Sports sponsorship in Poland:
A comparative study of companies’ sponsorship processes
Dorota Celczynska
Sport Sciences: Sport in Society Two-Year Master 30 credits 4/2020 Supervisor: Susanna Hedenborg Abstract
Sports sponsorship has become a global and multi-billion dollar business. It is an integral part of the company's marketing strategy and viewed as a highly effective form of advertising. Clearly, companies have understood the value of sponsorship for their marketing portfolio and aim to build brand awareness, image, customers’ and employees’ loyalty, and generate higher revenues. However, previous research has shown that the potential of sports sponsorship is still not sufficiently used in Poland. Companies in this country lack knowledge and awareness about the sponsorship of sporting events. The purpose of this study is to analyze differences and similarities between companies' sponsorship processes that sponsor local, national, and international sporting events in Poland. It includes exploring sponsorship promotional activities, objectives, selection criteria, as well as decision-making procedures followed by businesses in the sponsorship exchange process. A qualitative comparative study consisting of 19 interviews with representatives sponsoring sporting events in Poland was used. The results revealed that sponsorship processes vary depending on the level of the sponsored sports event. As the level increases from local to national or international, companies adopt more profit-oriented goals and decisions. Whereas companies sponsoring local sporting events often based their choices on emotions and sympathy to sports disciplines or event organizers. Furthermore, the results also suggested that there is a significant difference between the decision-making procedures of companies involved in sponsoring different levels of sporting events. As the event level rises, it becomes more complex, considered, and longer. In summary, the study shows that companies in Poland recognize event sponsorship as an efficient way to create brand and product image. Although the study also discovers that the role of event sponsorship as a communication tool to achieve commercial goals is not seen by some corporations as a key aspect of strategy.
Keywords: Sponsorship, Sports event, Poland, Decision-making, Exchange process
2 Table of contents
1. INTRODUCTION ...... 5
1.1 BACKGROUND ...... 5
1.2 RESEARCH PURPOSE AND QUESTIONS ...... 7
1.3 PROBLEM DISCUSSION ...... 8
2. PREVIOUS RESEARCH ...... 10
2.1 SPORTS MARKETING ...... 10
2.2 SPORTS SPONSORSHIP ...... 11
2.3 SPORTS SPONSORSHIP IN POLAND ...... 17
2.4 SPORTS SPONSORSHIP OBJECTIVES ...... 20
2.5 SPORTS SPONSORSHIP SELECTION CRITERIA ...... 23
3. THEORETICAL BACKGROUND ...... 25
3.1 DECISION-MAKING THEORIES ...... 25
3.2 SPORT SPONSORSHIP ACQUISITION MODEL ...... 28
3.3 EXCHANGE THEORY ...... 30
4. METHODOLOGY ...... 34
4.1 RESEARCH DESIGN ...... 34
4.2 DATA COLLECTION TECHNIQUES ...... 36
4.3 EMPIRICAL DATA ...... 37
4.4 METHODS OF ANALYSIS ...... 39
4.5 SCIENTIFIC CONSIDERATION ...... 41
4.6 ETHICAL CONSIDERATION ...... 43
4.7 SOCIAL CONSIDERATION ...... 44
5. RESULTS AND ANALYSIS ...... 45
5.1 SAMPLE SIZE ...... 45
5.2 THEMATIC ANALYSIS ...... 46 5.2.1 Companies sponsoring local sporting events ...... 47 5.2.2 Companies sponsoring national sporting events ...... 54 5.2.3 Companies sponsoring international sporting events ...... 61
3 6. CONCLUSIONS ...... 69
6.1 SUB-QUESTION 1: WHAT ARE THE MAIN MOTIVES PRESENT WHEN COMPANIES DECIDE
TO ENGAGE IN THE SPONSORSHIP OF SPORTS EVENTS IN POLAND? ...... 69
6.2 SUB-QUESTION 2: WHAT ARE THE COMPANIES’ SELECTION CRITERIA WHEN DECIDING
WHAT SPORTS EVENT TO SPONSOR IN POLAND? ...... 72
6.3 SUB-QUESTION 3: WHAT ARE THE DECISION-MAKING PROCEDURES FOLLOWED BY
COMPANIES INVOLVED IN THE SPORTS EVENT SPONSORSHIP IN POLAND? ...... 74
6.4 MAIN RESEARCH QUESTION: IN WHAT WAY ARE SPONSORSHIP PROCESSES DIFFERENT
OR ALIKE FOR COMPANIES THAT SPONSOR POLISH SPORTS EVENTS AT LOCAL, NATIONAL,
AND INTERNATIONAL LEVELS? ...... 76
7. DISCUSSION ...... 80
7.1 REFLECTION ON THE THESIS PROCESS ...... 80
7.2 IMPLICATION FOR FUTURE RESEARCH ...... 84
7.3 RECOMMENDATIONS ...... 85
REFERENCES ...... 87
APPENDICES ...... 94
APPENDICES 1: COMPANIES OVERVIEW ...... 94
APPENDICES 2: INTERVIEW GUIDE FOR THE SPONSORING COMPANIES ...... 95
APPENDICES 3: INTERVIEW GUIDE FOR THE SPONSORING COMPANIES. POLISH VERSION ...... 96
APPENDICES 4: CONSENT TO PARTICIPATE IN THE STUDY ...... 97
APPENDICES 5: CONSENT TO PARTICIPATE IN THE STUDY. POLISH VERSION ...... 98
4 1. Introduction
This chapter provides an introduction to the chosen topic, illustrating the foundation of the thesis. The background is followed by research purpose, research questions and problem discussion.
