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Li, Is). Then Proton and Neutron Are 8.,4. The Nucleon Isosp'in 225 8.4 The Nucleon Isospin Charge independence of nuclear forces leads to the introduction of a new conserved quantum number, isospin. As early as 1932, Heisenberg treated the neutron and the proton as two states of one particle, the nucleon l/.(6) The two states presumably have the same mass, but the electromagnetic interaction makes the masses slightly different. (The mass difference of the u andd quarks also contributes, but we neglect this effect here and throughout this chapter.) To describe the two states of the nucleon, an isospin space (internal charge space) is introduced, and the following analogy to the two spin states of a spin-] particle is made: Spin- j Particle in Ordinary Space Nucleon in Isospin Space Orientation Up Up, proton Down Down, neutron The two states of an ordinary spin- j particle are not treated as two particles but as two states of one particle. Similarly, the proton and the neutron are considered as the up and the down state of the nucleon. Formally, the situation is described by introducing a new quantity, i,sospi,n /.(z) 16" nucleon with isospin ] has 2I *L:2 possible orientations in isospin space. The three components of the isospin vector .i are denoted by It,,Iz, and 13. The value of /3 distinguishes, bg d,efini,tion between the proton and the neutron. 13 : ++ is the proton and,l.3 : -; is the neutron.(8) The most convenient way to write the value of .I and 13 for a given state is by using a Dirac ket: lI, Is). Then proton and neutron are proton neutron l+,+1, | *,-t). (8.13) The charge for the particle 11,13) is given by Q: e(Is + ;). (8.14) With the values of the third component of 13 given in Eq. (8.13), the proton has charge e, and the neutron charge 0. 6W. Heisenberg, Z. Phgsik 77,I (Lg32). [tanslated in D. M. Brink, Nuclear Forces, pergamon, Elmsford, N.Y., 1965]. 7To distinguish spin and isospin, we write isospin vectors with an arrow. 8In nuclear physics, isospin r_s sometimes called isobaric spin; it is often denoted by T,and the neutron is taken to have Is : i and the proton Is - -j, b""u,rrru there are more neutrons than protons in stable nuclei and 13(73) is then positive for thlse cases. 226 Angular Momentum and" Isospin 8.5 Isospin Invariance gained What have we with the introduction of isospin? So far, very little. Formally, ( the neutron and the proton can be described as two states of one particle. New 1 aspects and new results appear when charge independence is introduced and when ( isospin is generalized to all hadrons. ( Charge independence states forces that the hadronic do not distinguish between t the proton and the neutron. As long as only the hadronic interaction is present, ( the isospin vector i point in any direction. In other words, there exists rota- "un tional invariance in isospin space; the system is invariant under rotations about any direction. As in Eq. (8.10), this fact is expressed by lu1, i1 : g. (8.15) \ With only H7 present, the 2I * 1 states with different vaiues of 13 are degenerate; l they have the same energy (mass). Said simply, with only the hadronic interaction t present, neutron and proton would have the same mass. The electromagnetic in- teraction (and the up-down quark mass difference) destroy the isotropy of isospin space; it breaks the symmetry, and, as in Eq. (8.11), it gives lHn + H.^, il + o. (8.16) However, we know from Section 7.1 that the electric charge is always conserved, even in the presence of H.rn; lHn+ H.*,8] :0. (8.17) Q is the operator corresponding to the electric charge q; it is connected to .I3 by Eq. (8.1a), Q --e(Is+ ]). Introducing Q into the commutator, Eq. (8.17), gives lHn+H.*,1e] :0. (8.18) The third component of isospin is conserved even in the presence of the electromag- netic interaction. The analogy to the magnetic field case is evident; Eq. (8.18) is the isospin equivalent of Eq. (8.12). It was pointed out in Section 8.4 that charge independence holds not only for nucleons but for all hadrons. Before generalizing the isospin concept to all hadrons and exploring the consequences of such an assumption, a few preliminary remarks trc are in order concerning isospin space. We stress that l is a vector in isospin space, at not in ordinary space. The direction in isospin space has nothing to do with any tl direction in ordinary space, and the value of the operator i or Is in isospin space has nothing