Diatpora in Attcient Chinn

ln the caves of Dunhuang, there is a wealth considerable influence on traditional o{ recorded history of Zoroastrianism in Chinese rilual offerings and Chinese China and it was briefly discussed in 1985 cullure.6 by Liu Minghu.3 Short History of An Lushan My research has established that in the An Lushan, a Zoroastrian army general and Tang dynasty Zoroastrianism was not only Shi Shiiming, another Zoroastrian military popular but had a very large following in officer were the leaders of rebellion against China where it was called Xianiiao, the Tang dynasty. The Zoroastrian ancestry of Huoxian-jiaa, or Baihuo-jiao. This was An Lushan was established by Lin Wushu.T discussed by many scholars such as, Jiang This was confirmed by Rong Xinjiang in a

Boquin, Lin Wushu and ShiAnchang. I paper delivered at a conference in Taiwan and recommend Lin Wushu's arlicle "A brief published later in 1997 ("The Ethnicity of An description o{ the Zoroastrian view o{ Lushan and Religious Belief"") This marriage" published in Persian irrevocably gave the Zoroastrian belie{s of An Zoroastrians and Ancient China, Taipei, Lushan and Shi Shiiming. 1995, pp 71-84. An Lushan besides being the formidable The question of Zoroastrtanism in the Supreme Commanding General in the Tang western region of ancient China was also Dynasty. was also a Zoroastrian priest who examined by another Chinese scholar Gong personally led his Zoroastrian followers both Fanzhen"l Lin Micun fully documented the Persians and Sogdians in religious rituals. spread of Zoroastrianism in the light of He belonged to AN clan. li is to be noted evidences derived from archeological that many Zoroastrian priests were in the discoveries.5 A major break in the studies of state bureaucracy. The newly discovered Zoroastrianism in China appeared, when an connection between An Lushan and article by Jiang Boqin in 1993, established Zoroastrianism goes a long way in that Zoroastrian rituals (saishnin in ancient explaining why there were so many Chinese) were performed in the Dunhuang Zoroastrians numbering into millions in region and Zoroastrianism exerted China.B An Lushan and Shi Simming with other morluary divan found during the excavation Sogdian-Zoroastrian leaders staged a in May-July 2000 in the tomb of another rebellion in 763 AD against the Tang Zoroastrian aristocrat An Qi in Xi'an, in dynasty . The rebellion did not succeed but Shaanxi province. ended the prosperity of the Tang dynasty and ushered in the decline of 4.The full excavation of Zoroastrian temple in Zoroastrainism. The failed rebellion resulted Jiexiucounty town, was examined by me. in ihe massacre of thousands of the The inscriptions record its first construction as members of the AN clan and Zoroaslrians Xuanshen-lou meaning Zoroastrian Temple. with the name of AN were put to death. The inscriptions record its construction during 3000 Zoroastrian priests were exiled so the Northern Song dynasty and it was they could be controlled and not meddle repaired in 1674 during the Kangxi period. with Chinese customs" The members of lhe clan were advised to change their last name 5.The padly excavated Zoroastrian Temple of An. Many took the name of Li or Lee.e at Dunhuang, (see Dunhuang Research, This rebellion resulted in the change in the Dunhuang Academy, Dunhaung, Gansu, Tang dynasty policy from openness to 1999). The excavation will be completed in persecution of all foreign religions including 2012. This was also examined on my recent Zoroastrianism. field study.