1.1 Background
The popularity of the sport has grown rapidly worldwide in the last decades. In 2015 the global sports industry was measured to be worth US $145 billion, which accounts for over 3% of the world’s economic activity (Manoli, 2018). The emergence of the digital age has increased with the development of the sports industry. Consequently, the role of marketing in the sports industry has developed enormously during the last forty years, and researchers have more often become interested in sport marketing and management (Fetchko, Roy & Clow, 2013). Consecutively with the development of the sports industry, management, and economy, more than ever, sports events have started to dominate the professional sports world. Sports events give authentic insight and create levels of emotions barely seen in other event forms (Gammon, 2011). Moreover, sports events produce mass media interested and can assist in place-marketing initiatives (Gammon, 2011). Since the renewal of the Olympics at the end of the nineteenth century, the Olympic Games appear as the world’s greatest sporting event (Chalkley & Essex, 1999). Over time, other, equally big and famous sports tournaments have been created. It includes, for instance, UEFA Champions League, FIFA World Cup, and The Super Bowl. Events are divided into mega sports events, hallmark sports events, sports heritage, parades and festivals, and small-scale/community sports events (Gammon, 2011; Schwarz & Hunter, 2008). In the face of growing competition on the sports market and development of sports events, it is necessary to consolidate the brand, service, or product in the minds of customers. There are many tools that companies use to run advertising and marketing campaigns. However, due to the growing knowledge and awareness of customers, television advertising, and other forms of advertising of the company and its products are becoming less effective (Krasucki, 2016). Thus, the companies look for new image building tools. An example can be sponsorship, which is one of the integral parts of
5 marketing. Over the past years, sponsorship has evolved from a small-scale activity in a limited number of industrialized countries to a major global industry receiving significant investment (Walliser, 2003). The global sponsorship spending was determined as $53.3 billion in 2013, which was twice as much as ten years ago (Demirel & Erdogmus, 2014). The growth and popularity of sponsorship are still on the rise, and sports sponsorship leads it. Currently, sporting organizations and events depend on sponsors who provide funds, products, and services. According to a new report, the US business spending on sports sponsorship will increase by 5.4% in 2020 (Fisher, 2019). One of the reasons for the dominance of the sport in sponsorship is that marketing changed as a global activity, and international companies need to communicate with their target markets in various languages, and sport can go beyond borders (Demirel & Erdogmus, 2014). Sponsorship is an essential and developing source of sports support also in Poland. The sports industry and marketing have professionalized and increased in recent years (Sponsoring Insights, 2018). As more successes and new sports disciplines start to appear, it brings not only the eagerness to sponsor the polish sport but also creates the possibility for long-term relationships with given sports, clubs, and events (Fundacja Promocji i Rozwoju Sportu SportLife, 2018). Despite the stable growth of the market value, Poland’s expenditure on sports sponsorship is still small compared to many other European countries (Sponsoring Insights, 2018). In Sweden or Norway, companies invest in sport two to three times more than in Poland, wherein in Germany and Great Britain, the difference is much greater (Sponsoring Insights, 2018). What is more, there is still a lack of funds and resources to build stable financial support for all Olympic and non-Olympic disciplines (Kończak & Jedel, 2019). Sports associations, clubs, and sport event organizers face financial problems, and the Ministry of Sport and Tourism resources in Poland are among the smallest in the government budget (Kończak & Jedel, 2019). Hence, athletes, sports organizations, and event organizers need to look for new sources of financing. Here sports sponsorship can be a solution not only for sports entities to obtain funding but also for companies that financially support the initiative and, thus, improve the company’s image. Although in Poland, sports sponsorship is not a primary field of corporate communication, and many companies are still not able to sufficiently utilize it (Kończak & Jedel, 2019). The growth, popularity, and the importance of sport and sports sponsorship have led to greater interest from researchers who study the phenomenon of sport sponsorship.
