienced numerous cultural influences. In differentperiods of its history representatives of various races and beliefs conquered this land and contributed to the blending of ideas, notions and religions. The location of state on the eastern coast of the central India was the reason for the waves of cultural and historical influence which in their turn caused the appearance of a completely unique philosophy of Jagannath. Like in other regions of India, religious philosophy determined the development of arts; the dance initially took refuge in the cult complex. Even today all celebrations in Orissa cannot do without dance and music.

The temples of Orissa dedicated to Shiva store numerous complexes in tracery and wonderfully manufactured carved panels which contents are indicative of the strong wave of shivaism that overflowed Orissa in times of Shankaracharya’s mission. Facades of many monuments of this period are decorated with images of Nataraja and other incarnations of Shiva and his son Ganesha. In Mukteshvar temple you can see Shiva’s image in the tandava position. There also occur images of musicians but not in static poses: you feel rhythm and joy in their motions. These images are connected with the plasticity of modern Odissi by perceptible threads.

Kings who ruled Orissa in the period between VIII and XI centuries were called gandharva Kesari and nritya Kesari. They quite obviously considered it a matter of honor to reach the heights in the arts of dance and music. It is in this period that the writings about devadasis or women dedicated to serve a deity were carved in Bhubaneshvar temple. Apparently devadasis played an important role in a temple ritual. During bhog they were to dance since the first twilight till god Jagannath, the Puri temple deity, went to bed.

Jagannath’s temple in Puri, Odissi’s stronghold, was built by the kings of Gang dynasty who ruled for more than four centuries and acted as mighty patrons of art, architecture and religion. By that time the Vishnuist philosophic system of Ramanudji had spread all around the country. Nevertheless, the shivaist ceremonies were not forgotten.

Jagannatha’s dharma absorbs all the differences. It is believed to be a mixture of more than fifteen religious and cultural trends. Perhaps it was Chodaganga himself who built Jagannath’s temple and invited maharis, experienced dancers, to perform in the temple. He is famous in Orissi for his passion for fine arts. It is important to know that Nataraja and the dancing Ganesha neighbor with the numerous images narrating about Krishna’s life. This acknowledges the point of view that the cult of Jagannath admitted such synthesis of vishnuit and shivaist traditions.

14 | P a g e https://thebatmenbegins.wordpress.com/ In the wonderful Temple of the Sun in Konarak built in XIII century with its Nata Mandapa or the Dance Hall, probably the most complex in implementation in all India series of sculptures picturing dance is preserved. This is the place of pilgrimage for all dancers and art lovers. Apparently the Hall was used for dancing performances in gods’ honor; the temple in Konarak is believed to have invited a great number of dancers. The whole temple complex is built in the shape of the sun god’s chariot harnessed with seven wonderful horses. Sculptures dedicated to dance are especially numerous in Nata Mandapa; its proximity to the sea emphasizes the unearthly beauty of the Dance Hall.

In about XV century in the reign of the Surya dynasty, abhinaya or dramatically expressive dance appeared in Orissa. It was then that Orissa reached the top of glory in the fields of art and literature. Ray Ramamand a minister at the court of Prataparudradeva was himself busy in training devadasis. He saw that dances based on "Gita-Govinda" be performed carefully and emotionally.

In XV century Maheshvar Mohapatra being at court of Narayanadeva wrote his book "Abhinaya Chandrika". This laborious research paper of Odissi even today is considered necessary for studying this dance style.

By XVI century there had been three types of dancers in Orissi: maharis in temples, nachuni at royal court and gotipuas in akhadas (halls) who performed before public. Only maharis were admitted to the inner sacred chambers of a temple. Their tradition was strictly observed, there existed tough rules of behavior and etiquette for them. They entered a simple marriage with a "deity" and thus their service to it began. Their ritual dances were performed in the atmosphere of a lofty devotion. However, later lust of the ruling circles and British powers led to degeneration of this kind of art, its religious elements lost their meaning, it turned into a mere means of entertainment for the royal court. Many temples were completely abandoned.

In the period of religious revival in XVII century temples again started to be patrons of art. But maharis were gradually disappearing; they were replaced by gotipuas, boys dressed as girls with the necessary physical training in akhadas. They performed Bandha Nritya consisted of complex statuesque poses and bows. Rich landlords favored gotipua companies who traveled across the state in groups and entertained the public. Their virtuosity was based on the flexibility of their almost gymnastic style. However, later the simplicity of their dance was stained by the wave of vulgarization that touched both their costumes and stage manner. As soon as they started making compromise their social status reduced and gradually they became a tribe of dying out artists. But for justice' sake it should be noted that they had always been good singers and dancers and in spite of social and political storms of the XVII century when stagnation reigned in all fields of art, it was gotipuas who saved the basis for the future revival of the ancient tradition.

By the beginning of the ХVII century the mahari tradition had significantly weakened and had completely disappeared by the 1940s of the last century. Nachunis disappeared in the XIX century. Only gotipuas left and it was their reconstituted repertoire that became the background for the new style. The followers of the revival considered the refined variant of gotipua’s repertoire, "Abhinaya Chandrika" and numerous poses of dancers in Odissi temples as a yardstick to authenticity.

15 | P a g e https://thebatmenbegins.wordpress.com/ It is better not to compare styles of Indian classic dance with each other. Each has its own charm and beauty. They have different techniques, different history, different manner of plot presenting, different emotional colors, they influence views in different ways, but in spite of all that some scientists and writers can’t wait to start comparing them. Its own unusual charm, the harmony of movement lines are inherent with Odissi, it is a very "sculptural" dance style.

The Odissi technique is based on chouka, a position when hands and legs are bent at right angles, with elbows and knees moved apart. It is a male position by its character; the body weight is distributed equally between both legs. You can see the same pose in the image of Jagannath in Puri temple; perhaps it reflects the balanced, overwhelming and universal nature of god Jagannath’s dharma. This is samabhanga or a balanced position.

The second important position is abhanga when the body weight is shifted on one leg, the other leg is bent in a knee in a standing or semi-sitting position.

The next position is tribhanga when a body is bent three times in such a way that lines of arms and legs form triangles. The body line is broken in knees, waist and neck. Hands, ankles and legs form triangles of different sizes. This is the most interesting pose in Odissi. This is the unbalanced figure which is not only hard to achieve but also requires of a dancer to have great self-restrain and self-control if she wants to execute it in a beautiful and nice way. There is something airy about it and unlike chouka it is very feminine. When tribhanga is performed without proper attention it produces a terrible impression for it emphasizes the forms of a female body exaggeratedly up to the extent of ugliness. Tribhanga is represented in sculptural portrayals of female figures and like sculpture is based on Hinduism conception of iconography. Music in Odissi is very lyrical, tribhanga as if naturally flows into its mood or melodic pattern. In most other dance styles the shifting of body weight from one leg upon another is forbidden, but this triple bends are the very essence of the style.

Then come padabhedas or the leg positions: sama, kumbha, dhanu, maha, eka, lolita, nupura, suchi, ashrita, trasya and rekha. Combinations of body and legs positions give birth to a variety of basic positions exceeding the ordinary supply of other styles. What is unusual about legs position is that a dancer sometimes touches the floor with only a heel or a toe. Chali or gait is the way of movement on stage. Every chali is pretty complex; they differ in speed of performance and meaning. The dance portrays numerous variants of a female gait; it is compared with the gait of different animals more often with that of a swan, a peacock, a deer and an elephant.

Bhumi, the way of movement on stage is closely connected with padabheda or legs positions, and bhangi - body poses that were mentioned above. Bhumi is also a part of the stage around a dancer. Legs move in a certain way and draw a circle, a square or a semicircle. Legs step forth out of the central point and asides so that the drawn circle becomes larger. There was an opinion that drawing circles and squares in a dancer’s movements goes back to Tantric cults that were once strong in Orissa. A circle and a square have a great meaning in Tantra. However, future dancers studying Odissi do not meditate on the bhumi meaning aiming only at learning the movements and often do not suspect of the possible explanation.

16 | P a g e https://thebatmenbegins.wordpress.com/ In Odissi legs also have several unusual movements. First of all there are certain points on the floor around the dancer where he/she puts his/her foot on. Legs move sideways, the knees are moved far apart. Before placing a foot on the floor a dancer often raises it a little with a toe pulled down or raises it up high without bending. A circular movement is possible when a foot is put on the floor from one side and the body follows it in the same wavy way. This is an especially thrilling moment in dance. A dancer often puts a leg forth then raises it and carries it backwards in a spiral movement. A dancer sometimes switches to heels with toes raised and goes backwards in this position while making circular movements with arms.

Brahmaris are turns or circular movements around a vertical axis. Ekapada brahmari is a special figure when a dancer makes a full turn on one leg in chouka or tribhanga positions with a foot of one leg raised to the knee level of the other leg, in the front or in the back. This turn is performed clockwise or counterclockwise.

The peculiarity of Odissi is in the direct correspondence of body movements with the positions and movements of the lower parts of body. Legs hold the moving body firmly, hips are motionless. The upper part of the body makes soft wavy movements in a vertical position; the head is inclined to the side opposite to the body all the time thus producing a very beautiful, lyrical and spectacular effect. The meaning of this movement in Odissi is often underestimated, a very reserved movement of the upper part of body, especially its back turns into the movement of hips that is highly unaesthetic though easier to perform. It is this body movement that gives Odissi its special nuance. It is only in brahmari or during turns that the body moves horizontally.

In nritya or Odissi plot dance, hastas render songs’ meaning and decorate fragments of pure dance. In every classic dance especially in Kathakali, Bharata Natyam and Odissi the hastas described in "Abhinaya Darpana" are widely spread. However, dancers of each style and especially in Kathakali and Odissi also stick to their own apocryphal texts and an Odissi dancer follows "Abhinaya Chandrika" by Maheshvar Mohapatra.

In Odissi they use several hastas described in "Abhinaya Chandrika", and the hastas completely different from those that occur in Bharata Natyam or Kathakali. These hastas still exist today and are passed down orally from generation to generation.

Natya or the dramatic element of the dance existed in Orissa in the times when gotipuas played in jatra troupes. These troupes were supported by a local zemindar or a landlord. Their programmes were more like dramatized performances with dances where the plot was played by several dancers. Tradition of these dance dramas developed unevenly. Within last thirty years the most interest is shown in solo performances on stage. However, some gurus who had a lot of shishyas or pupils nevertheless found the way to preserve the tradition. Among them Guru Kelucharan Mohapatra should be noted who acted as choreographer of some numbers and also dance dramas "Kanchi Vidjai", "Gita Govinda", "Kishor Chandrananda Champu" and "Konarak Vidjai" where he used the classic technique, the respective orchestral accompaniment, several personages, costumes and change of decorations.

An Odissi dancer’s costume is a practical silk sari. Perhaps maharis used to wear it in a slightly different way, one cannot exclude that their clothes were decorated with multicoloured stones, but nowadays dancers have refused all this. Only the dancers who guard

17 | P a g e https://thebatmenbegins.wordpress.com/ the tradition make very little changes in costume. Ornaments are made of silver, though perhaps gold was used with the same purpose. A dancer’s head is decorated with mathamani, ears with kapas, wrists with bahichudi or tayita, there is a belt of fine work on her waist; small bells strung on one small strap are ringing on her ankles; on her neck there is a padaka-tilaka a necklace with a locket.

Besides, Odissi dancers erect themselves a quite complex hair bun decorated with tahiya, a miniature portrayal of temple gopura (tower); garlands of flowers are entwined into hair. Besides a standard make-up that performers of classic dance use, an Odissi dancer applies gorachan on her brows, a line that is drawn along a brow down to a cheek-bone with chandan (sandal paste). And finally, red liquid alta is sprayed on palms and feet.

Nowadays an Odissi dancer is usually accompanied by a musician playing mardala or pakhawaj, a flutist and a singer. Mardala is a traditional drum played by a guru who beats bolas and pronounces drum syllable formulae out loud accompanying to the fragments of the pure dance. Manjiras or small brass cymbals used to keep the subtle nuances of the rhythmic accompaniment are also used effectively. According to tradition maharis used to sing by themselves, but as a result of the dance moving on stage and into big halls this mission was taken upon by a professional singer. Nowadays an Odissi dancer is sometimes accompanied by a sitarist instead of a more customary in the past violinist, who appeared as a result of the influence of the neighbouring Karnatak. However, more often among all instrumentalists a flutist is invited.

The dance is the expression of a person’s joy by means of movement. When this pure expression and the liberated freedom are enclosed into classic frames, they must firmly stick to certain technical rules. The richest means of this technique lie at the basis of Odissi, there are a lot of rules written in texts or passed down orally. Legs positions, foot standing on a heel or a toe, the body position, the body bending, the plasticity of movement and the gait all together form a splendid sight. These are very stylized, subtle and elegant movements making an impression that a dancer constantly makes poses to bring joy to eyes and cause aesthetic pleasure.

Kathak Style

'Katha kahey so kathak kahaye', which means one who tells a story in a dance form is a Kathak. In India the heroes and heroines of both folk and classic art are gods and goddesses, kings and queens. Since ancient times stage performances of legends with their participation have been the most popular form of public entertainment. A narrator or actor soon became a real artist who constantly improved his mastery in recitation, singing and dance. Occupation in these kinds of art was handed down from generation to generation and could win fame and respect for performer and his family.

With time the art of narration assumed various spectacular shapes and developed into folk and classic dramas, both being the expression of joys and troubles in life. A classic drama, submitted to the laws of the conventional sign language portrayed different sides of human character with deep understanding. A professional narrator was a big connoisseur of scriptures and mythology, of beliefs and customs, of country legends and local stories. He enlivened his art with poetry and songs that expressed passion growing into abhinaya, a performance of an episode in a vivid and thrilling manner by using facial expression. Quite naturally

18 | P a g e https://thebatmenbegins.wordpress.com/ out of this a new art form sprung out and soon Kathaks became known as experienced musicians and dancers.

According to a legend they were so skillful in their art that at times a Kathak actor could keep a whole village in suspense by telling a story and using a scarf as the only accessory. By winding the scarf around his head he became a brave hero of the narration; by changing a pose and tying the scarf around his waist he turned into a treacherous malefactor; when he gracefully covered his head with it he became a beautiful young heroine; if he waved the scarf over his head it looked like he really rode a black stallion.

Narration was the basic element; celebrations with music and dances were organized on a village square or in a temple on such occasions as marriage, birth of a child or a festival. With time the temple ceased to serve as the main dance center. Social-economic factors always influenced the development of all art forms and it is especially noticeable on Kathak example.