Archeological discoveries and research 6.ln 1955 archeologists unearthed The Tomb Epitaph of Lady Ma,lhe wife o{ Su The archaeological discoveries of Liang near lhe western gate of Xi'an. The Zoroastrianism in ancient China were epitaph was inscribed in two languages conducted by Chinese scholars- - Chinese and Pahlavi. lt is the most archeologists within the context of important biiingual text evidence of lhe Zoroastrian history as follows : - presence of Zoroastrians in ancient China. The Japanese scholar ltoo Yoshinori A History of Zoroastrians (in Chinese) by published a study "A linguistic study of the Gong Fangzhen and Yan Keja. Pahlavi in the bilingual in the Chinese- first history which The comprehensive Pahlavi epitaph unearthed in Xi'an,1964", provided insight on the spread and fresh and he concluded that the family travelled China, influence of Zoroastrianism in beyond Amu Darya (Oxus River) towards published by Shanghai Social Science ' east in the wake of the Arab invasion and '1998. has given Publishing House, This us arrived in China during early Tang dynasty. the archeological evidences of the spread of This inscription was further studied by Zoroastrianism. W Sunderman and T Thilo in 1966, and J Harmata in 1971 . Helmut Humbach and 1.The decorations on tomb epitaphs of Ke Wang Shippimg refined the interpretation of Jing, a Zoroastrian of Northern Wei period the epitaph, see "Die Pahlavi-Chineseche has names of the Zoroastrian deities the bilingue von Xi'an" , Acta lranica, 28, 1988. identilied by scholar Shi Anchang. Religious Festivals and the Calendar 2.Unearthed at Anyang in 1920 are Dunhuang manuscript P.4640, published in the Zoroastrian elements on Qi mortuary, Bibliotheque Nationale, shows a carved on a Sogdian-Zoroastrian ossuary Zoroastrian calendar covering the three now in the Palace Museum, Peking. year period from 899 to 901 AD, the siaxian days (Zoroastrian festival days) were 3.Two recently discovered masterpieces of celebrated annually in the early 1Oth century stone carvings. One in '1999 from excavated in Dunhuang. lt was called the Festival of tomb of Zoroastrian Yu Hong in Taiyun, Seven Blessings of Zoroastrianism. Mary Shanxi province dated to Sui dynasty. The Boyce pointed out that Pahlavi term second major discovery are the stone "Gahanbar" indicates the six great holy days 22 carvings on the screen surrounding a of this festival. ln the Norlhern Zhou and Northern Qi demonstrated that Zoroastrian sky burials dynasties the Zoroastrian New Year was flourished in Xinjiang from 6'h to 7rh celebrated in the 6rh month of the Chinese centuries contemporary with Northern Qi lunar calendar and this practice seems to and Tang dynasties. have conlinued uninterrupted to the present. Mary Boyce pointed out that the The aristocratic Zoroastrians migrating to calendar at lhe KADMIS, celebrated China dispensed the use of ossuaries and No Raz on 27t:h July from 1980 to opted for burial. The Zoroastrian mortuary 1983 and then celebrated this festival on bed from Ayayang is the firm evidence of 26th July from '1984 to 1987 exactly as was change to burial cuslom. done by the Zoroastrians in ancieni China. The "Ancient letters" discovered by Aural Funerary Rituals Stein at the watchtower site in Dunhuang is Exposure of dead: ln an article "Medieval the great research on the Sogdian- Zoroastrian burial evidence" published in Zoroastrians correspondence. The f indings The Persian Zoroastrianism and of Henning, Harmatta and GreneVSims- Zoroastrian Customs in Ancient China, Williams agree that the fifth letter seems to Lin Wushu described "how the Persian havg been issued from Guzang- Zoroastrians mostly placed the corpses of the Langzhouand, and Sogdian-Zoroastrians' major dead on mountiiin lop and after a month, the scope of activities extended east. The "Sky preparation for burials begins". activities of their funerary rituals were: burials". The corpse was placed on 'the wild Let me cite a passage lrom WeiJie's Tower of Silent Extinction" and after "Records of the Western People" in Tong animals