6 The researchers define sponsorship as a business-to-business relationship between a sponsor and a sports entity for ordinary profits (Farelly, Quester & Greyser, 2005). Furthermore, researchers focus more on the relationship between the sponsors and the sponsee, sponsorship objectives, and decision-making processes. Since the sponsors invest a tremendous amount of money on sports sponsorship, they must have a clear objective of sponsorship (Lee & Ross, 2012). Therefore, understanding and investigating decision-making processes and ‘how’ sponsoring decisions arrived rather than ‘what’ company can get from sponsorship is important for sponsors' success.
1.2 Research Purpose and Questions
The purpose of this study is to analyze differences and similarities between companies' sponsorship processes that sponsor local, national, and international sporting events in Poland. Therefore, the research topic of the master thesis, first of all, considers sports sponsorship during the sports events. Furthermore, the study focuses on sports sponsorship in the polish market. Moreover, it also concentrates on the decision-making processes, which include sponsorship promotional activities, objectives, selection criteria, and decision-making procedures from the sponsor's point of view. What is more, the thesis considers sports events on international, national, and local levels. Lastly, it is crucial to outline that the thesis will not include any company financial calculation relating to any sports sponsorship as it will focus solely on strategy-based sponsorship and goals. In order to investigate the different sponsorship processes between diverse polish sponsors engaged in sport event sponsorship, the following main research question will be asked: In what way are sponsorship processes different or alike for companies that sponsor Polish sports events at local, national, and international levels? The following sub-questions are specified to understand better the problem statement and support and enrich the final findings: What are the main motives present when companies decide to engage in the sponsorship of sports events in Poland? What are the companies’ selection criteria when deciding what sports event to sponsor in Poland?
7 What are the decision-making procedures followed by companies involved in the sports event sponsorship in Poland?
1.3 Problem Discussion
The topic of sport sponsorship processes and sponsoring companies is highly relevant. Sports sponsorship is becoming more complex, as more organizations and sporting events are being created. Further, sports sponsorship is today a common marketing strategy within companies. It has led to the need for sponsorship research, including activities such leas planning and setting goals, selection, and evaluation for sponsorship programs (Olkkonen, 1999). However, still, little research has examined the sponsorship goals and how sponsorship engagement is beneficial to a company and its brand (Cornwell, Roy & Steinard, 2001). Moreover, it should be noted that there is a great value in sport sponsorship; however, to use it adequately, it needs implementation in all sponsor’s marketing activities. Additionally, the sponsorship processes are getting more challenging for sponsors due to the rapid development of sport sponsorship. The lack of this research cause that the majority of companies enter the sponsorship without any clear and formal objectives in mind even though they might have the best intentions (Fahy, Farrelly & Quester, 2004). Besides, many sponsorship investments fail because companies do not maintain their investments with adequate advertising, public relations, and other promotional expenditures (Fahy et al., 2004). What is more, a large part of the sponsorship literature concentrates on large corporations and international events. However, the possible goals and strategies of the small and medium businesses sponsoring small or regional events can also be unusual and impressive (Dolphin, 2003). Thus, the thesis might discover sponsorship aspects yet to be considered by scholars as the research includes big companies that sponsor international events, and also small organizations that engage in a local and national sports event. Moreover, the thesis can show that the degree to which the sport sponsorship is used as a marketing communication tool may vary for companies that sponsor sporting events on different levels. The current research focuses only on two of them – awareness and image transfer, although a long list of sponsorship objectives has been
8 established (Walliser, 2003). When taking into account local events and smaller companies, these goals could have been less critical, while the importance of others such, as patriotism, may increase. Lastly, the thesis includes sports sponsorship in Poland. Based on the review of the existing literature, it can be observed that there is little knowledge about sport sponsorship in Poland, and it is based on the whole rather than case-oriented analysis (Fundacja Promocji i Rozwoju Sportu SportLife, 2018). Thus the study can additionally explore many aspects regarding sponsoring companies, their sponsorship goals, benefits, criteria, and decision-making processes.