The flowering of the cult of Vishnu in the northern India in XV century and the religious movement of Bhakti that followed it, led to the appearance of brand new poetical and musical forms. Bhakti is the religious movement with deep social meaning. It reflected the common people’s rejection of the Brahmans’ Hinduism with its exclusive rituals, obscure sacred texts written in Sanskrit and its strict hierarchy. The movement gave life to a new school in poetry and music. For instance, Mirabai and Surdas wrote religiously inspired lyrics about melancholy and partings that expressed desire of a human soul for unity with God. A theme of Radha’s love for Krishna served as a metaphor for transmitting the meaning. The Radha-Krishna’s theme indeed became more and more popular and a rich constellation of its symbols penetrated into different dialects and languages. Thus in the place known as "Bradj" (Mathura in the western part of state Uttar- Pradesh) there appeared Raasleela as the combination of music, dance and narration which served to perform legends about Krishna, especially the Radha-Krishna theme and stories of Krishna’s rogueries with gopis or shepherdesses.

Although Kathak was a strong tradition of worshipping a deity in the Vishnu era, the Moguls’ invasion gave it a new impulse. A dancer moved from a temple patio into a palace hall and this entailed changes in the performance manner. The literary content gave its dominating role to the more attractive body motions. Drawing attention to erotic elements of dance was similar to a typical sensuality of new musical forms that also developed at that time to satisfy tastes of the royal court.

During the era of Mogul emperors’ reign khayal and dhrupad became the most popular musical forms. As it cleared out, thumri, gazel and bhadjan suited well for transmitting emotions. Kathak traces its roots back to kirtanas, i.e. musical compositions used in Raas-lila, and also to the kirtanas of Dhruvapad School which were performed by singers as a part of a religious ritual in temples. The fact that these traditions still exist today is the eloquent evidence of the atmosphere of understanding and tolerance during the Mogul reign.

The era of the great flowering of Kathak falls on the years of Vadjid Ali Shah’s reign, the last nabob of Avadha. Being a poet, a dancer and a musician himself, Vadjid Ali Shah was a subtly feeling person whose Muslim education did not prevent him in any way from appreciating properly the Krishna’s theme in the art. It was under his patronage that the Lucknow gharana school of Kathak style was established.

Graceful motions, subtle bhava (expressiveness) and the use of the most complex rhythmic patterns are characteristics of Lucknow gharana. Technical virtuosity and splendor combine with refinement in

19 | P a g e https://thebatmenbegins.wordpress.com/ portraying moods and emotions. With time gharana was enriched with numerous compositions created by masters of the school. Bols or rhythmic words of percussion instruments (tabla and pakhawaj) are rendered in dance motions most thoroughly, but the main peculiarity of the school is the use of the expressive means of dance.

Another patron king of Kathak was Rajah Chakradhar Singh from Reigarh (state Madhya-Pradesh). He favored the development of different gharanas including schools in Lucknow and Jaipur. Jaipur gharana is notable for its bewitching rhythms; all masters of this school were the most skillful performers on tabla and pakhawaj. The basis of motions of Kathak dancers laid in tempo and rhythmic complexity of such a degree that they often overshadowed the beauty of the motion. In spite of the heightened interest in the unbelievably fast and complex pure dance with elements of rivalry (in opposition to expressive dance) Jaipur gharana gave life to an important angh or a constituent part of the Kathak narrative tradition – kavittoda which is lyrics in the form of a stylized singing alternating with rhythmic drum insertions. Among the followers of Jaipur gharana are Hari Prasad and Hanuman Prasad, the latter’s performance of bhadjanas (religious poems) became a legend.

Although the successors to the two main Kathak traditions keep the distinctive features of the directions there are no strict borders among gharanas. The creative works of great masters influenced both schools. One shouldn’t wonder if only a real Kathak connoisseur is able to notice the difference in styles and interpretations.

The third important Kathak School is Banaras Gharana which is also called Janakiprasad gharana named after its founder. The basis of Banaras Gharana is in dance syllable formulae (either pronounced orally or beaten on tabla). They are used for the scenes of pure dance performed in a mid tempo with emphasis on accuracy and elegancy. The absence of such zealous keepers of traditions as temples, led to a strong dependence of each generation on the personality of one guru or a certain family. This caused the periods of quick growing and swift declines of the style.

Thus by the end of the XIX century Kathak had firmly rooted itself as the only dance form in the northern India. Covering the states of Madhja-Pradesh, Kashmir, Bihar and Gujarat, its popularity went far beyond the boarders of Uttar-Pradesh and Rajasthan where it appeared. The royal court deprived the temple of the privilege to be the center of art patronage what meant the liberation from the frames of temple rituals, and this in its turn favored the development of Kathak into a relatively flexible style of classic dance.

A Kathak female dancer appeals directly to the audience. In an evening show she performs a series of traditional numbers each requiring high technique and self-control. What amazes you is the masterly performance of slow and elegant motions which are sometimes so insignificant that an inattentive onlooker may not notice them, and as a contrast you are also amazed by unbelievably fast and vigorous footwork and pirouettes. On the one hand there is peace and harmony; on the other hand there is vortex and magic of the style.

Pure dance plays the main part in Kathak. Unlike in other classic Indian dances a Kathak dancer does not move her bent knees out forth or asides, and there are no deep body bows. In Kathak the Nritta or pure dance is the expression of pure joy from motion and an easily recognizable self-abandonment in rhythm. With small bells or ghunghrus on his/her ankles a dancer starts to beat a whole row of rhythmic sounds and variations with feet. This ability is the fundamental part of the style.

In Kathak there is no strict order of representing a theme. During the performance improvisations usually appear with the changes in mood or subject. However, there exists an established set of compositions out of which a dancer can choose. They are arranged not in a certain order but according to a dancer’s desire.

20 | P a g e https://thebatmenbegins.wordpress.com/ In aamada (a Persian word literary meaning "to arrive") a dancer who sticks to the tradition performsslightly visible motions with hands and torso only under the accompaniment of tabla syllables taa thei thei tat-aa thei thei tat. Although aamad can be performed both fast and slow, it can be called a prelude to the following and more complex dances. At some moment in the past pakhawaj bols – dha taka thungaa were inserted into Kathak, and the motions under their accompaniment became more vigorous and perhaps a little more in a Tandava style, or male in its mood. The sounds of bols, or syllables of these different drums have the direct influence on Tandava or Lasya (male or female) dance styles, achieved by motions of a dancer’s feet.

The most thrilling moment in Kathak is the tremendous dancers’ virtuosity in executing paranas, tods and tukada, rhythmical compositions that require quickness, mobility and self-control. Paranas are pieces of pure dance performed in dhruta or fast tempo under the accompaniment of pakhawaja bols. They are harmonious and accurate compositions where quicksilver motions correspond with their mood. The terms toda and tukada are used to denote short fragments of rhythmic compositions which are usually ascribed to some great guru or acknowledged master of the style. They form a changeable pattern of a dance that ends in tihai, the cycle repeated for three times so that the final step and beat of the composition lands on the 'sam'. To approach sam and to mark it out as the main point of the cycle is a complex task that requires mathematical accuracy, and for students these numbers are the main subject of study. To understand and perform them is the achievement in itself. To perform them brilliantly one must work hard, be talented and have a deep understanding of rhythmic variety and meaning.

Toda and tukada form the most part of an evening show. The mastery of a good dancer is estimated by complexity and skillfulness of such compositions and by a dancer’s ability to effectively perform them. Tihai enters into a composition without being noticed, the way it is achieved is also the measure of mastery. A dancer ends tihai and stops the rotary motions on certain tact and in accurate pose. It is not easy to do that, taking into account the previous vortical movements. But at the same time, if motions are performed on a high level one will see a soft elegancy and triumph, rejoicing and joy.

Quicksilver footwork in paran, tukada and toda alternate with chakkara (rotation). A female dancer must perform repeated rotary movements in a fast tempo around the vertical axis. Outwardly this slightly reminds ballet's pirouettes. The Kathak technique also requires to place one foot along the central line of the body and to slightly raise the other one while executing the turns. Rich riyaz (experience) and mastery are required to perform these chakkaras. One can easily tell a good dancer from a bad one by the speed of turns, by continuation of the motions started in turns and by the feeling of balance necessary for the quick stop in the end. There can be a lot of pirouettes and a dancer often starts performing them on one place and then moves around the stage circle without stops. However, spectators are mostly impressed not by the quantity of turns but how at the end of a complex number of pure dance a dancer impeccably makes exactly three chakkaras and immediately freezes in a beautiful pose.

The word tatkaar is used to denote a motion when a dancer stamps his/her foot on the floor producing a sound that reminds "tat". A Kathak dancer improvises only with feet, it being known that no other style besides perhaps Spanish flamenco has ever reached such perfection. But even flamenco can hardly be compared with Kathak in terms of mathematical and rhythmical mastery.

21 | P a g e https://thebatmenbegins.wordpress.com/ Nowadays the complex footwork obviously distinguishes as the strongest and the most developed element of the style. However, it would be untrue to say that the art of pantomime is absent or limited in Kathak.

Facial expression in Kathak is the wonderful opposition to such south-Indian styles as Kathakali and Bharata Natyam where mimicry is stronger and more expressive. Refined manners characteristic of Kathak are its distinctive feature, though one must not consider them as the evidence that abhinaya is insignificant or is absent at all.

The method of "associative ideas" is widely spread in Kathak. When portraying a certain action a dancer only outlines the situation connected with it. The style has many interesting examples of using this method. For instance Shravan, the rain season, is portrayed by means of motions associated with the rainy weather. To completely understand this, a spectator must be acquainted with the customs and the landscape of the area where the idea was taken from. To portray the season of rains a female dancer looks in the sky as if she is frightened by dark clouds and lightning; she shows how it starts and keeps on raining, how a peacock dances happily; she plays a scene where a maiden who was rushing to meet her sweetheart gets wet and hides from the rain in a fright, and then a hero comes and tries to comfort her. The main idea is the same – the beginning of rain, but with the help of the associative ideas and motions a dancer pictures a row of actions and events from people’s lives.

The rhythm is the richest and the most expressive element in Kathak. Some of its fine points require great attention of a spectator. One may say that Layakari or a rhythmical virtuosity has developed into an extremely complex kind of art. Requirements claimed to a Kathak dancer are extremely high. New horizons are open, a change of ideas is undergoing, dancers have opened the riches of other gharanas, all this has gradually lead to the enrichment of the arsenal of their expressive means and widened frames for their creativity. Ways and methods of Jaipura and Lucknow gharanas can be found with the dancers of both traditions, this was impossible earlier. There is an impression that the blending of various elements in Kathak is taking place on every level. The mixture of Hindu and Muslim cultures in this style as if blessed Kathak and endowed it with a balanced approach and made it the most "natural" of all the Indian classic dances. Other classical styles either lack the Muslim cultural character or see its weaker manifestation. Self-abandonment and at the same time restraint are characteristic of Kathak. This underlines the brightness of the style and adds irresistible charm to it.

Kathakali Style

Kathakali is a bright dancing performance from the rich and fertile southern state of Kerala. It is the most colorful, sincere and passionate dance form in India. As an art of unique depth and human warmth it includes humorous comments that miss none of aspects of human life. It is far from being just a drama. Even when a Kathakali dancer plays a scene alone his poetical art creates imaginary space that acquires real boarders and stretches to the farthest horizons of the emotional.

Although in its present form Kathakali appeared in about XVII century its roots go back to various folk and dramatized forms of entertainment that appeared much earlier. Among them Chakiar Kothu, Kudiyattam, Krishnattam and Ramanattam had the most direct influence upon Kathakali. The sources of inspiration for it also were the ancient forms of hand-to-hand combat and folk traditions of Kerala.

22 | P a g e https://thebatmenbegins.wordpress.com/ Chakiar Kothu was a dramatized kind of art performed by only one caste – chakiaras. Their right to perform in temples of Malabar was passed down from generation to generation and only elite public was admitted to these strictly canonized performances to be sure take place on temple territory. A chakiar was a witty imitator; he played scenes from epic poems and puranas. He was accompanied by a namizhava, a big brass drum with a relatively small membrane, and by cymbals played on by a woman.

In state Kerala the drama was born in the form of Kudiyattam. A popular legend was performed by several actors together, one plot could be played for several days at that, and the art of mukha abhinaya (drama art) developed into a complex technique. Performances took place by night. Definite make-up colors and costumes started to be appointed to every character. The ruling Perumalas and later Kulashekhara, the king of Chera, patronized this kind of art.

Training and teaching in hand-to-hand combat in Kerala had the purpose of charging body and mind with energy by means of physical perfection. A beautiful military caste of nayaras devoted themselves to this. Like in the countries of the Far East battle methods were used here. But in spite that tools were used during trainings the purpose was physical training and self-defense. Young nayaras many of whom later reached the heights of mastery were trained in ksharis (gymnasiums) in a scientific method of body massage and vigorous exercises.

The rite of Krishnattam was developed in XVII century by a zamorin (a ruler) of Calcutta as an offering to Krishna. It used to be performed in Guruvayur temple or in zamorin’s temple. The text of the performance lasted for eight nights and was performed in Sanskrit. They say it was written under the influence of popular at that time "Gita-Govinda" by Jayadeva.

Soon after that Ramanattam a story about Rama appeared. It was composed by Raja Kottarakkara a commander from the southern Kerala. A legend says that he once asked a zamorin to lend him his troupe that performed Krishnattam but was refused. Being insulted he made up his mind to create a similar eight-day performance based on Krishna’s story of life. As far as it was performed not in Sanskrit as Krishnattam but in the Malayalam language, it soon left Krishnattam far behind in popularity. Pantomime and gesticulation were used in Ramanattam. The art of complex make-up developed, musicians were invited for the accompaniment, certain conditions for characterization of personages appeared. Soon plots started to include stories from "Mahabharata" and Puranas. This form of dance drama grew up, developed and got the name of Kathakali, literally a story-play.

Local kings and the land aristocracy were proud of being able to support their own troupes and generously helped to develop the new style. Among them the following can be marked out: Thampurana from Kottayama and some rulers from the Travankur dynasty such as Balarama Varma, Asvati Tirunal and Svati Tirunal Gama Varma. A poet Iraiman Thampi also made great contribution to the development of the genre in both his literary talent and monetary contributions. With a support like this the style flourished and widened its frames. Later with the gradual decline of the might of royal families, Kathakali began to give its way to more popular forms of entertainment; Kathakali actors could not support themselves any longer. Performances continued to take place in some areas but without the former scope. This kind of art was saved from a threatening and complete disappearance by a great poet Vallathol Narayana Menon who in 1930 founded the Center for preparation and training in Kathakali named Kerala Kala Mandalam.