devoured allthe flesh from the dian, which states: "Beyond the rvalls of the bones, the bones were placed in an ossuary. capital there were more than two hundred households who live apart and they are Fire Temples responsible for funerary matters. A courtyard is There were several Fire TemPles constructed and in it, they raise dogs. established in China and the majority Whenever a Zoroastrian dies, these pe,rple go to were in large cities. ln earlier period of collect the colps and it is placed in the Zoroastrianism, there was no fixed place of courtyard for the dogs to devour and, when the Zoroastrian worship and later on flesh is eaten from the bones, they gather the Zoroastrians buill permanent shrines. The bones and place in cofTin". tradition of Zoroastrian worship is known in Chinese as Saixr'an. A large number of Zoroastrian ossuaries have been discovered in China. Gernet, the The excavated Zoroastrian Temple at French scholar studied a sequence of Shanxi which I visited this month* will be decorative illustrations on Zoroastrian discussed in full details little later. The ossuaries which are known Amesha Zoroastrian Temple at Dunhuang is in the Spenta, the "bounteous immortals." The early stage of excavalion and will be female deity holding planl haoma, and a completed by 2A12. mortar, is Haurwata, symbolizing lntegrity, the other female deity is Ameretata The Gazeteer of Chang'an has kept the symbolizing lmmortality. ln some ossuaries records of the Zoroastrian Temples in the there were sculptured figures holding a south-western corner of the Buzeng{ang, shield and arrows identified as Verethragna, district of Xi'an. a god of war and victory. ln the Zoroastrian Temples known in Furthermore in 1997 KaeYyama, the Chinese as Huxian-ci where Hushen Japanese historian discussed in an article, (=Ahura Mazda) was worshipped there the Zoroastrian ossuaries unearthed at were no images of Ahura Mazda. He is various sites in Xinjiang, which worshipped as All-Mighty with great spiritual powers who extends salvation lo all suffering The temple has four tiers of eaves and the ones and He is the only omnipotent God. The lower layer is open to the surrounding area. worshippers gathered at the iire altars in the Connecting the two central tiers of eaves is a temples. The Tang temples of Zoroaslrians colonnade. The top section of the roof were under management of the sabao-fu consists of peaked structures called in which was the hereditary posilion. This is Chinese as xieshanding that enclose winged evident by the letter from the Xuanwu Military buffaloes in wooden carvings. Below the Commisioner and Lingu Tao, Director of Dept eaves on the three sides is an enclosed ol State Affairs in the reign of the Tang veranda with jutting balconies. The main hall Dynasty. lt is recorded that the Chief Priest is where fire altars were kept and where Shishr'suang's family for generations has Hutian (-Mazda) was worshiPPed. served as lhe Sabao-fu, (=lhe chief priest). Lin Wushu, the Chinese scholar in his ariicle Excavated Zoroastrian Temple in " A study of Zoroastrian Temples" published Jiexiu in Shanxi province. in Persian Zoroastrians and Ancient China, Lin Wushu, the Chinese scholar in his 1995, pp139-150, was a member of our article "A study of Zoroastrian Temples" team which accompanied me to Jiexiu. I also published in Persian Zoroastrians and met Ding Mingyifrom the lnstitute of Wodd Ancient China, 1995, pp139-150 was a Religions, the Chinese Academy of Social member of our team which accompanied Sciences. He shared with me his research me to Jiexiu, in the Shanxi province. I met and his publication " A discussion of God ol Ding Mingyifrom the lnstitute of World Zoroatrianism in Gaochang and the Religions, the Chinese Academy of Social Zoroastrian Temple in Dunhuang". Science. He shared with me his research and his publication "A discussion of god Beside Ding Mingyl an expert on the ancient of the Zoroastrians in Gaochang and the building of the Zoroastrian Temple, I met Zoroastrian Temple in Dunhuang". lt was Zhang Han and Chae