9 2. Previous Research
The previous research aims to provide a comprehensive discussion and foundation of the sports marketing, sports events sponsorship worldwide and in Poland, sponsorship objectives, and the selection-making processes.
2.1 Sports Marketing
Marketing is a big part of people’s lives and becomes an essential concept of businesses, institutions, and events. There is often uncertainty what marketing means (Schwarz & Hunter, 2008), however, according to the American Marketing Association, it is ‘Planning executing the conception, pricing, promoting and distribution of ideas, goods, and services to create exchanges that satisfy individual and organizational objective’ (Kaser & Oelkers, 2008, p. 4). In short, marketing is a clear business activity. Nevertheless, some argue that marketing components, such as pricing, promotion, distribution does not entirely explain what marketing is, as they act to improve the use of marketing elements (Schwarz & Hunter, 2008). Moreover, the exchange included in the definition may refer to a client that gives away something – usually money, for a product or service of equivalent or higher value (Smith, 2008). According to Drucker, marketing aims to make selling redundant and to know and understand the customer so well that the product suits him and sells itself (Bernstein, 2015, p. 2). When it comes to sports marketing, the origins go back to the 1860s when many companies realized the popularity of an emerging sport – baseball and began to use team photographs to trade their products and services (Bernstein, 2015). Sports marketing has two essential characteristics. The first one is the use of general marketing methods for sport-related goods and services (Smith, 2008). Second, it is the marketing of other customers and industrial products or services through sport (Smith, 2008). Similarly, as general marketing mentioned at the beginning of the chapter, the sports marketing aims to meet the needs and wants of customers. However, it is accomplished by giving sports services and sport-related products to customers (Smith, 2008). Undoubtedly, sports marketing is everything that happens off the field or court and builds the connection with fans through special events, endorsements, licensing, and brand awareness (Bernstein, 2015). In 1979, Parkhouse and Urlich addressed that sports marketing was shown next to merchandising and sales as a developing sport-
10 related field, which, however, is considered to be a mere commercial, promotional tool (Manoli, 2018). A few years later, Meenaghan proposed extending the marketing communications mix by arguing that commercial sponsorship can be recognized as one of its elements (Manoli, 2018). Since then, sports marketing was no longer shown as a business tool, but rather as a broader umbrella of promotional components that cover features such as commercial sponsorship, advertising, and publicity (Manoli, 2018). As mentioned briefly earlier, sports marketing has two angles – sports marketing of sport and sports marketing through sport (Smith, 2008). The first one means that sports products and services can be advertised directly to the customer. Here the marketing can involve sporting equipment, professional competitions, sports events, and local clubs as well as the sale of season tickets and team advertising (Smith, 2008). Sports marketing though sport determines that non-sport products and services can be exchanged through sport (Smith, 2008). An example can be a professional athlete supporting a breakfast cereal or a beer company planning to have exclusive licenses to provide beer at the sports venue or event (Smith, 2008). Since its emergence in baseball in the nineteenth century, sports marketing has become a billion-dollar industry. Nowadays, the purpose of sports marketing is not only to meet the needs and wants of consumers but also to reach the goals of the company concerning their mission and vision as well as to stay in the lead of the competition to maximize the product’s and company’s ability (Schwarz & Hunter, 2008). What is more, marketers recognize the popularity of sports and have made them a central point of marketing campaigns for decades (Bernstein, 2015). For instance, Budweiser spent $3 million on its Super Bowl ads alone in 2014 (Bernstein, 2015). As long as sports remain to fascinate millions of people, they will continue to be top events in which to deliver advertising messages.