It is impossible to overestimate Vallathol’s foresight. He invited many eminent teachers and actors to Mandalam among whom were such

23 | P a g e https://thebatmenbegins.wordpress.com/ leading figures as Ravunni Menon and Kunju Kurup. Thus Kathakali survived, got stronger and turned into a force one cannot but count with.

While watching Kathakali sometimes there is an impression that a dancer knows no oral language, so freely he possesses the sign language. This language together with quite complex and figurative use of mimicry is the essence of the style. A performer interrupts a dialogue with movements drawn from the pure dance but can also lead a ceaseless conversation with the help of gesticulation. Even when a hero thinks, plans or remembers something a dancer translates all this into gestures thus initiating spectators into a train of thought of a personage. A part of a dialogue may include lyrics written especially for the given hero or for the scene performed. The lyrics are sung by two singers in turn. A dancer interprets lyrics very thoroughly, first translating each word in a line for word into gestures and then varies the interpretation of the same line in order to include the situation, a reaction to the situation, possible consequences or results of this situation etc. Thus a relatively short poetic fragment is interpreted by a dancer in a rather wide way.

In order to freely transmit thoughts with the help of gestures and mimicry a Kathakali dancer must go through exhausting training that will teach him to creatively use body and mind abilities, will give him the skills necessary for the future work. Boys begin to study in gurukul (a school) at the age of ten and learn from sunrise till sunset. Every day professional masseurs massage the boys using special oils for muscles and joints relaxation, giving them elasticity necessary for dances of this style. This firstly painful massage followed by a bath taking is done daily during the whole period of learning that usually lasts till the boys are twenty years old. A dancer lies down on the floor and a masseur massages with his feet counting every muscle, joint or nerve. Legs, arms and in particular toes as well as all other parts of body are massaged. As a result a dancer senses every part of his body independently from other parts, and in the future he will be able to manage and use them on his own accord.

In the main Kathakali position knees must be moved apart to give body a wide basis. The back is arched and supports the body weight in free movements that are characteristic of the style, and also the weight of a heavy headdress. When a dancer stands in this position it looks like he sits on a stool. Out of this position a dancer moves forward and backwards, sits down on the floor, jumps and stretches himself on the floor. Knees are not often joined together only in case an actor stands straight what happens when he is motionless or simply listens to another hero of the action.

Not only body is subject to systematic exercises but also every part of a face especially eyes. It is as exhausting as training other parts of body and requires great concentration. A dancer sits on the floor with his legs crossed and arms folded on his chest or on laps. He presses chin to his chest and opens his eyes wide. Then he starts to move his pupils horizontally, vertically and circle-wise. He draws eights with his eyes first slowly then faster until it becomes hard to watch their movements. It reminds meditation because thoughts calm down, only the muscles around eyes move.

It is not allowed to move during this exercise, while eyes work a dancer’s head and body must be absolutely motionless. Then brows, chin, cheeks, mouth, neck and head are trained at first separately, then in various combinations. The purpose of these exercises is to teach a dancer to control facial muscles and be able to completely manage its different parts. This emphasizes the elegancy of mimicry elements during a performance.

The performance of nrytta or pure dance is based on strict adherence to the system of basic figures and jumps from the semi sitting position. It is uneasy in itself to learn a great number of motions and figures by heart, but the main thing is to understand their meaning in characters and moods of various personages. A finished fragment of a pure dance is called kalasam. It would be untrue to expect every dancer to interpret a given kalasam in the same way. A dialogue of actors alternates with kalasams, that’s why the interpretation and performance depend on the song rhythm in the scene, on the mood of the episode and first of all on the portrayed personage. A dancer may win the audience approval by performing kalasams vigorously, gracefully or excitedly or cut them short

24 | P a g e https://thebatmenbegins.wordpress.com/ sharply, all that depends on the preceding dialogue. For instance, for personages like Hanuman there are traditional compositions performed by experienced dancers who are guided by their temperament, age and reputation.

Kathakali dancers use a complicated sign language. It is based on the book "Hasta Lakshana Deepica" that contains the developed rules of 24 most important hastas. However, because of the great number of their combinations it is impossible to say for sure that there is any complete list of them. So much depends on the mastery and imagination of a dancer that true leading figures of Kathakali and other styles eventually raise high over the instructions of technique and resort to fewer hastas or to any other motions and figures regulated by rules.

Hastas are visual portrayal of lyrics. A musician adds melody to lyrics thus shading their meaning. By mimicry, motions and gesticulation a dancer introduces sense and life into poems, turning acoustic images into visual ones.

A Kathakali dancer widely uses metaphors. It is believed that all the living things can be correlated with the nature, and hastas are built on such correlations. Besides, hastas in Kathakali may denote such notions as "the same", "even", "but", "with" etc., what is of rare occurrence in the dance. Every language has its phraseology, its rhythm, its consequence of words. Kathakali seems wonderfully correlates with sanskritized Malayalam that serves as a means of its oral expression.

In a narrative episode an actor may choose one of the following variants. He may describe physical notions such as a mountain, a palace, a forest, a garden, fire; on the other hand he may portray a woman, an elephant, a bee, a lotus, an enemy etc. Or he may remain himself and react to a situation by playing rage, despair, greed, humbleness, arrogance, passion or contempt.

While developing his idea an actor chooses the corresponding comparison and quite visibly renders the meaning of what he wants to say in detail description of what he compares. For instance, in portraying a bashful woman, this trick may turn out very effective for it shifts the audience attention from a woman’s personality upon the main idea of a dancer. A hero may look at his beloved, shy and silent but full of love and passion. He compares her with liana and says: "You are so tender and shy; you remind me a liana that winds around the tree and cannot grow on her own". Then an actor develops this idea for quite a long time, first portraying his beloved by showing in details how shy and fragile she is, then he demonstrates how she stands with her head bowed and eyes down; after that he looks at the imaginary liana and shows how it grows winding around a tree etc.

In this is the difference of Kathakali from other styles, this is an absolutely visual form of art. This is "the absolute theatre" both on the level of one performer and in a wider meaning as a theatre action. The purpose of an actor is to create a character that probably was not developed in a play. And not just to create the character of a mighty Bhima whose part he may play but to show to the audience the flowers growing on his way, a woman he loves, the depths of the forest he makes his way through, arrogance of his enemies and his oath of revenge. All his emotional sorrows and joys are reflected in his behavior and the way he walks. Different opportunities are hidden in him, both trivial and supernatural ones. While watching him a spectator cannot but admire the strong portrayal of the superhuman and the honest portrayal of the human.

According to tradition a Kathakali has always been performed by night on a simple open platform without decorations, side-scenes, curtain and backstage. The only "properties" was and still is a traditional stool that actor may use on his own accord as a throne to sit solemnly on, as

25 | P a g e https://thebatmenbegins.wordpress.com/ a tree to climb up or just a chair to rest on while another actor plays in proscenium or in the stage center. He may place it anywhere and move from place to place if the development of plot requires this. Therassila or screen is used very effectively to hide the appearance of a new personage. Two men hold the screen in front of an actor in such a way that the audience can only see his legs and the headdress. The true symbolism of his costume is hidden from them and every new personage begins his performance with exclamations from behind the screen thus creating a strained anticipation with the audience. By the time the screen is taken away he already becomes a full participant of the action and is completely associated with the role he plays.

A big lamp is placed in the front part of the platform; oil is added in it from time to time. It gives beautiful natural yellow light waving to the wind in contrast to stable rays of modern projectors. The level of illumination naturally singles out a rather small circle where the action takes place, and attracts the audience attention to it. When an experienced actor wants to emphasize the smallest (finest) changes in mimicry he may take a sit under the lamp and then every movement of his eyes, neck, chin and brows will become brightly outlined and reflected on his face because a flickering flame as if "highlights" it properly and at the same time makes waves of light across the face in contrast to modern projectors that make light and shade freeze on place.

The term Aharja abhinaya is used in relation to costumes and make-up. In Kathakali more than in any other style of Indian dance these two elements serve as a necessary link for understanding characters of dance drama. The heroes and plots in Kathakali tell about supermen. Legends about gods and demons are transferred upon the stage, and each personage possesses supernatural and sometimes divine forces. Traditions of make-up originate from the ancient forms of folk art of Kerala and also in Kudiyattama and Krishnattama. In time the costumes grew better and the whole performance makes the impression of a complete splendour. Dancers have large skirts, shirts and various beautiful ornaments on: bracelets, ribbons on wrists, chest plates, several rows of bells on ankles and calves, a very heavy and painted headdress and long artificial hair. Costume, ornaments and make-up are so complicated that it is hard to imagine how actors can dance so vigorously with such a load.

Personages of the Kathakali drama are divided into three big dramatic types: sattvik, rajasik and tamasik.

Sattvik: noble, heroic, generous and refined heroes. Their make-up is put on a bright green background which is called pachkha in the malaylam language. A white chutti is drawn from jaws to ears. It serves as a boarder sharply outlining face, on which background a complicated make- up stands out especially brightly.

Lips are painted with a glittering pink colour, two little circles are drawn in the corners of the mouth. Eyes are penciled with sharp black strokes from the internal sides of eyes near nose up to the hair line. A complicated religious sign naman is drawn on the forehead. The heroes with pachkha (green make-up) have fine, elegant and aristocratic appearance. Among them are Bhima and Indra.

Krishna has green make-up on his face too, but his headdress (muti) is not so big, with fewer spangles and on the top it is decorated with a semicircle made of peacock feathers. Other personages with pachkha have multicoloured headdresses, kiridas, they are much larger than mutis and are brightly decorated with green, white and reddish spangles. The heroes with green make-up usually have white skirts and red jackets on; Krishna wears a blue one. The actors playing Shiva and Brahma put their make-up on a pale orange background, pajuppa, the rest of the make-up, costume and headdress is similar to the personages with pachkha.

26 | P a g e https://thebatmenbegins.wordpress.com/ Rajasik is an antihero like Ravana, Duryodhana and Kichaka. Their make-up is called katthi. The green colour of the background remains because the heroes with katthi possess positive qualities too: generosity, devotion, nobleness and love. However, the green background is crossed out by bright red lines across forehead, nose and cheeks by which they can immediately be identified.

However, what immediately marks these heroes out is two chuttipos, white balls made of plant pulp that are fixed on the forehead and the tip of the nose. The same balls can be found with very wicked and mean "bearded heroes". A hero with katthi, with his costumes and headdresses reminds the personages with pachkha. His character is arrogant and aggressive. He does not stand rivalry and will not miss the opportunity to boast of his virtues and valour. He gets angry easily; he does not listen to the voice of reason and responds sharply to reproaches. In the presence of his beloved who usually comes in his dreams, the impudent and arrogant hero with katthi becomes sentimental and humble. He is quite often the most memorable among the personages and frequently is the audience favorite. At his will a hero with katthi exposes a pair of fangs to demonstrate his rage. The roles of antiheroes are very popular and serve as a test for dramatic talent of an actor. A dancer utters various sounds starting with a sweet and tender cooing during the conversation with a beloved or while praising her, up to long and loud howls and roar when meeting an enemy. These heroes are the decoration of the evening performance.

Personages with tamasic features are called thadi or "the bearded men". They are cruel and malicious to the bone. Among them chavanda thadi or the red beard especially distinguishes. These mean and demonic roles are embodied by such personages as Bakasura and Dushasana. They have a completely different make- up. There is no white chutti across jaws and chin. The basic colour of make-up is black and covers the eyes area and the most of forehead instead of usual red signs outlined by a white line. These heroes are easy to recognize by huge moustaches visible from under a complicated tracery made of paper and painted red on which background black lips are sharply distinguished. An actor often shows two white fangs in the corners of a mouth. White balls on nose and forehead on the background of black and red face are the symbols of fierceness, and they are much bigger than the heroes with the katthi have. Actors playing thadi are usually tall and strong men with mighty figures capable of holding extremely heavy and massive headdress. A red bearded (chavandu thadi) is a strong earthly personality; he is uneducated and depresses everyone with his presence. He walks arrogantly and constantly uses foul language.

Besides him the black bearded or karutta thadi take part in the performance. These are primitive and ungovernable types embodying the lowest of the human qualities. They are wild especially in comparison with the more refined heroes of the drama. Their faces are totally painted black with a little of red and white around eyes and with bright red lips. A chuttipo on nose is not a ball but rather reminds an open flower. The headdress is not flat and round but long and cylindrical, of black colour, opening or broadening on top. Karutta thadi is represented by a katala or a hunter, and by a kirata or Shiva dressed as a hunter. Another important representative of thadi is Kali, an evil personage who also has black beard.

The monkey-kings of Bali and Sugriva possess certain animal qualities characteristic of the monkey tribe, but it is Hanuman the divine monkey from "Ramayana" who takes a special place in the hearts of people. His beard and a fur jacket are white; his make-up is quite colourful especially on cheeks, on the forehead and nose. The background of the

27 | P a g e https://thebatmenbegins.wordpress.com/ make-up is red and black, but a complex white tracery softens the strictness of these paints giving it in general a rather calm and neutral character. Hanuman’s headdress consists of a domelike crown; its flat basis rests on the head. Hanuman is one of the most favourite heroes of the Kathakali drama, this role is usually given to a sincere and experienced actor.

Karis are the black personages, the background of their make-up is black and they have black costumes on. This vesham (costume) is put on by rakshasas or demonesses like Purpanakha, Ravana’s evil sister. She also wears two false breasts that emphasize her ugliness.

Besides the heroes with the make-up background like pachkhi, katthi, thadi and kari there are minor personages like minnaku that embody women and sages. The colour of their faces is supposed to be natural but in fact the background of their make-up is glittering and orange- yellow. Eyes and brows are penciled in a natural way; their costumes are simple and realistic. These personages, be it a woman or a sage, behave in a restrain and full of dignity manner. Sages are obligatory to have a beard, hair is gathered in a knot and clothes are made of fine material. Unlike major characters of the play, the minakku personages are rather fragile people and this at times creates quite funny situations which actors bring to their logical ends in order to slightly relieve the stress.

Female parts are traditionally played by men. That’s why their costumes are made in such a way to hide their belonging to male sex. An actor exaggerates female features in walking and behaving, special attention is paid to kalasamas be performed lightly and elegantly.

Before the performance a Kathakali dancer puts a small seed in his eye. It absorbs moisture and gives red hue to an eye. It balances the colour solution of the rest of the make-up. Unlike the followers of other dance styles who are identified with the style they belong to, Kathakali actors achieve individual popularity as actors playing certain roles. It often happens that an actor specializes in playing a role of one personage which he is eventually identified with.