to do with ordinary space. So far, we have related only the third component of i to an observable, the electric charge q (Eq. (8.14)). What is the physical significance of 11 and 12? These two quantities cannot be connected directly T to a physically measurable quantity. The reason is nature: in the laboratorv, two p 8.5. Isospin Inuariance magnetic fields can be set up. The first can point in the z direction, and the second in the r direction. The effect of such a.combination on the spin of the particle can be computed, and the measurement along any direction is meaningful (within the limits of the uncertainty relations). The electromagnetic field in the isospin space, however, cannot be switched on and off. The charge is always related to one component of 1-, and this component is traditionally taken to be ,I3. Renaming the components and connecting the charge, for instance, to 12 does not change the situation. We now assume the general existence of an isospin space, with its third compo- nent connected to the charge of the particle by a linear relation of the form Q:alslb' (8.1e) With such a relationship, conservation of the electric charge implies conservation of Iz. Iz is therefore a good quantum number, even in the presence of the electromag- netic interaction. The unitary operator for a rotation in isospin space by an angle r,.r about the direction d is Ua(r): exP(-z ua' i), (8.20) where / is the Hermitian generator associated with the unitary operator (J, and we expect ito b. an observable. As in the case of the anguiar momentum operator J,, the arguments follow the general steps outlined in Section 7.1. To study the physical properties of 1-, we assume first that only the hadronic interaction is present. Then the electric charge is zero for all systems, and Eq. (8.19) does not determine the direction of .I3. Charge independence thus implies that a hadronic system without electromagnetic interaction is invariant under any rotation in isospin space. We know from Section 7.1, Eq. (7.9), that U then commutes with f11: lHn,Ua(r)l :0. (8.21) As in Eq. (7.15), conservation of isospin follows immediately, lu1, i1 : g. Charge independence of the hadronic forces leads to conservation of isospin. In the case of the ordinary angular momentum, the commutation relations for J follow from the unitary operator (8.7) by straightforward algebraic steps. No further assumptions are involved. The same argument can be applied to Ua(u,'), and the three components of the isospin vector must satisfy the commutation relations llt,Izl : 'ilz, llr,Is) : i,11, [Is,1t] -- ilz. (8.22) The eigenvalues and eigenfunctions of the isospin operators do not have to be com- puted because they are analogous to the corresponding quantities for ordinary spin. Angular Momentum and Isospin The steps from Eq. (5.6) to Eqs. (5.7) and (5.8) are independent of the physical interpretation of the operators. All results for ordinary angular momentum can be taken over. In particular, 12 and 13 obey the eigenvalue equations I3olI,1e) : I(I 1)l/,13) (8.23) + t Is,ooll ,/e) : hll , hr. (8.24) 0 ru Here /jo and .I3,oo orr the left-hand side are operators, and 1 and ,I3 on the right- s hand side are quantum numbers. The symbol 11, ,I3) denotes the eigenfunction tf;1,7". a (In a situation where no confusion can arise, the subscripts "op" will be omitted.) b The allowed values of ,I are the same as for J, Eq. (5.9), and they are ft (8.25) et n For each value of. I,Is can assume the 2I + l values from -I to I. tt In the following sections, the results expressed by Eqs. (8.22)-(8.25) will be ol applied to nuclei and to particles. It will turn out that isospin is essential for pl understanding and classifying subatomic particles. Yt o We have noted above that the components.Il and 12 are not directly connected st, to observables. However, the linear combinations iu CU Ia -- It I i,Iz (8.26) have a physical meaning. Applied to a state l/,13),[ raises and 1- lowers the value of ,I3 by one unit: ap r+lr,,1s) : [(r+1r)(/rIa * r)]t/rv,,h+ 1). (8.27) ler rq Equation (8.27) can be derived with the help of Eqs. (8.22) to (S.Za;.tol . II c€rl 8.6 Isospin of Particles po' sel, The isospin concept was first applied to nuclei, but it is easier to see its salient features in connection with particles. As stated in previous the section, isospin is ral presumably a good quantum number as Iong as only the hadronic interaction is pio present.
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