2.2 Sports Sponsorship
Sponsorship has become an integral part of sports marketing. The history of sponsorship dates back to ancient Greece, where the first academic work defined the input of sponsorship to the development of private-public finance and the political economy (Johnston & Spais, 2015). In 776 BC, the first Olympic Games took place as a celebration of the achievement of the human body. Prominent Greek citizens and local authorities provided financial support to the organization of the Olympic Games
11 (Schwarz & Hunter, 2008). By this, they wished to improve their standing and reputation, thus creating awareness and image, which made the Olympics a commercial event (Schwarz & Hunter, 2008). What is more, sport has evolved from being a mere means for people to spend their leisure time into a tremendous industry (Radicchi, 2004). Nowadays, sport meets a variety of human physical and entertainment needs and provides an attractive way for global companies to reach a broad public (Radicchi, 2004). Sponsorship in modern understanding began in the second half of the nineteenth century with the development of mass media (Iwan, 2010). One of the first sports sponsorship deals dates back to 1902 when Slazenger became the Official Supplier of tennis balls to The Championships at Wimbledon (“Wimbledon tennis balls - Slazenger Heritage shop, house of legends”, n.d.). Another breakthrough moment of sports event sponsorship was at the 1928 Olympic Games in Amsterdam, where Coca-Cola became the Official Olympic Supplier sending 1,000 cases of Coke with the American athletes (Hepburn, n.d.). Coca-Cola is considered as one of the most popular sponsors in sport, alongside with Pepsi and Red Bull (“The Top 8 Most Popular Sponsor Brands in Sports | FinSMEs”, 2019). However, the largest development of sponsorship occurred in the 1980s and 1990s, when sponsorship has become an increasingly popular form of promotion (Iwan, 2010). Peter Ueberroth – the President of the Los Angeles Olympic Committee 1984 saw the Olympics as an event that should be cost-effective (Schwarz & Hunter, 2008). He had a vision of creating a financially successful Olympic Games that would be in stark contrast to the spending deficit of most host cities involved (Schwarz & Hunter, 2008). Thus, Peter Ueberroth cooperated with USOC (United States Olympic Committee) and IOC (International Olympic Committee) to allow the application of the Olympic symbols by companies in their promotions in exchange for financial support (Schwarz & Hunter, 2008). Another reason for the rapid development of commercial sponsorship was due to the prohibition of cigarette advertising on television and radio introduced by the United States Congress (Meenaghan, 1991). Several other governments have also limited tobacco and alcohol advertising (Meenaghan, 1991). Hence, the companies that sold these products had to look for new ways of advertising their goods, and one of them was by the sponsorship of sporting events. Further, the research explains that the rapid development of sport sponsorship can also be caused by governments’ inability to sustain financing sport to the necessary level maintain its growth. Thus, sports organizations and sports events have turned to the corporate sector
12 to make up the deficiency (Beech & Chadwick, 2013). Lastly, the literature presents that the inefficiencies of existing media, rising costs of media advertising, as well as new opportunities generated by increased leisure time, are also the reasons of the development of sport sponsorship worldwide (Beech & Chadwick, 2013; Hoek, Gendall, Jeffcoat & Orsman, 1997). The development of sponsorship is impressive. The global sponsorship spending was £15.7 billion during 2002, an increase of £12.6 billion over the past ten years (Beech & Chadwick, 2013). Moreover, the statistics show that the sponsorship market is the most developed in North America, right after there are Europe and the Asia-Pacific region (Fundacja Promocji i Rozwoju Sportu SportLife, 2018). In the 1990s, the USA spent on sponsoring and promotional purposes approximately EUR 1.23 billion, and in 2000 they reached EUR 9.3 billion (Iwan, 2010). World sponsorship has grown in recent years, on average 4% per year, and the dynamics of increase in outlays are similar to the one observed in advertising (Fundacja Promocji i Rozwoju Sportu SportLife, 2018). Moreover, the research demonstrates that around 70% of all sponsorship investments worldwide are allocated to sports events (Krstić & Durdević, 2016). It is not a surprise as sports event sponsorship attracts media attention worldwide (Krstić & Durdević, 2016). Hence, it is assumed that the investment in sport event sponsorship will continue to develop with expected annual growth from 10% to 15% (Krstić & Durdević, 2016). Regardless of the development and importance of sport sponsorship worldwide, there is still a lack of a consistent definition of sponsorship among researchers. In 1971 the UK Sports Council explained sponsorship as financing or material gifts in exchange for donor promotions (Fundacja Promocji i Rozwoju Sportu SportLife, 2018). In the next decade, attention was drawn to the complexity of supporting activities such as planning, organization, implementation, control, and sponsorship area – mainly sport, culture, and the public sector. Sponsorship was an individual marketing tool that fulfills the organization’s marketing policy (Fundacja Promocji i Rozwoju Sportu SportLife, 2018). One of the most commonly cited definitions was provided by Meenghan (1983, p. 9) which says that ‘Sponsorship can be regarded as the provision of assistance either financial or in kind to an activity by a commercial organization for the purpose of achieving commercial objectives.’ Moreover, the author considered sponsorship as a discrete research area attracting the attention of a broader public of marketing and communication scholars (Johnston & Spais, 2015). Another definition says that sponsorship is ‘The acquisition of rights to affiliate or directly associate with a products