There are two singers and two drummers in the Kathakali Theater. Besides, singers play instruments that keep up the rhythm and manage the musical accompaniment in a certain way. Each drum has its definitely expressed sound. Maddalam is a two-piece drum lake a mridangam, though larger. A performer wears it on a belt and while playing he holds it low on hips. The fingertips on the drummer’s right hand are covered with rice paste which hardens like plaster and allows not only strike membrane without hurting fingers but also touch it lightly when the development of the plot demands it. The other drum is of a cylinder shape and is called chenda and is played in a standing position. It hangs on a drummer’s shoulder and is played on with a palm of one hand and a thin stick in the other hand or with two sticks one in each hand. In most cases a drummer beats on chenda from one side.

This instrument accompanies only to male heroes. Aedakka is a drum of a smaller size in the shape of a sand glass and is played when a female personage appears on stage. It has a softer tone than a male chenda that sounds loud and sonorous during the performance. The main singer keeps up the rhythm by striking a heavy metal gong chengala with a thick and short stick. The second singer beats the rhythm with a pair of heavy cymbals ilattalam. The singing style of Kathak is close to that of Karnatak classic music but is called sopanam, the style of performance that corresponds to expressive dance.

Kathakali is an absolute theatre. Singers sing text; actors render it with gestures, pantomime, motions and dramatic playing. An actor’s mind, body and heart simultaneously take part in the disclosing of a theme. He cooperates with other personages and goes beyond the limits of a formal theatre, with the help of gestures and pantomime creating an atmosphere in which he wishes to stand in front of the audience. He "plays" the properties necessary for the role. He creates a forest and goes through it. He

28 | P a g e https://thebatmenbegins.wordpress.com/ portrays his beloved and then comes close to her. He discloses his secret plan and then fulfills it. A spectator is influenced on two levels: the belief in the world created by an actor fights with the worship to the great mastery of actor playing.

A performance starts after the dark; drums beat fanciful rhythmic patterns calling spectators to the performance. Evening turns into night gradually; the characters appear on stage in the same gradual way. Time does not fetter them. Wonderful actors play and demonstrate the unique virtuosity. At one moment of this magic night the audience is immersed into sleepiness, at another moment it is held in a restraint suspense. The climax of the night performance is the fight. The noise becomes almost deafening. The audience waits for the dénouement anxiously. Onstage a wild activity is going; a vortex of costumes and swords raised high.

This is the great world of theatre. The reality comes with the dawn.

Manipuri Style

Manipur is a green, fertile and mountains surrounded land of unusual beauty. This is the valley of the Serpent God inhabited by the people considering human life and nature God’s gifts, dance and music being the most beautiful and the most natural ways of expressing gratitude. Every event, be it birth, wedding or death is the reason for a beautiful ceremony and gives men, women and children the opportunity to become witnesses to and participants of a professional dancing and musical ritual.

Manipur is the land where myths and legends coexist with almost scientific explanations of phenomena, where a complex system of prophecies is a neighbor to wide knowledge and the deepest philosophy. These different influences are united in harmony in everyday life. Rituals are not just formal ceremonies detached from simple people’s needs. In the same house you can see both sacred objects that are the evidence of spiritual aspirations and a loom to satisfy purely economic needs. But the most important thing is that every man feels his unity with nature, dances and songs being the proof of it.

A beautiful legend of Nongpokningthu and Panthoibi, the deities similar to Shiva, explains the meaning of the name Manipur. When Krishna and gopis (shepherdesses) performed Raaslila, Krishna invited Shiva to see that nobody bothers them. Shiva was very eager to see their ecstatic dance but Krishna did not allow and only let him to stand near the gates to the dancing ground and Shiva swore that he would stand with his back to the dancing all the time. Shiva kept his word but the intoxicating sounds of Krishna’s divine flute and gopis’ foot bells did not give him a moment’s peace.

He shared this with Parvati and together they decided to create their own Raaslila. Coming down from their Himalayan dwelling place they found a fairy-tale valley full of water. Shiva threw his mighty trident into the slope of the mountain. The water poured out through the outlet and then Shiva and Parvati started to dance in joy, and Ananta the divine serpent took jewels off his hood and with their help lit the valley. The shining of those jewels gave the name to the valley under which it is known today – "Manipur" or the land of precious stones.

The gods and goddesses’ creative work is the basis of another legend. It tells how the Almighty rubbed his right hand and created nine gods, and then he rubbed his left hand and created seven goddesses. Gods and goddesses started to dance and with their motions they created the matter and then created piles of ground. After creating seven piles they took a rest and refreshed themselves with food and water. Sixty of such piles were created; gods and goddesses took rest after each eighth pile. At the same time they measured units of time that still exist today. Pung that means

29 | P a g e https://thebatmenbegins.wordpress.com/ "a pile of earth" is both a measure of time and a drum that beats the temporal cycle. The people of Manipuir’s cosmic conceptions and the laws of existence are interwoven into this myth. Up to the present day no foreign influences could bury the tradition of ritual playing of the story of the world creation. The chain of traditions in Manipur is unbreakable and unchangeable.

The cult of Vishnu became dominant in Manipur in the period of the philosopher-king Bhagya Chandra’s reign (1759-1798). This is an extremely important period in the history of Manipur culture. Bhagya Chandra left memories of himself as of an enlightened king deeply devoted to God. He was called Bhakta Rajarishi or the king-ascetic. There are records that he succeeded in poetry, dance, music and philosophy as well as in the arts of governing, war and administering. These qualities combined in him with humbleness, compassion and generosity. It is not surprising that folk legends ascribe to him all human virtues.

During Bhagya Chandra’s reign Manipur undergone the attack of the Burmese. Notwithstanding the fact that Manipur offered the fierce resistance the might and the overcoming forces of the Burmese were decisive and Bhagya Chandra was made to escape and seek refuge with Svargadeva the king of the neighboring state Tekhow. According to legends, leaving Manipur after his defeat Bhagya Chandra danced a ritual dance with a spear (thengao) on a rock that dangerously hung over a high precipice. Because of the strong wind raging in the valley it was not easy even to stand on the rock. Bhagya Chandra’s dance was interpreted as a divine blessing and an omen of his return to his kingdom.

Kings and queens of Manipur traditionally were competent in dance and music. A queen could dance on the same ground with simple people. Dance was not just a form of entertainment. That was an offering to gods and there were no castes and barriers of social position on a dancing ground. Kings were supposed to embody the subtlety of aesthetic taste; the rulers rivaled with their predecessors and encouraged the development of oratory, poetry, dance and music. That’s why talas are still identified with the rule of separate kings that helps to arrange them chronologically and watch their development.

A legend says that King Bhagya Chandra was sanctified by the grace of God and Lord Krishna himself is said to appear before him in a vision and wished that dancers and musicians of Manipur performed Raaslila. Inspired by Krishna’s image Bhagya Chandra learned that there is a banyan tree out of which the god’s image must be carved. The king and the elders headed for the search of the tree but could not find it for a long time; they were almost desperate when all of a sudden they heard a boy playing flute in the wood. Considering this a god’s sign the king kept on searching until he met a poor family living in an old house in the far corner of the wood. They found the huge banyan tree near the house. When they began to cut it the tree started bleeding. The tree was delivered to the capital and Krishna’s image was cut out and sanctified amongst prayers and common rejoicing. This image became sacred for the vishnuit cult in Manipur.

Organizations that grouped around Krishna’s temple and the royal court were the keepers of artistic, administrative, religious and literature traditions in Manipur. Their role continues to be vital for they form a supreme organ that keeps up the highest level of studying, interpretation and practical use of everything that is based on traditions. These organizations are respected by the most outstanding learned men and performers who consult for example brahma sabha on arguable religious questions, pandit loysankh on arguable tradition matters and pala loysankh on dance and music questions. Even the kings of Manipur have always respected these

30 | P a g e https://thebatmenbegins.wordpress.com/ organizations for their decision was final. Their jurisdiction covered protocol and ceremonies in relation of kinds of art, they observed the correctness in rituals.

Tantric influence is strong in the culture of Manipur. It finds its expression in a shivaist legend of the world creation. The process of creation was called Ley tai nongtai jagoy or "the marriage of heaven and earth". There is a popular belief that dance and its origin are closely connected with the creation of the world. A performance based on this legend is a constituent part of Lai haraoba a thoroughly thought-out festival of dance and music. Laipou, the dance of creation is still performed on every Lai haroba festival in its primordial form. Annoyrol, a ritual dance described in ancient Manipur texts is performed on this festival too. This allows to trace the origins of dance that goes back to satya yuga or the legendary age of piety, and to hayichika or the period when according to a belief the worshipping of fire, of this purest and the most ancient among all known forms of deity, started.

The Lai haraoba ritual reproducing the process of the creation of universe begins with the proclaiming of the primordial Nothing or the Void. Then appears "water": men dressed in white and women in clothes with pink stripes carry offerings and cloths down to the river. These men and women, maiba and maibi, according to tradition are the high priests and priestesses of Manipur. As great connoisseurs of sacred texts and the ones who mastered the art of prophets they are the main characters in all ceremonies. Golden and silver things embodying earth and heaven are sacrificed to water. The people of Manipur summon its divine energy with music.

When a deity becomes implanted in a maibi’s body it starts to speak with her mouth. It is solemnly followed back to the temple under the loud accompaniment of trumpets sounds. On the way dancers demonstrate their art in honor of the deity three times. The next days of ceremonies, dance and music go according to a strictly prescribed ritual. Winding lines are drawn on the ground, various dance ceremonies take place, and they are believed to bring prosperity to village.

Hicham hirao, a ceremony with a boat is another important ritual that also includes dance. A boat is a symbol of life, god and travel through life. A tantric dance thengao is inserted in some places of Lai haraoba. Performers are required to go through exhausting trainings. Since a wonderful possession of body, balance, power and concentration are generally claimed of dancers, thengao is considered the highest form of dance art among the experienced performers. Their reputation often depends on how they master thengao.

Sankirtan is an ancient tradition in dance and music, the storage of rasa bhava, classic ragas and talas. Thematically it is based on a legend about Krishna though its prototype araibapala sankirtan was dedicated to Rama. In the reign of Bhagya Chandra a number of compositions in honor of Krishna greatly increased, this period is considered the resurrection of sankirtan tradition. Nata sankirtan literally means "singing and dancing in honor of Hari". Its performance is considered the highest form of worshipping. People approaching the place of sankirtana first bow down before it and then before spectators. Sankirtan is performed even during a wedding ceremony, since according to a tradition it replaces fire usual for other regions of India. It depends on a ceremony and occasions what sarkitan to perform.

In sarkitan any of 64 rasas can be used, all just being Shringara rasa variations after all. A legend of Krishna and Radha is often played and each performance must include rajamel or the divine unity of Krishna and Radha. This is the symbol of unity of purusha and prakriti (male and female energies) and the creation of the world. During the performance of rajamel the cymbals which dancers hold in hands are never completely parted from each other.

Raaslila is a theatrical action dedicated to Krishna’s deeds. There are five kinds of it: Maharaas, Vasantraas, Kunjaraas, Nityaraas and Divaraas. Some of them can be performed only in a certain season, others at any time.

31 | P a g e https://thebatmenbegins.wordpress.com/ Before any Raaslila there is a sankirtan. Actors greet arangpham (Master of Ceremonies) and after receiving his permission they start the performance. Arangpham embodies Paurnimasi, Radha’s friend who performed the first lila in Vrindavan. Drummers usually take their shirts off, bow down to the deity and then to all the present: elders, teachers and all the rest. Singers and other musicians do the same. The drummers begin arranging a raga and then they are joined by singers and musicians playing on a shell. The singers sing about Vrindavan, the place, the time, and the circumstances that are reconstructed in the performance. When they get down to description of Krishna an actor playing this part begins abhisaar or trip to meet his beloved (a child usually plays Krishna and his part begins not long before 9 o’clock in the evening). He comes out into the middle of the ground, dances and moves towards the temple under the north gates. The whole Raas must be over till the first ray of the sun.

All parents want their children to take part in Raas and it is desirable for the children to play Krishna or Radha. Parents are ready to bear expenses. The main part of expenses is taken by parents of Krishna, then Radha’s, Paurnamasi’s and Chandravali’s parents, then by the parents of the four girls near Radha and finally by the parents of other gopis who probably only pay for the costumes of their children. These monetary contributions are spent on decorations and ornaments for mandapa (dancing ground) on paying to professional actors and musicians and guru with his pupils who had been preparing children for their parts for several months. It is a hard task to teach little children. A teacher who prepares a boy chosen to play Krishna’s part must teach him such difficult songs and dances as abhisaar, krishnattan, a duo with Radha and how to speak with gopis. He must also prepare him for bhangi paren with participation of other dancers and singers. Ojkha or the main guru conducts a general management: he devotes himself to children by walking from one classroom to another because everybody needs him. Thus children of various ages are taught to play corresponding parts and those who have inclinations for that continue to perfect their playing all their lives through. In time they become professional dancers.

A day before Raas begins the organizers gather the participants for gopibhojan. During this ceremony the teachers receive clothes, money, food and kheer (sweet dish). This is a touching gathering of all those who had worked together to achieve the common goal for almost half a year. Perhaps a guru was very strict to children during teaching and sometimes even gave beating to the boy playing Krishna. But now the honourable guru is the example of faith and humbleness, he bows down low before Krishna-child and says: "You have taken upon you the image of the God I honor. Forgive me for the pain I have given you". For all the participants the day of Raas is special. Children are bathed carefully and dressed for the evening performance. They are treated as little gods and goddesses.

It is necessary to note that a Manipuri dancer must keep the unique lightness in motions and strictrestraint whatever difficult the dance is and whatever physical efforts it demands. Perhaps in this is the key for understanding the style. There are no sharp motions. One motion transforms into another creating a sensation of endlessness. A soft change of scenes leads to smoothness and continuity in body movement what is so characteristic of this style. In Manipuri the difference between tandava and lasya is very visible.

Female performances of this dance are exclusively lyrical, tender and soft. Though at first sight the motions of male dancers do not claim special efforts, supplies of great physical strength are hidden behind the exterior endurance. Even when men perform fast dances with swords and spears that claim maximum energy, a dancer’s strength can be felt in only stylized and restraint motions.

So, outwardly Manipuri is a non-effective style. All figures form a single whole transforming one into another, the harmony of body motions renders the spirit of dance. Only maibis’ dances slightly differ from the others as there are more swaying motions and jumps.

32 | P a g e https://thebatmenbegins.wordpress.com/ Manipuri is never aggressive but tender and restraint. The exaggerated use of pantomime contradicts its norms. All motions both horizontal and vertical are circular and transform one into another, forming spiral combinations. Arms and hands must be incredibly flexible. Not a single motion, mood or thought contains completeness. Body motions are not fixed and rendered by a slight hint. One is claimed to possess strain and training to give Manipuri its seeming shape of lightness. Great efforts hide behind every move. That’s why an accident spectator may not understand this dance.