Zejun, scholar- Din Mingyl who encouraged me to travel to archeologists from Shanxi who gave me Shanxi to examine the Zoroastrian Temple fruitful briefings lor which I am grateful. in Jiexiu county. Shi Yanling, the Jormer curator told me that he and Din Mingyl had Famous Zoroastrians of Ancient China spent several days in 1970 working in the = Sasania aristocrat Aluohn (Vahram) 616- Zoroastrian Temple. These two men are 710 who arrived in 660. wellacquainted with the ancient building. = Prince Phirooze s/o, the last Sasanian Emperor Yazdegird lll, went to the ln 1954 Chen Mingda et alpublished an article Chinese capital in 675 AD and welcomed in Wenwu cankao zillao detailing discoveries by Emperor Gaozong. He died in 678 of ancient architecture in Shanxi province. lt four years later. His statue was placed in took two years in excavating the Zoroastrian the mausoleum of the third Tang temple located on Shunchengguan-dongje emperor, where it can be seen to this street in Jiexiu county iown, lt is called day. Xiannshen-lou "Zoroastrian Temple". According = Prince Narseh s/o of Prince Phirooze. He to stele, the inscription records, "rhe prcsenr attempted to recover his Empire from the strucrlrre rvas repaired in 1674 during tl-re K:rngxi Arabs but failed. period of the of the Qing d-vnasty. Anr-l tl-re original - Another figure was Julao "Khusro", a Zoroastrian Temple rvas erccted during the descendant of Yazdegird lll who in729 Northem Song clynasty by \Uen Yanbcl'. allied with the Turks to recover the kingdom of his family without success. The unique architectural feature of the = An Lushan, General of the Teng Army, Zoroastrian Temple as I examined, is its raised who was also a religious leader, 'Sabau' entrance which juts prominently and spans the a Zoroastrian priest. roadway and il connects with the Yuelo "music = Mh-anMsh, daughter of the late farroxzd 24 towe/'where the prayers were sung. and wife of the Su-liang, titular general. = Nine Families:These famous families After his family had been living in China for were from the AN Clan three generations, a'{oreigner' could wed =Zhai Pantuo, a Zoroastrian high priest an imperial princess if at least one member performed a miracle in an audience wilh of his household had an official title. This the emperor Gaochang, by plunging a was to encourage assimilation. sword through the abdomen and raised the sword up in a circular motion but Proselytizing remained alive and recovered in seven 1. An Lushan, the Zoroastrian general and days. He was conferred by the emperor Shi Siming, another Zoroastrian general the title of Mobile Corps Commander, toppled the Tang dynasty and then later on (Dunhuang Manuscript S. 367: from the Manichean Uighurs toppled and Gazeteer of Shazhou and Rouyuan) 610 beheaded both. After the failed rebellion, AD - the Sui dynasty. the Tang dynasty massacred all Sogdian- Zoroastrians with the name of An and killed The priestly positions 5000 proselytizing priests. = Xianzheng - Zoroastrian Judge Moderator 2. Sabao-s, and padicularly sabao-fu-s, the s Fuzhu - subordinate (like raspi) entrusted Zoroastrian priests were actively proselytizing with Zoroastrian religious malters the.Chinese. = Sabao fu - Chief ritual priest like Zaotar (Zot) 3.The proselytizing activities resulted in the = Xianzhu - Officer of the Zoroastrian Temple Emperor Wuzong issuing a decree ordering more than 3,000 Zoroastrian priests to return According to Dunhaung manuscripts, ms. to the laity and not meddle with Chinese 5.3067, the terms for Zoroastrian priests in customs. By this decree, allthe Daqin Chinese are'xianzhu' (high priest),'fanzhu'or Zoroasirian priests were sent to distant 'maizzhu'(Ervard), The Sogdian term for places (?exiled) where they could be Zoroastrian priest who presided over controlled.ll religious rituals was'm gupt' (magupat), and 4. The Tang dynasty stopped and banned Zoroastrian missionary priest was known in proselytizing and persecuted severely in the Chinese as'chang fu-muhu.'1} "... in rhe Huichang period (841-846 AD). The per{ormance of rituals, the