There are certain compositions in Manipuri which are traditionally passed down from generation to generation. They are called parenas and contain almost all possible motions and figures of the style. They are considered unshakable. Parenas only come across in the part of the dance called jagoi as for instance in Raaslila or in Goshtalila.

The whole specter of the dance is divided into jagoi, cholom and thangta. Jagoi is performed by dancers of both sexes as for instance in Raaslila or in Lai haraoba. Choloms are performed under the accompaniment of drums and cymbals. They may be extremely vigorous and tender.

For the ceremony to be a success every dancer’s specialization in a certain aspect of dance is extremely important. A dancer, a singer, a drummer, a cymbals player, everyone has his specific role and each of them needs serious training.

There are no specialized schools so ojkha or guru teaches children at home. If a child makes progress and needs further specialization his guru asks another guru to take it upon himself. The approach to teaching is informal. In the very beginning ojkha does not clarify or explain the details of the dance and does not recommend any manuals. The ceremony of dedication is held on the first day of classes or later when the most important ragis are explained to a pupil. Students acquire subtleties by watching carefully. The most important thing is to give them the right mood rather than the right technique which they will get acquainted with later.

The connection between motions of dancer’s legs and tala or rhythmic cycle is extremely important. There is no necessity to beat the rhythm with foot. Rhythm is often only outlined. At the same time the main rhythmic points are strongly emphasized. Dancers do not have bells on ankles because the jump may finish when there must be no sound. Rhythmic points can be marked by a movement of a foot, an ankle, a knee and a hip or even by a jump. Masters of dance may consider foot stomping in a rhythmic point too elementary.

In Manipuri’s nata sankirtan about 100 talas are known. Only 60 of them are widely used. They are not just rhythmic cycles but also the main musical accompaniment. Beating complex rhythmic patterns on various drums, cymbals and even by hands is an important element of Manipuri. Male singers playing cymbals perform palacholom by bending their knees. They slightly bow forward without bending backbone and moving legs apart. This is an important element of a male style. A dancer saves the position even performing complex motions when he raises his leg or executes turns and jumps. The manner of singing and the vocal culture of Manipuri differ from other styles. A singer usually has high and clear voice. Manipuri singers have never needed microphones for their voices are loud enough to be heard by 3000 people. There are four types of percussions: pung (drum), dholak and dhol (also kinds of drums) and khandjuri (a small one-piece drum). Claps of hands play important role in the rhythmic accompaniment. Various dances or choloms require various techniques of performance.

33 | P a g e https://thebatmenbegins.wordpress.com/ Children taking part in sankirtan put on pink clothes with black narrow stripes on the edges and whitescarves. Men put on white dhotis and two kinds of turbans. The drummers have small turbans (koyetmachi) on made of especially thin muslin. They are carefully washed and starched. The singers have extremely complex turbans koiechubas. Tying them is a complex art in itself and respected professionals devote themselves to this. The sankirtan performers must be irreproachably neat. They put on sacred threads or beads on their naked chests. The drums are wrapped in the muslin similar to that the turbans are made of, because drums are believed to be live creatures and thus need clothes.

Manipuri uses simple decorations but they create fantastic atmosphere. A round dancing ground does not allow using backstage or large decorations that would cover the action from the audience at least from one side. However, using the principles of the perspective and the dance technique allow transferring the impression of the depth, distance and sizes to the audience.

Today Manipuri is performed by single dancers and by small groups beyond the state boarders where it was born. It has turned into the kind of art with professional performers ready to perform both in their own country as well as in front of a foreign audience. Even though Manipur dwellers are very jealous about traditions and the heritage, they were able to satisfy the increased interest in this style by playing excerpts from ancient ceremonial dances and various performances. Famous gurus developed choreography for new compositions where the traditional dance technique is preserved.

Manipuri is a lively tradition; the dance style is in the close connection with the everyday life. Because of the fact that Manipur is surrounded by mountains, it has been relatively unavailable till recently, its culture did not meet full understanding. But the truth is that on the earliest phases of its development the arts of Manipur achieved high level of complexity, every historical period made its considerable contribution to the development of arts. Just like the literature of Manipur, the traditions of its dance meet the highest standards of classicism and elegancy.

Mohiniattam Style

The history of origin of the Mohiniattam dance tradition (literary "Dance of a Charmer") traces back into the deep past of Kerala, the state in the south-west of India. Its modern form performed exclusively by women, however appeared not so long ago and was called up by the creative works of such dancing companies as Kaykottikali, Tiruvatirakali and Nanjyar Kutu performing their compositions at various public celebrations. Nanjyar Kutu is a variant of female performance of a rather stylized Kutiyattam which in its turn is a survived successor to the so-called Sanskrit theatre. The Mohiniattam’s repertoire that does not reveal any traces with the temple tradition nevertheless bears a certain element of initiation. The scientists of Kerala say that no traces of women- devadasis have been found in the history of this region, any evidences disproving this point of view supposedly come from the state of Tamilnadu that once was historically connected with Kerala.

There is a row of historical evidences proving the existence of Tali Nanjyar or female performers of solo dance (literary: Tali-temple, Nanjayr – woman). The records of Chollur (932 AD) and Nedumpar Tali (934 AD) mention a certain Chittarayil Nanjayr who granted the temple lands and money to Nanjayr and Nattuvanar. In Manipravala Champu Sukhasandesam relating to XIII century AD a performance in Trikkanamatikalam temple is described. In a treatise named Manipravala Kavjas there is a mention of a female dancer who danced under names Unni, Unniyadi, Unnicherutevi, Cherukara Kuttati and Uniyachi. Female dancers usually served only in Suchindram and Tripunitura temples mainly performing dances to Tamil lyrics.

34 | P a g e https://thebatmenbegins.wordpress.com/ There were three kinds of Tali Nanjyar (dancers): Uttama or a noble woman mainly of aristocratic origin who was made to give a vow of chastity; Madhyama serving to tantrists during a kriya ritual; and Dasis destined for rough daily work. A pure religious dance Avayavam was performed as a rule in a sitting position under the reading of a short poem Pann or a chanting and included little footwork under the rhythm of one bell. According to historians Tali Nanjyars were never tied to any deity like devadasis. Unfortunately by the beginning of XIV century there had little left from the conservative and isolated Tali Nanjyar style. By XVI-XVII centuries such dramatized dance styles as Krishnattam, Ramanattam and later Kathakali that glorified male dancers had slightly pressed female solo performance. Some historians think this happened because practically nobody was allowed to see Tali Nanjyar dance. The only female tradition Nanjyar Kutu could survive only because Kutiyattam acquired protection of the temple.

For the first time the word Mohini appears in the Malayalama commentary of the XVII century in "Vyavaharamala" that was composed two centuries later by Majamangalam Narayann Nambudiri. Much later in his work "Goshayatra", Kunjan Nambiyar the creator of Ottam Tullal also mentions Mohiniattam. Such names as Mohinilaye and Mohinistana can be found with Maharaja Kartik Tirunal Malarama Verma (1724-1798) in "Balaramabharatea" one of the most significant treatises on the art of performance of XVIII century Kerala. None of these texts gives an idea of the form of the dance most widely spread in that period.

Due to a public custom of Kerala for men- Nambudiri (Sanskrit cultural tradition) and women- Nairis (a military tradition of Keral) to enter into an alliance, the assimilation of their cultures led to the appearance of various kinds of art. Tampuranas born from the marriages of Kshatri princes with Nambudiri women became the sole rulers of Kerala princedoms. But by the beginning of the XIII century there had left only 3 main royal houses: Zamorin in Calcutta, Raja in Kochin and Travankor and they became the last of the royal families where succession down the female line can be traced. In the end of XVII century the regent’s grandson Asvati Tirunal Umayamma Rani a famous vayshnav Martanda Verma proclaimed that his successors from that time on would rule as deputies of Lord Vishnu in the image of Padmanabha (a sovereign ruler of lands). Since then the worshipping of Lord Vishnu has become the characteristic feature of this region. But besides Vishnu they also worship Bhagavati a mighty female deity whose cult has a strong tantric hue, and Hariharaputra Ayyapp born as an alliance of Shiva and Vishnu who put upon himself the image of a beauty Mohini. In fact nayika (a heroine) in Mohiniattam is always portrayed as longing for Lord Padmanabha.

As a symbol of calm energy Lord Vishnu lies on rings-twined serpent Shesh and embodies the power of steadiness and the unity of the Universe. There is a legend according to which Vishnu put upon himself the image of a charmer Mohini when gods and demons churned the Causal Ocean hoping to obtain Amrita (elixir of immortality) and could not decide who it will go to. Then Mohini charmed the demons, took the vessel with the elixir from them and gave it to the gods. She also came to the aid of Lord Shiva who was chased by demon Bhasmasura. This demon got a gift from Shiva to destroy anyone he puts his hand on. And he wanted to use this gift against Shiva himself. But Mohini drew him from the chasing by promising he would own her if he only exceeds her in a dance contest. By making Bhasmasura repeat her every move Mohini finally made the demon put his hand on his own head thus turning him into ashes.

The murals of Padmanabhapurama and Mattancheri palaces prove the popularity of myths about Mohini. Thus the word combination Mohiniattam denotes either a dancer-charmer or dance-magic. According to experts, the dance tradition of Mohiniattam being the embodiment of the magic of enchantment makes a stress exactly on dance by means of which a male deity transforms into a female one.

35 | P a g e https://thebatmenbegins.wordpress.com/ A reformer Vallatol found traces of the dance long before the appearance of Silappadikaram due to the mention of Chakyaras of Kerala(a royal dynasty) while such explorers as Pisharoti stated that the dance had 600 years of history. A dancer Kanak Rele insists that the aspects of female dance discussed in Balaramabharatam must be referred to Mohiniattam because the hastas described there differ from the descriptions of Hastalakshanadipika, another important treatise related to the Kathakali tradition. One cannot exclude Dasiattama’s influence. Ullur Parameshvara Iyer notices in his Malayalama commentary that Maharaja Svati Tirunal being absorbed by the art of Dasiattama ordered his courtier Karutedatta Chomatiri to popularize this style under the name Mohiniattam.

Two brothers from Tanjor quartet, Vadivelu and Shivanandam, after the fall of the Maratha kingdom in Tanjor moved to Maharaj Tirunal palace following dancers Nirajakshi and Satyabhama. Maharaja is said to marry a dancer Sugandhavalli. Being a poet and composer himself Tirunal created compositions for the female dancing tradition. A Tajor musician Parameshvara Bhagavatar was also a decoration of his palace. That’s why it is not surprising that excluding Cholketta that included nrytta (rhythmic not subject dance) and reminded Shabdam in Dasiattama with its stress on lyrics dedicated to God and which was performed instead of Alaripa (a dance-greeting), the character of performing dances was similar to Bgaratanatyam especially in such compositions as Jatisvaram, Varnam, Padam and Tillana. Music was also Karnatik. After Tirunal’s death the British authorities sent in haste everything that left from the tradition of solo female dance art to the Central Kerala.

That’s why when Vallatol and Mukunda Raja began to reconstruct the Kerala dance, the solo female dance did not correspond to their high cultural standards. Such existing dances as Mukutti based on song "Aendamukkutti kandatundo" ("Have you seen my nose ringlet?") and Kalabham Kutu, rather primitive in edited versions, seemed more suited for entertainment. In these dances a dancer first came to one man then to another in search of her ring as if asking by gestures: "Have you seen my nose ringlet?" It was improper to come so close to a spectator. But in spite of rather defiant gestures some witnesses state that both movements and abhinaya of dancers were not without artistic skills. In another composition, Kalabham kutu, a dancer playing the role of a nayika (a heroine in love) while preparing to meet her beloved praised the cooling effect of sandal paste that is put on body to assuage the fever of unshared love. When the British came, the Great Britain’s diplomatic representative colonel Monroe imposed an official ban on Mohiniattam in states Travankor and Kochin.

Kavalam Narayana Panikar and other authors worked hard on creating modern music for Mohiniattam with the purpose to give it a completely local sound. Neither excessive slow theater music of Kathakali, nor stylized ritual music of traditions like Mudiyettu that appealed to the awe inspiring aspect of goddess Bhagavati, did not correspond to the music of Mohiniattam, the dance of seduction.

The local music Sopanam reminded the hymns Taveram that were performed in Tamilnadu temples. According to Leela Omcheri, the term Sopanam denoting "step" (padi) in Sanskrit relates to a stepped musical structure where every note of ascending or descending scale becomes a pause, and a singer’s voice as if vibrates around this note till it passes to another. Starting with a free scale or shaj, Sopanam in its resurrected form is performed in a slowly increasing tempo.

The geometry of motions and the basic technique of Mohiniattam reflect the unforgettable images of Kerala nature: coco palm leaveswaving in the wind, boats rocking on water and creating patterns from radiating circles. This is the endless source of energy unrolling

36 | P a g e https://thebatmenbegins.wordpress.com/ spirally like gradually awoken Kundalini Shakti (sleeping energy) crawling up the spinal column. There is no point to symbolize the beginning or the end in circular vortexes. This is the churning of the ocean resulted in Mohini’s appearance, she came out of the same waters where Lord Vishnu laid on his bed of serpent rings. All these images seem to unite in Mohiniattam in smooth circular body movements forming the central element of the dance. Flexibility of waist, shoulders, elbows and wrists is developed within the frames of andolika and cannot go beyond the limits of stated norms. The motion starts from the center of body and shifts to limbs or on the contrary starts in limbs and shifts to the center. Simultaneously with the rocking body the lower part of it is in the semi-plíe position with knees moved asides forming rather a square than a triangle. To tell the truth there is no common opinion as to the distance between feet. Eye movements are not as subtle as in Kathakali but are lively enough. Elegancy and nobleness emphasize the snow white costume with a golden edging, the specially modeled attire that replaced 9 meter sari that was in fashion 35-40 years ago.

The temples of Keral also absorbed the elements of a circle, and are rich in rounded kerbs unlike the terrifying verticality and engraved lines of Tamilnadu temples. The same aesthetics is reflected in editing of dances. In Mohiniattam it is the body movements, andolika, that echo the curls of musical patterns. Aedekka, a percussion instrument used in Mohiniattam is also called "a singing drum". A certain rounded softness is inherent with it, the softness that is different from the chiseled accuracy of Sollukattas in Bharatanatyam or bolas in Kathak.

Modern Mohiniattam is a polished version of the style that has undergone significant changes. Initially the teachers of Mohiniattam were men. When the famous school Kalamandalam just headed for its creative flight in Mohiniattam, Guru Krishna Panikkar had already had in his repertoire shortened Varnam, Padam and such compositions as Rasakrida and Gopi-vastrapaharanam that are similar in many ways to Krishnattam tradition and group dances of Kaykottikali and Tiruvadirakkali. Footwork (steps) included the elements of Tullala, Padayanis and Ardjunanryttam. Kalyani Amma one of the earliest Kalamandalam teachers (about 1933-34) offered the number similar to Tarana and called it Hindustani. Kalpuratte Kunjukuttyamma who was trained under the guidance of a whole pleiad of teachers – Gopal Pannikar, Kunjan Panikkar, Krishna Menon and Puliyankotte Aschyutan Nair- performed a sari-dance as a prelude to Vernam. Famous for their elegance Tottacheri Chinnammu Amma, Thankamani (who later became Guru Mohiniattam Gopinath’s wife) and many other female dancers performed their dances without stylistic coordination.

When Vallattol persuaded the now deceased Kalyanikuttyama to go in for Mohiniattam, the social prejudices against this dance formwere very strong. When she joined the Kerala troupe of Kalamandalam School in 1930s, Kalyanikuttyama even abstained from visiting her sister’s wedding so that bridegroom’s relatives did not have wrong impression of the bride’s family. In 1940 after a humble wedding ceremony with a Kathakali maestro Krishnan Vair, Kalyanikuttyama settled in Tripunitura where afterwards in 1958 together with her husband she founded a school. With her reserved andolika and original expression Kalyanikuttyama perhaps unconsciously gave Mohiniattam the accuracy of Bharatnatyam for both her daughters, Shridaevi and Kaladaevi studied Bharatnatyam with Guru Bhackar Rao from Tanjavur.

Today Mohiniattam dancers have rather accurate views upon the art that is reflected in their manner of dancing. Kerala Kalamandalam staying in strict isolation from other schools recognizes no other style besides its own even rejecting Kalyanikuttyama’s approach. Perhaps that’s why such graduates of Kerala Kalamandalam as Kshemavati, Sugandi, Himavati, Sarasvati and K. Satyabhama are known only in Kerala.

Kanak Rele a performer from Mumbai states that it was she who managed to give the aesthetic completeness to the dance due to her work with such scientists and dancers as Kujukuttiyamma and Chinnamuamma whom she met when their flourishing years had been over. Kanak Rele is the head of the Research Center of Nalanda where the dance teaching goes equally with the mastering of strict

37 | P a g e https://thebatmenbegins.wordpress.com/ academic background, and upon graduation a student receives a postgraduate or a doctor’s diploma. However, her statements remain questionable taking into account the fact that Guru Madhaviamma and Guru Krishna Panikkar are considered the acknowledged professionals that taught in Kerala Kalamandalam in 1930s.

In principle, the dancing tradition of Mohiniattam could not be deprived of aesthetic value at least because it enchanted Shanta Rao, the first discoverer of the style, so much that she became a follower of Guru Krishna Panikkara, and Kalyaniamma upon Rabindranat Tagor’s request even came to Santiniketan to teach this style where she stayed till the end of her life. But this by no means belittles Kanak Rele’s contribution to Mohiniattam especially taking into account her scientific researches while creating libretto and music for Kavalam Narayana Paniker. A Mohiniattam performed by Kanak Rele bears the trace of a Kathakali for she has come through the severe training of Guru Panchali Panikar. She herself proves this by the fact that Panchali Panikar who became famous for his strivesham was notable for his soft femininity in Kathakali performance, and that his dance in no way contradicts the attractive elegancy of Mohiniattam.

Bharati Shivaji, a Dehii Mohiniattam dancer famous for her elegance had danced Bharatanatyam for many years before devoting herselfto this style. With the support from Guru Kavalam Narayana Panikar she significantly widened the range of expressive means of the style by borrowing motions from such traditions as Tullal, Kaykottikali, Tayambakam and Krishnattam. Bharati Shivaji thinks that Mohiniattam owes its appearance more to such source as Hastalakshanadipika, while Kanak Rele is sure that it is Balarambharatam that contains earlier mentions of this dancing tradition. It is very remarkable how on the Guru Kavalam Narayana Paniker’ founded basis have appeared two of his followers’ expressions different in interpretation.

Today’s repertoire of Mohiniattam consists of such subject parts as Jiva, Tyanis, padamas Svati Tirunala, compositions by Irayaman Tampi, Cholkettu, Dandakam and also some literature works of Kerala recently found by Leela Omcheri. Guru Kavelam helped to take from the dance all the remaining features of Dasiattama’s influence.

Dipti Omcheri Balla from Delhi a daughter of a famous music expert Leela Omcheri, being a student of the great Guru Kalyanikuttyamm who gave the incredible greatness and aesthetic completeness to Mohiniattam, added a lot of unusual compositions to her repertoire. Thus, excluding Gita Govindam Ashtapadi, the number that is obligatory for any Mohiniattam dancer, her repertoire is completely different from the traditional one. In general every dancer interprets compositions in her own way. Dipti, in search of new ideas, tries to study the history of Tali Nanjyar deeper, for she believes that the origins of Mohiniattam can be found in temple dances of Kerala.

A dance that is fully based on the charming grace in combination with the virtuosity of rhythmic motions may turn out to be difficult to perceive by the modern public not able to concentrate its attention for long periods of time. Just for a change modern dancers experiment with such themes as Kubja (a hedge backed woman) and Gandhari, a story of an evil princess from Mahabharata who was married to a blind prince. In general these themes are more attractive for Kanak Rele. The staging of drama that combines Mohiniattama and Kalaripayatta and tells about a legendary princess Unniarchi who became a connoisseur of martial art is much more interesting for Bharati Shivaji and her daughter Vijayalakshmi.

38 | P a g e https://thebatmenbegins.wordpress.com/ In Kerala where the dance is looked upon from the point of view of repertoire development the government has put into practice holding Mohiniattam competitions in schools and colleges. This resulted in the increasing of the number of performers but unfortunately did not improve the level of performance. But Kerala seems to be the only state where the classic repertoire of Padams is recorded with the help of simple but effective system of notions invented by a scientist J. Venu.

In order to come to consent as to stylistic peculiarities of the dance various organizations such as Kerala Sunjit Natal Academy (1968) and Kalyanikuttiamma (1989) organized in 1990 in Tishur the all- Indian seminar and a number of conferences, but this did not bring special changes, all leading performers kept to their opinions. However, one should not criticize such multi-level view upon the dance, for the existence of so many ideas and views keeps the tradition from uniformity and stereotypes.

Mohiniattam has achieved the access to the international stage. Already in 1959 an American Betti Jones came to Kalamandalam to study the dance. Her monogram written for the University of Pennsylvania is one of the earliest works dedicated to the studying of Mohiniattam. Tara Rajkumar, a Kathakali and Mohiniattam dancer who studied at such gurus as Krishnam Nair and Kalyanikuttiama has been successfully running an enterprise Natya Sudha in Melbourne (Australia) where the Hindu and the Australians study both styles together.

Theory of the dance. Hastas and Abhinaya

The Kuchipudi style has a rather extensive and well developed theoretical foundation. Each aspect ofAbhinaya, or the expressive means available to people, is given a detailed description in such competent treatise as Natyashastra written by the great Bharatamuni. The Kuchipudi style follows Natyashastra more than any other dance form in India.

There are four kinds of abhinaya (means of expression): 1. Angika Abhinaya - the expression through various parts of body. 2. Vachika Abhinaya - the expression through voice, speech and song. 3. Sattvika Abhinaya - the expression through bhavas, i.e. feelings and emotions. 4. Aharya Abhinaya - the expression through costumes, make- up and ornaments.

Every person's life becomes apparent by means of three aspects: 1. Manas - mind 2. Vak - speech 3. Karna - action

These three aspects altogether are called karanas. In dance they are realized as sattvika, vachika and angika abhinayas respectively.

Sattvika Abhinaya dominates mainly in Nataka (drama), Angika abhinaya is expressed in Nritta (pure dance, technique) and they are both equally strong in Nritya (solo dance).

39 | P a g e https://thebatmenbegins.wordpress.com/ There are three groups in Angika abhinaya:

1. Angas: 2. Pratyangas: 3. Upangas: - shiras (head) - skadhae (shoulders) - drshti (eyes) - hastas (gestures) - bahu (hands) - bhru (brows) - vaksha (chest) - prshtam (back) - putta (eyelids) - parshva (side) - udaram (belly) - kapola (cheeks) - kati (hips) - uru (the external part of a hip) - nasaka (nose) - padas (feet) - jangha (the upper part of a leg) - hanu (jaw) - adhara (the lower lip) - dasana (teeth) - jihva (tongue) - vadana (face) - gulbha (ankle) - angulya (fingers) The movements of Pratyangas and Upangas always depend on Angas.

Hastas (hand gestures) are the part of Angika Abhinaya and include the ways of expression through the physical body (head, eyes, nose, hands etc.). In spite of the fact that the expression through gestures constitutes the minor part of Angika Abhinaya, their role is very important. Their meaning is not only decorative but they are also indicative of the specificity of communication and action in relation to things.

With all that one should distinguish the notions of hastas and mudras. Although both of them are hand gestures we will call them hastas while speaking of a technical aspect of the dance and mudras if it is a necessary to distinguish a certain gesture in the dance that has a certain meaning.

There are three kinds of hastas:

1. Asamyuta Hastas - gestures of one hand carrying a certain semantic load. 2. Samyuta Hastas - gestures of two hands also having certain meaning. 3. Nritta Hastas - decorative gestures without a certain meaning and which are the pure dance (technique).

Among the texts on the theory of dance two most competent sources are distinguished: Natyashastra and Abhinaya Darpana. There are some differences between them in either the number of hastas or in the number of their meanings.

Thus Natyashastra mentions the following number of hastas: Asamyuta Hastas - 24, Samyuta Hastas - 13 and Nritta Hastas - 27. Abhinaya Darpana mentions 28, 23 and 13 respectively.

According to Natyashastra, Nritta Hastas are of independent origin while in Abhinaya Darpana they originate from Asamyuta and Samyuta Hastas.

This is how some differences in using hastas are explained for example between Kuchipudi and Bharatanatyam, these styles are simply based on

40 | P a g e https://thebatmenbegins.wordpress.com/ different sources.

The same holds true for viniyogas i.e. the meaning of hastas. Thus for example in Natyashastra they mention circa 35 different meanings for Pataka hasta while in Abhinaya Darpana there are more than 40 of them.

Besides, the meanings of hastas are divided into three groups:

1. Natural - the hastas expressing simple movements: to go, to stop, to eat, to sleep etc. 2. Interpretive - the gestures imitating the most characteristic features of an object: to take water from a well, to ride a chariot, animal actions etc. 3. Symbolical - the gestures destined to portray such notions as beauty, power, opinion, male or female sex etc.

One can express almost everything in dance with the help of hastas, but their usage must not be isolated from the body movements and the meaning must necessarily be supported by expressions of face and eyes.

The origin of Indian classical dance

Once Gods called a council and were surprised to find out that they had nothing to do. There was absolutely nothing to occupy their minds with or draw their attention to. They realized that they must put an end to such situation and after taking council with each other they decided to retell stories with the help of gestures and motions. So the art of dance and drama came into being.

All this happened approximately in the era which is called the Golden Age or Krita Yuga in Indian mythology. No one heard anything about the art of neither dance nor drama then. The Golden Age lasted for hundreds of thousands of years and then according to cosmic laws Krita Yuga was replaced by Treta Yuga and everything in the world underwent great changes. Ideals, morals, ethics were distorted. People were unsatisfied and bored.

And then Indra, after calling the council of Gods suggested that they made a request to Brahma to create such an art that would be pleasant for both eyes and ears like the most beautiful things in the world, the art for the highest castes and at the same time available even to the lowest castes which were forbidden to study Vedas.

The Lord Brahma heeded their request and went into the state of meditation. In his mind he called for the four sacred Vedas, the embodiment of "the eternal truths" in Hinduism, and took the very essence from each of the four.

He took music from the Samaveda, And words from the Rigveda, And the law of gestures from the Yajurveda, And the element of sentimentality (rasa) from the Atharvaveda.

He united all these components into a harmonious form and added a little of his divine talent. He created a brand new art, the art of drama

41 | P a g e https://thebatmenbegins.wordpress.com/ or Natyaveda.

Now it was necessary to put all this into practice. To do that Brahma called for assistance to his loyal helper sage Bharata. Bharata had 100 sons and with their help he started the work. But soon he realized that his work would be too monotonous if he used only men in his project. Brahma solved the problem immediately by embracing his fingers to materialize 23 apsaras (nymphs) whom he gave to Bharata to successfully make the art of Natya come true.

Initially Bharata could use only 3 Vritis (ways of expression): -Bharati -speech -Arabhati-expression of manhood -Sattwati-expression of emotions

These proved to be not enough and then Brahma, upon Bharata's request, created the 4th way: -Kaisiki -gracefulness

Sage Narada and gandharwas (celestial musicians) provided musical accompaniment, and the divine ensemble called Natya Brindam was formed.

Time flew fast and everyone waited for the performance impatiently. It was decided that "Indra Dwajamaha" (or festival of Indra's banner) would be the suitable event. When all preparations were over and the great day came, the art of Natya was introduced to the audience of Devas (gods) and Danavas (demons).

It happened so that the theme of the first drama called "Asuraparajyam" was the conflict between Gods and Demons, where Gods were victorious. Seeing this, the Demons became furious and started to weave magic spells to stop the performance and paralyze the dancers.

But Brahma stopped them and explained that it was just entertainment aimed at showing the idea of superiority of one creature over another in war or peace. A group of people only pretended to be those whom they wanted to portray and reproduced events from the past. However, the aim of the performance is not only entertainment but also the enlightenment.

Brahma said: "Do know that what I have created reflects life of three worlds - worlds of gods, demons and men and is destined equally for the High and the Low. The art of Natya will show you the value of the Good and vices of the Evil, it has absorbed the essence of all arts of all the three worlds and is going to be the never ending source of rest and enlightenment from which each one will get what he/she is looking for".

So the first performance of Natya took place.

Then Brahma offered to show the art of Natya to the great Shiva.

Shiva gladly agreed. It was decided that two dramas "Amrita Manthana" (The Churning of the Ocean) and "Tripura Daha" (The Burning of Three Palaces) would be staged in the Himalayas. Shiva surrounded by bhuts and gans enjoyed the wonderful performance. He congratulated Brahma and noted that while he was watching the drama he unintentionally remembered of his cosmic dance Nritta (or its other name - Tandava). Shiva said that it would be a great idea to unite Tandava and Natya into a single whole.

Brahma supported this idea enthusiastically and asked Shiva to train Bharata in dance technique. Shiva in his turn ordered his disciple Tanda to train Bharata. So the dance united with the art of Natya and became its integral part. The written source Natyashastra written by sage Bharata became the climax.