god of heaven Zoroastrians and particularly the Zoroastrian descended from the sky from rvhere there were families with the name of AN were put to six sons," This was the understanding of the death. Persecution ol Zoroastrians continued seven Amesha Spentas, (who are) Ahura and they no longer allowed to loin Mazda and six others. bureaucracy and discriminated. (cf Zhang Guangda, Persian Fire Worship and The major causes of the disappearance of the Ancient China, Taipei, 1885). Zoroastrians in Ancient China, were intermarriages, proselytizing and assimilation. Assimilation Several intermarried Zoroastrians slowly lntermarriages in the Tang Dynasty stopped practicing Zoroastrianism. They Despite government regulations became either Buddhists or Manicheans or discouraging intermarriages between Nestorians or Christians, or Confucians, the Chinese and foreign immigrants, many West religion of their spouses. (op cit Li Washu). Asians and Persian Zoroastrians settled in China, started marrying local women. Conclusion "Whenever a race migrates, the men ahvays Several citations are given establishing the ournumber the women", says Wu, a Chinese presence of a large number of Zoroastrians scholar. "They are of course eager to marry local who built many fire temples and held high worren when they arrive in an alien iand." positions in the Tang dynasty. The citations from several Chinese scholars' research lntermarriages in the Song Dynasty and organized studies noted their final The southern Song government (1127-1279 downfall due to the treacherous acts of An AD) even made provisions for foreign Lushan, the Supreme Commanding Zoroastrian merchants to take official posts. General of the Tang army, ensuing the massacre of thousands of Zoroastrians. Other contributing factors include their proselytizing activities resulting in their persecution from 875 AD onwards and to escape persecution they were encouraged to become Buddhists or Manicheans, and last but not the least is the intermarriages contributing to the slow disappearance of Zoroastrianism and ending in their final assimilation leaving no trace by 1670 AD.

flilil Ancie nt Zoroastr iern templc in rcp.rircJ in 1674 *Note to the reader: This article was Jiexiu submilted by the author in early August 2412.

Notes: I "Research on Zoroastrianism in China," Peking Liniversity Jor"rrnal. Dec 2000 2 'A Study of the introduction of Zoroatrianism to China'. Peking Llniversit,"- Journal, Vol l, 1923. i "Zoroastrianism As Seen in Dunhuang Manr-rsclipts", A Collection of Articles on l)unhuang Studies", Lanzhou, 1985 4 ("Studies in religions in the Western Region,'^ published in Zhoughua Wenshi Luncong, Peking, nhuang r e861. 5 A (ieneral Discussion of Ancient Ethnic Religions, Higher Education Publishing ilouse, ed. Gao Yongjiu. 1997. 6 'The Hrrtian (mazdeyesnans) of Gaochang and the Zoroastrian temples of Dunhuang', Zhongguo dianli yu wenhua, ed. Pingqui, 1993:1. 7 "The comprehensive history of AN clan of Wuwei, Shanghai, I 996". E Chen Yuan, "A Studl'olthe introduction ol Zoloastrianism in Clhina" Chen Yuan xuchu

Iunwenji, Zhonghua Shu jLr, 1980. pp 306--i I I . 9 I{u Sanxing's :rnnotation of Ziz,hi tongiian r.riich reflected this anti-Zoroastriar.r psy chology aftel the rebellion. 10 Dunhuang Manusclipts published bv Nationalities Publishing House 1992, pp 68-69 and 173-17'1. i I l-l Wushu, "'l-ang Polic;, Tor,vards'l'hree Persian Princc Phirtxr:c at thc Ror-al Mr-rscum Religions, Manichae ism, Neslorianism and Zoroastrianisn, 2000, ppl 03- apud).

Dr Pallan lchapt,ria has a PhD in Brsiness Athninisnntion DP&il in Anciear'lraruan L6tt**ges I Cubure, Hi 1i ,ihe Felli;lll of 1lie Royai Agraqtc-SocieiS a{ Crear Britain ahd,, , ;-lreland;, Pr*senredi pcpeis.ar. seoeral lnqenralion:r!,Semin*rs and Confelencer:. i{is arricleS 26 ei, " publish,ed in' mrny *cademic joa.rrlals and has Zoroastrian iri the Rovel lv{r"rseurn aut htl'r edt'at1.d c{.} - eutlv)r e il l.iece to l:rck of sl.xc., trliagr pllrcer-l irorizontallvl :everoi b*ok rht'haue b,,een f.luc prinred 'i.n Etirople Ani] USA.