42 | P a g e https://thebatmenbegins.wordpress.com/ They say that while Tanda was training Bharata in Tandava, Shiva's spouse the goddess Parvati offered her own dance style - Lasya. Later she trained the demon Banu's daughter Ushu in this style, who in her turn passed this knowledge down to the women of Saurashtra (western India).

So two main lines in Indian dance, Tandava and Lasya, spread all around the world.

In spite of the fact that the art of Natya was created by Brahma as a source of entertainment and enlightenment it is important to remember that it is also a sacrament. That's why Brahma gave instructions to all dancers that before performance they are sure to do Puja (or Puravangaram Vriti - rituals of worshipping the Deity before performance; there are 19 of them, 9 are performed behind the scenes, the other 10 are performed on stage after curtain rise).

It is believed that if Puravangaram Vriti is ignored or performed incorrectly by performers or their teachers, such people will be in woe. Their performance will be Nicha Natyam (vulgar) and those who watch such a performance will be reincarnated as animals in next lives.

Whereas performing Puja according to all rules and with proper respect will let even mortal dancers get grace and place in heaven from Gods.

Thus the art of dance is the incarnation of the highest form of deity. That's why classical dance in India has been considered to be worthy of Gods' view for so many centuries.

Main deities and the cosmological theory

Hinduism is one of the most extraordinary religions of the world where polytheism reaches the unbelievable degree. The innumerous number of gods and goddesses decorate niches of the pantheon.

There are three supreme deities: Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva.

They constitute the concept of Trimurti i.e. the triple image which unites Brahma the Creator, Vishnu the Almighty and Shiva the Destroyer.

Besides the three Supreme Deities the Hindus also worship a great number of other gods, the most known of them are the following:

Indra: the god of war, the king of demigods, the ruler of Amaravati, one of the lower skies. He is considered to guard the Eastern part of the world.

Varuna: the all-seeing god of the Vedas who descended from his celestial palace to become the god of waters. At the same time he is the keeper of the Western part of the Universe.

Yama: the guardian of the Southern part of the world, the god of death who reigns in the Purgatory where sinners suffer until the next birth.

Kubera: the god of precious metals, stones, minerals and wealth in general, the lord of the Northern part of the world. His residence is the wonderful town of Alaka not far from the mountain Kaylasa. Innumerous armies of dwarves (guhyakas) and mountain spirits (yakshas) are subordinate to him.

Ganesha (Ganapati): the god with the elephant head, Shiva and

43 | P a g e https://thebatmenbegins.wordpress.com/ Parvati's second son, the leader of ganas (demigods, Shiva's servants). He is The Obstacles Remover and the patron of all who goes in for different studies. He is the most favorite deity among the Hindus and is frequently portrayed dancing. His attributes are one broken tusk and a fat abdomen; he solemnly sits upon a rat.

Hanuman: the monkey god, son of Vayu (the god of wind), friend and true servant of Rama. In his honor monkeys are considered sacred.

Kama: the Indian god of love. Just like his European colleague he is portrayed as a handsome youth armed with a bow and arrows with a slight difference that his bow is made of sugarcane and flowers are his arrows. He has apsaras (nymphs) in his service.

Besides, all gods and demigods had wives who as a rule wore the names similar to the male names only with female endings, for instance Indrani.

Similar to the three Supreme Deities, Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva's wives are the Supreme among the great number of female deities of the Indian pantheon and are highly revered by the Hindus.

Sarasvati: Lord Brahma's wife, the patroness of art, music and literature. She is portrayed as a young beautiful white-skinned woman with a vina (an Indian lute) and a book in her hand; she is escorted by a swan. According to a legend it was Sarasvati who invented Sanskrit.

Lakshmi: the goddess of luck and prosperity, Lord Vishnu's wife. According to a legend she appeared from the waters of the churned Causal Ocean. She is usually portrayed as a wonderful woman in her prime who sits or stands on a lotus, often with a lotus in her hand. They believe that as Vishnu's wife she becomes a wife of his every incarnation. Thus she is worshipped as Goddess Sita, Rama's spouse (see below); Rukmini, the first Krishna's queen, and Radha, Lord Krishna's eternal sweetheart.

Parvati: Lord Shiva's wife in her benevolent aspect. In her awesome aspect she is worshipped as Durga or Kali. In her hostile aspect Parvati is portrayed as a terrible multi-handed witch armed with various weapons, with her fangs bared, with a bloody tongue and a necklace of skulls around her neck.

VISHNU

Vishnu is usually portrayed as a four-handed man with dark blue skin and a crown on his head who holds symbolical attributes in his hands: a shell, a disc sudarshanu, a rod and a lotus. There is a sacred precious stone kaustubha on his neck. He rides Garuda, a gigantic eagle with a semi- human face. The Hindus worship Vishnu as "an all-embracing deity" meaning that all other gods are either his emanations or reflect his separate aspects.

According to a Hindu cosmogonical myth Vishnu is the eternal ruler on the planets of "the spiritual sky" - Vaikunthah (here he is called Narayana). A spiritual cloud sometimes darkens the edge of the spiritual sky brahmajiyoti. The darkened part is called mahat-tattva.

Then Lord Narayana assumes the shape of Maha-Vishnu and lies on the waters of the Causal Ocean. At the same time he stays in a meditation sleep yoga-nidra. The moment he exhales the innumerous numbers

44 | P a g e https://thebatmenbegins.wordpress.com/ ofuniverses come out of the pores of his body. They float on the surface of the Causal Ocean like bubbles in foam. All these universes only exist during a single Visnu's exhalation.

The same Maha-Vishnu enters each of these universes as Garbhodakashayi-Visnu and in Garbha Ocean he lies upon serpent Shesha who is also one of the Narayana's aspects.

Out of Garbhodakashayi-Visnu's omphalos a stem of lotus grows up and on this lotus Brahma, the Lord of the specific Universe, is born. Out of his mind and body Brahma creates various forms of living creatures which give the Individual Souls (atme) the opportunity to become apparent in the material world. He also creates the Sun, the Moon and all the planets of"the material sky" and all the demigods who rule these planets i.e. in fact he creates his own Universe.

The life time of a universe equals Brahma's life period and makes up 100 "Brahma years" that exactly equals Maha-Vishnu's length of exhalation. When Maha-Vishnu inhales, all the myriads of universes each one with its own Brahma, return into the non-developed state and wait for the new Maha-Vishnu's exhalation.

In Hinduism the main cosmological cycle is kalpa, "a day of Brahma" that consists of 14 manvantaras or secondary cycles with duration of 306 720 thousand years each with big intervals between them. 360 of such days and nights make up "a year of Brahma". Every "cosmic day" Brahma creates the Universe and every "cosmic night" he absorbs it; and while he sleeps the whole universe stays in his body as a pure potency. Every manvantara contains 71 mahayugas and each mahayuga in its turn is divided into four yugas (eras): Krita (other name Satya), Treta, Dvapara and Kali. Their duration equals respectively: Satya Yuga - 1 728 thousand human years Treta Yuga - 1 296 thousand years Dvapara Yuga - 864 thousand years Kali Yuga - 432 thousand years

Every Yuga is the further decline of religiousness, morals, power, growth and duration of human life and his happiness in comparison with the previous Yugas. It is believed we live in the era of Kali Yuga that began 5000 years ago.

Thus if one counts up the whole life time of a single Universe it will equal 311 040 000 million of human years.

While the whole multitude of universes stays revealed, the Initial Vishnu watches how the things go in each of them and from time to time he incarnates in this or that form entirely or partially to introduce the proper order. According to the most spread classification there has been 10 Vishnu's avatars (incarnations) on the Earth.

1. Fish (matsya). When the Earth was under the waters of the Flood, Vishnu assumed the aspect of a fish which was the first to warn Manu (the forefather of the mankind, Brahma's son) of the coming danger. Then it took Manu, his family and seven sages (rishis) out of the Flood on a ship tied to a horn on its head.

2. Turtle (kurma). Many divine treasures were lost during the flood including ambrosia (amrita) that helped gods to preserve their eternal youth. Vishnu assumed the aspect of a gigantic turtle and went to the bottom of the cosmic ocean. The gods placed mountain Mandara on its back and wrapped the divine serpent Vasuka around the mountain. Then they pulled the serpent and thus untwisted the

45 | P a g e https://thebatmenbegins.wordpress.com/ mountain shaking the ocean up the way an ordinary Indian milkman churns butter. Amrita and many other treasures including goddess Lakshmi came to the surface of the foamed ocean.

3. Wild boar (varaha). Demon Hiranyaksha again immersed the Earth into the depths of the cosmic ocean. Vishnu assumed the image of a gigantic wild boar, killed the demon and put the Earth back in its place by raising it on its fang.

4. Lion Man (narasimha). Another demon Hiranyakashipu received the magic ability to become invulnerable as a gift from Brahma. Neither animal nor man, nor god could kill him neither by day nor by night. Using his safety he started to pursue gods and men and even his pious son Prahlada. Then Prahlada turned to Vishnu for help. At sunset i.e. neither by day nor by night the god suddenly appeared out of a column in the demon's palace and killed the demon in the image of half-man and half-lion.

5. Dwarf (vamana). Demon Bali seized power over the world and after performing a number of ascetic feats he acquired the supernatural might and even started to threaten gods. Vishnu appeared before him in the image of a dwarf and asked to give him as a present as much land as he could measure in three steps. When the present was promised the god turned into a giant and made two steps which covered the earth, the sky and the space between them. But he generously abstained from the third step leaving the underworld in the demon's domain.

6. Parashurama ("Rama with an axe"). Vishnu assumed a human image as a Brahman Jamadagni's son.When wicked tsar Kartavirya robbed his father, Parashurama killed him. Kartavirya's sons in their turn killed Jamadagni, after that angry Parashurama 21 times exterminated all the men from the kshatriy(warriors) estate.

7. Rama, the prince of Ayodhy, a hero of the epic drama "Ramayana". Vishna assumed his image to save the world from the oppressions of demon Ravana. Rama is usually portrayed as a man with dark skin often armed with a bow and arrows. He is followed by his loving spouse Sita, the embodiment of feminine loyalty, his three devoted brothers: Lakshmana, Bharata and Shatrughna, and by Hanuman, the king of monkeys, his loyal friend and companion-in-arms. Rama is revered as the embodiment of an ideal husband, commander and a monarch.

8. Krishna, the most significant of Vishnu's incarnations. The stories from the life of this deity are most often referred to in dance. The most favorite scenes are his child's roguery as for instance stealing butter from Yashoda (his foster mother) or his love affairs withgopis (shepherdesses) among whom the beauty Radha was the most beloved.

The more detailed description of Krishna's life can be found in the most famous epic work Mahabharata.

In short his story is the following. Krishna was born in Mathur in the tribe of yadavas. His father was Vasudeva, his mother - Devaki, the cousin sister of king Kansa who reigned at that time. There was a prophecy that Kansa would perish from the hand of Devaki's eighth son, that's why he intended to destroy all her children. But Krishna and his elder brother Balarama escaped the massacre. They were adopted and brought up by a shepherd Nanda and his wife Yashoda from Vrindavana. On knowing that the brothers escaped the death prepared for them, Kansa made multiple attempts to destroy the children. But as the incarnation of the God, Krishna worked a great number of wonders and performed feats: he would kill demons sent by Kansa, would cover the dwellers of Vrindavana from the storm by raising the mountain Govardhana on his little

46 | P a g e https://thebatmenbegins.wordpress.com/ finger over their heads etc. When he was free from performing feats he grazed cows, played the flute for gopies and gave himself to his child's roguery.

When he grew up and bid farewell to his idyllic shepherd life he headed for Mathura to fight the malevolent cousin of his mother. He killed Kansa and became the ruler of the kingdom of Mathura; but being pressed by the ruler Magadhi, Kansa's father-in-law from the one side, and from the other side by the nameless king of yavanas from the north-west, he left the kingdom and established a new capital in Dvarak in Saurashtra. There he married Rukmini and made her his main wife among his 16,108 wives who gave birth to his 180,000 sons. In the main "Mahabharata" story throughout the whole history of the fight among royal clans he appears as a devoted friend and councilor of the five Pandavas brothers and before the battle at Kurukshetra which is the culmination of "Mahabharata" while addressing to one of his brothers Arjuna, he pronounced his great sermon stated in "Bhagavadgita".

9. Buddha, the latest Vishnu's incarnation in the past. According to "Gitagovinda" written by the great poet Jayadeva, Vishnu assumed the image of Buddha out of compassion to animals in order to put an end to the bloody offerings.

10. Kalki - the future incarnation. The Hindus believe that in the end of our morbid era Vishnu will appear as a man riding on a white horse with a blazing sword in his hand. He will condemn sinners, reward the virtuous ones and revive Satya Yuga ("the golden age").

SHIVA

In the Hindus' view all classical arts are inseparably linked with the divinity. They believe that Shiva is the source of dance - Nataraja. He dances and destroys the Universe when the due time comes. But Shiva is also a great ascetic. He sits immersed in meditation on the mountain Kaylasa in the Himalayas. There is a legend that Parvati had to follow Shiva's example and became a hermit so that Shiva took notice of her and married her.

In his Nataraja aspect Shiva is usually portrayed four-handed. In his upper left hand he holds Damara, a small drum which he uses while dancing Tandava. Vibrations of vital force come from Damara that puts the first step towards the Evolution of the Universe. Besides, the birth of the initial sound "OM" is identified with this drum. The other left hand lowered in the direction of the toes of a raised legembodies liberation and deliverance.

The upper right hand holds a plate with fire or a trident, the symbol of purification and destruction, and the lower right hand with stretched fingers and omkara on the palm symbolizes protection.

The right foot that treads on a dwarf breaks the chains which embrace a soul and lead it into the world of ignorance and illusion. The raised left leg is the symbol of liberation from Samsara (chain of reincarnations).

There is an image of Shiva with loose and flying hair decorated with stars. This is the example of Rhythm in space. Two eyes of Shiva are the Sun and the Moon, and "the third eye" is the symbol of his supreme wisdom and insight. The three eyes altogether embody the Past, the Present and the Future.

Shiva is sometimes portrayed as Ardhanarishvara with one part of the figure being the male aspect the other is the female aspect. This is the symbol of the god's unity with his shakti (inner energy).

47 | P a g e https://thebatmenbegins.wordpress.com/ The river Ganga streaming out of his head confirms his immortality. And, finally, Shiva's dance over the prostrate dwarf symbolizes the complete victory over the evil in the whole world.

Generally speaking Shiva's dance is known as Tandava and takes one of the main places in Indian mythology. They believe that Shiva performed 108 kinds of Tandava though only 64 of them have a detailed description in literature.

The seven basic types of Tandava are called respectively: Kalika, Gauri, Sandhya, Samhara, Tripura, Urdhava and Ananda.

Shiva performed the most famous Ananda Tandava in the place Tillai (modern Chitambaram, 150 miles far from Madras).

The story is the following. Shiva learned that several thousands of heretics settled down in the forest not far from Tillai. Having decided to finish with them he headed there followed by Vishnu who assumed the image of a beautiful woman as a blind. But rishis (sages) sensed the danger and immediately prepared for defense. They lit sacrificial bonfires and started to read magic spells that resulted in the appearance of a tiger, a serpent and a dwarf.

Shiva neutralized the tiger and the serpent by putting them on as ornaments and started to dance on the dwarf. The heretics realized the uselessness of their efforts and when Shiva opened his third eye they prostrated themselves as one before him. Among those who saw dancing Shiva was Adi Shesha, a thousand-headed serpent upon which Vishnu lies. He was so enchanted by what he saw that he appealed to Shiva with a prayer to give him the opportunity of admiring the dance once more. Shiva told him to stay in Tillai until his next arrival. Transforming himself into half-man, half-serpent Adi Shesha stayed in Tillai for many thousands of years and was known there as Patanjali.

The second Shiva's visit to Tillai happened under the following circumstances.

At that time there were two sacred places in Tillai: one was a place of worshipping Shiva, the other belonged to Kali. When Shiva decided to head for Tillai to make his devoted people happy, Kali opposed to it and refused to let him pass. Shiva got into difficulties. In order to solve this problem he offered Kali to hold a dance contest, according to the rules the defeated would have to abandon the sacred place and the town forever.

In the presence of many disciples and demigods Shiva performed a lot of dances but Kali was very accurate in imitating and was not inferior to Shiva in this respect. The confrontation lasted for a long time. Shiva felt more and more irritating. In his persistence to win he resorted to cunning: he raised his right leg up to the head level and started to dance in this position. Perhaps Kali would be able to give her rival the adequate response but the feminine intuition gave her a hint that she was to yield. Leaving the place of contest Kali abandoned the town for good and settled down in its outskirts. This Shiva's dance is known as Urdhava.

Two divine dances in Tillai became a very important event for his worshippers. As a result of their belief and in honor of Shiva as the Supreme Dancer they erected a wonderful Nataraja statue in a temple in Chitambaram.

48 | P a g e https://thebatmenbegins.wordpress.com/ The structure of human “subtle body”

According to Indian philosophical tradition alongside with the branchy nervous system responsible for the perceiving of the physical world, in human body there also exists the so- called "subtle system" that regulates emotional, psychological and spiritual existence of people.

This energy system (or "subtle body") consists of three channels called nadis and seven basic energy centers - chakras. Each chakra is responsible for realization of certain spiritual qualities which remain non-manifested in most people.

In India the aim of human life is believed to be in achieving Self-realization what means the awakening of Kundalini energy that stays asleep during many reincarnations. While awoken, Kundalini rises up along the central energy channel (spinal column being its physical realization) and fills all the seven centers (chakras) with pure energy that makes it possible for all the human spiritual qualities to manifest themselves spontaneously.

Regular meditations allow strengthening of the "subtle body" without any mental efforts. As a result a person becomes calm, satisfied, and at the same time active and creative. With all this, in the process of meditation an individual gets the opportunity to exactly diagnose the condition of his/her "subtle system" by means of vibrations (sensations) which manifest themselves on palms of hands.

The matter is that the projections of all the seven chakras are found on palms. The right palm is responsible for diagnosing the right aspect of each chakra, and the left palm is responsible for the left aspect respectively. Cool vibrations (breeze) on any of the projections indicate that a chakra is all right; warm or hot vibrations, pricking, numbness, feeling of heaviness and burning pain indicate that a person's credo, his/her philosophy of life or his/her deeds lead to problems in subtle body and eventually develop into psychological and physical problems.

Chakras

0. Sacrum A three cornered bone at the base of the spinal column is the residence of Kundalini. Sacrum means "sacred" in Latin.

1. Muladhara Located at the base of the spinal column on its exterior side. Element - Earth. It has four thin petals. Qualities: innocence, purity, chastity, wisdom, spontaneous knowledge of Truth (as with a child). It is connected with genitals and organs of secretion. Problems in this center are caused by moral unscrupulousness, too excessive or perverted sexual life, unnecessary asceticism, adultery, aggressiveness, and negative actions against children. Diagnosis - sensations at the base of palms.

2. Swadhisthana Located at the appendix level (a palm's width lower than umbilicus). It has 6 energy petals. Element - Fire.

49 | P a g e https://thebatmenbegins.wordpress.com/ Qualities: abilities for creative work and for acquiring knowledge, knowledge of Truth. It controls functions of kidneys, lower part of liver, pancreas, spleen and bowels. Problems in this center are caused by intense future planning, a habit to live on the future, excessive learning and work, magic, witchcraft and occult practices. Diagnosis - sensations on thumbs.

3. Nabi Nabi-chakra (other name Manipura) regulates the level of prosperity, success in business, relations with partner in marriage, ability to fulfill Dharma (inner moral and spiritual duty). It has 10 energy petals. Element - Water. Qualities: the enlightened Nabi grants a person a feeling of satisfaction, endows with generosity and hospitality, shifts attention from material consumption upon spiritual life, gives support in spiritual ascension. Physically this chakra is connected with stomach, upper part of liver, bowels. Problems in this center are caused by stinginess, passion for material consumption, moral unscrupulousness, adultery, disrespect to partner in marriage, stealing, illegal money income, alcohol and medicinal chemistry. Diagnosis - sensations in middle fingers.

Nabi is surrounded by the Void which is figuratively called "the ocean of illusions". In this area the central channel suffers a break and Kundalini energy cannot rise higher than Swadhistana if the Void is not filled with vibrations of a true spiritual leader whom a person accepted as his/her mentor. Bhawasagara is the other name for the Void. This aspect is connected with the progress of personality, through it we are influenced by stars, planets and forces of gravitation. Problems in this center are caused by cruel and egoistic behavior, moral unscrupulousness, non-observance of Dharma, following pseudo-teachers and pseudo-doctrines, and also by all the factors that strike Nabi-chakra. Diagnosis - sensations on palms except for their centers.

4. Anahata Located at the heart level. Element - Fire. Physically it regulates heart, lungs and bronchi functions. Qualities: in normal condition it endows a person with fearlessness, a feeling of confidence and security, good immunity, ability to love without affection, favorable relations with parents. It has 12 energy petals-valencies. Problems in this center are caused by unhealthy emotional affections, fear, smoking, disrespect for parents, spiritually deprived life, cruelty, egoism, moral unscrupulousness, excessive physical work. Diagnosis - sensations on little fingers.

5. Vishuddha Located at the jugular cavity level at the neck base. It has 16 energy petals. Element - Air (sky, ether). Physically it is responsible for throat, neck, face, teeth, ears, tongue, nose, eyes and abilities to speak and sing.

50 | P a g e https://thebatmenbegins.wordpress.com/ Qualities: good Vishuddha grants a person pleasant mimicry, splendid speech, ear for music and voice, ability to be a loose witness to everything that happens around and the ability to easily adapt in any team. Problems in this center are caused by foul and abusive language, rudeness, dominance over others via speech (shouts, rough instructions etc.), talkativeness, rumours, disdain of those who surround you, smoking, flirtation and impure thoughts towards opposite sex, feeling of guilt. Diagnosis - sensations in forefingers.

6. Ajna Located on the level of the middle of forehead in the place where optic nerves intersect. Element - Light. It has 2 energy petals. Physically connected with frontal, temporal and end lobes of the brain. Qualities: grants a person the ability for higher forms of thinking and sensation of Self (self as Pure Spirit), estimates the opportunity of visual perception. Problems in this center are caused by unforgiveness, yearning for vengeance, impure eyes and thoughts, construction of bulky mental conceptions, intensive thinking, egoism, illusions about one's personal might, conditionality and strict following the rules. Diagnosis - sensation in third fingers.

7. Sahasrara Sahasrara-chakra ("Thousand petal lotus") is located in the upper part of the head in the area of sinciput. It is connected with limbic nerve plexus. It has 1000 energy petals-valencies. Fully combines all the principles of all the other subtle centers. When Kundalini reaches Sahasrara-chakra and goes through it a person feels the state of unity with the Deity and acquires the initial Truth by merging with it into a single whole. Problems in this center are caused by doubts in God's existence, atheism, activity against God. Diagnosis - sensations in the palm centers.

Channels The so called "autonomous nerve system" is said to be functioning in human organism. According to Indian philosophical tradition it consists of three channels. The left channel is called Ida Nadi. It is connected with the right and hind side of the brain. The left channel nourishes the left sympathetic nerve system; it is responsible for a person's emotional life and his/her past. One may say that this channel stores the past. Everything that is the present today will become the past tomorrow. The Unconscious draws information and images out of this channel. Besides, the unconscious mind of every person is connected to the centuries-old collective unconscious mind. All events that have taken place since the world was created stay dormant in the collective unconscious that accumulates and keeps everything that happened during the process of evolution. The right channel is called Pingala Nadi. It is connected with the left and front side of the brain and intersects with Ida Nadi on the Ajna-chakra level. This channel nourishes the right sympathetic nerve system. On the right side there is a conscious mind that creates our future. Everything that a person thinks of the future is recorded on the right side which has access to the collective overconscious. The collective overconscious stores aggressive species of animals and plants and also all information that is placed there by excessively ambitious and extremely future-oriented individuals.

51 | P a g e https://thebatmenbegins.wordpress.com/ The central channel is called Sushumna Nadi. Kundalini goes through it in order to further go through the fontanel area (Brahmarandhra) and unite with the All-Penetrating Cosmic Energy (or World Mind). Sushumna Nadi is the channel of the present. A person whose Kundalini has risen up this channel can perceive the reality objectively while staying in a state of a loose witness and being in permanent contact with God.

Ornaments in Indian classical dance

Make-up and ornamentations relate to Aharya Abhinaya as Rangabhusa aspect. Although Aharya is of minor importance in comparison with the aspects of Angika, Sattvika and Vachika Abhinayas, it acts as an additional means for intensifying the visual performance of the aesthetical aspect. At the same time the use of make-up and ornamentations as well as the use of stage scenery and flowers varies depending on vritti (type) and dharmi (form of a performance). For instance, Natyashastra, a treatise on the art of drama, ascribes certain ornamentations for men and women.

Women Siddhi must perform in yellow saris and ornamentations made of pearls and emeralds. Actors playing Apsars (celestial dancers) use ornamentations as ornamental patterns made of jewels and arrange their hair in a high coiffure.

Dancers portraying Gandharvas (celestial musicians) decorate themselves with rubies and perform in bright red costumes. In their hands they must hold Vina (the Goddess' Sarasvati's string musical instrument).

Vidyadharis must appear before the audience in white costumes decorated with pearls. Dark garments and blue stones serve as the decoration for dancers playing demonesses. The costumes made of green silk and ornamentations made of pearls are typical for portraying goddesses. The costumes of milk carriers must be of blue color and their hair must be plaid.

Color gamut is used to tell one personages from the others. So the Kshatriys (warriors) perform in reddish and rust-colored shades, the Vayshyas (merchants) and the Shudras (servants) perform in darker shades.

The impeccable white is destined for the Brahmans.

The symbolism of color, costumes, make-up and ornamentations is the additional external means for dancers to resort to in order to portray this or that image, a hero or a heroine or a character.

Ornamentations play a special role. Dancers of classic styles Bharatanatyam, Kuchipudi, and Mohiniattam wear the so-called temple ornamentations made of gold and jewels. Nowadays jewels are

52 | P a g e https://thebatmenbegins.wordpress.com/ replaced with artificial stones. The traditionality of a temple set of ornamentation remains up to now. Every element of ornamentation has its name and symbolism.

Chandra-prabha (the Moon) and Surya-prabha (the Sun) which are fixed on the left (the Moon) and the right (the Sun) sides of the hair parting with the purpose of endowing a dancer with their beauty and shining.

Talay-saaman or Chutti emphasize the line of forehead and hair parting.

Talay-saaman with Surya and Chandra

Chutti

Maatal (pendants) are fixed to the ear lobes and hair in order to cover cochleae. They protect a dancer's hearing from the loud sound of drums.

Maatal

53 | P a g e https://thebatmenbegins.wordpress.com/ A long necklace is called differently depending on style and tradition: Maanga-malay, Muthu-malay, Tanmani and Kantha-haaram in the Kuchipudi tradition. Its purpose is to balance a dancer's breathing.

Tanmani (long necklace)

Addikai (short necklace)

A belt around the waist supports the spinal column and also has different names: Oddiyanam, Kamar-patta, Vaddanamu in Kuchipudi.

Kamar-patta

Bracelets Valayal protect wrists and add elegance and grace to them.

Valayal

54 | P a g e https://thebatmenbegins.wordpress.com/ Chalang or a ring in a nose also plays a special role. A full set consists of three kinds: a small nail or a clip for the right nostril, a ring decorated with jewels for the left nostril (in Kuchipudi it is called Mukkera) and a pendant that is fixed on the lower part of the nasal septum.

In the Kuchipudi tradition a certain dance episode from the drama Bhama Kalapam is dedicated to this type of ornamentation. The central personage of the drama, Satyabhama, treated her collection of ornamentations with the great awe because she had a separate set for each day of the week. The most precious among them was a ring Mukkera. Once after the quarrel her beloved Lord Krishna left Satyabhama. She turned to her friend Madhavi for help in returning Krishna's love. Satyabhama offered to give all her ornamentations but did not desire to part with Mukkera. Madhavi kept on insisting that Satyabhama gave her the ring. Her intention was not to take possession of the ring but to make her friend part with her most precious treasure. Here Satyabhama's ornamentation is compared with ego. By giving the ring she as if gets rid of the ego's heavy bonds. It is easy to give what belongs to you but the giving will be full only when you step over your ego. The drama finishes in Satyabhama's giving the ring to Madhavi and Krishna returns to her after getting the proof of her complete devotion to him. The ring's purpose is to protect innocence.

Other ornamentations:

Jimmiki (earrings) or Kundalu in Kuchipudi.

Bells - Gunghru, Gajjelu or Kinkini. They help to beat the rhythm and protect ankles.

55 | P a g e https://thebatmenbegins.wordpress.com/ Flowers of jasmine (white) and orange Kanakambaram

Raakodi - an ornamentation for the false hair decorated with a broche and a braid.

Kunjalam - an ornamentation entwined with a plait with pompons or tassels on edges.

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