13 or event for the purpose of deriving benefits related to the affiliation or association’ (Radicchi, 2004, p. 53). Other researchers state that the sponsorship supports the public opinion of the sponsoring company and makes customers more likely to purchase the sponsors’ goods (Walliser, 2003). While many sports sponsorship definitions exist, they all state that sports sponsorship occurs when a sporting organization, club, league, venue, cause, or athlete is supported by a separate company or person (Smith, 2008). Usually, the sponsor provides the sports property with cash, products, or services in exchange for the possibility to reach the fans and participants of a sports event, organization, or other features. Moreover, all definitions see sponsorship as a commercial activity and state that in return for support, the sponsoring firm obtains the right to promote an organization with the recipient (Polonsky & Speed, 2001). For the purpose of the thesis, the most suitable definition of sponsorship is ‘Business relationship between one that provides means, resources or services, and individuals, events or organizations which in return offer certain rights and associations that can be used for the commercial purposes’ (Krstić & Durdević, 2016, p. 76). The above definition is considered to be flexible and reflects an understanding of cooperation between the parties. Moreover, it is applied because it is wide enough to cover a range of sponsored activities and implemented motives. What is more, sports sponsorships can be divided into six fields: 1) Sport governing body sponsorship – the committee responsible for creating sporting competition regionally and internationally 2) Sports team sponsorship – teams and sporting clubs which have small marketing resources sponsored by local or regional businesses 3) Athlete sponsorship – the company seeks to connect its name with an athlete to ensure its right in reaching the goals resulting from the partnership 4) Broadcast and media sponsorship – corporations that invest in a partnership with the radio or the television with broadcast a particular sporting event 5) Sports facility sponsorship – sporting facility (stadiums, sports halls, etc.) carry the name of the sponsoring company 6) Sport event sponsorship – businesses seek to connect their names with the sporting event (Schwarz & Hunter, 2008; Ghezail, Abdallah & Mohammed, 2017). The researchers also recognize several types of sport sponsorship: • Referring to the title – main, titular, official, technical, partner, supplier
14 • Relating to the transferred benefits – financial, material, human resources, • Relating to coverage – local, regional, national, international, continental, global • Referring to the goal – image-building, promotional, sales, supporting the brand (Fundacja Promocji i Rozwoju Sportu SportLife, 2018). When it comes to the sports event sponsorship researchers recognize three sponsorship structures: • Solus structure – the presence of only one sponsor at a sports event • Tiered structure – the hierarchical scope of sponsors when there are two or more levels of sponsorship, and on the top of the pyramid there is a sponsor that spend the biggest amount of money, services or goods and thus have the biggest range of rights and usage • Flat structure – all sponsors have equal state, although every sponsor can invest the same or different amount of material means (Krstić & Durdević, 2016). Lastly, the researchers distinguish two concepts – patronage and sponsorship. The difference between those two can be seen especially in the goals. Patronage appears as altruism – acting in the public interest (sport, culture, etc.) without expecting anything in return (Fundacja Promocji i Rozwoju Sportu SportLife, 2018). Whereas sponsorship, as mentioned before, is a tool used to achieve financial benefits by an enterprise (Fundacja Promocji i Rozwoju Sportu SportLife, 2018). Despite the extensive knowledge of sport sponsorship, there are still some gaps and controversies. Even though sports sponsorship is considered as a part of advertising, there is a confusion between sponsorship and other promotional communications. First of all, scientists have tried to clarify the difference between sponsorship and advertising. Hastings discussed that advertising messages could be manipulated, wherein the sponsors' messages are less easily measured (Hoek et al., 1997). He also explains that advertising targets viewers, while sponsorship targets active participants, spectators, and media followers (Cornwell & Maignan, 1998). Nevertheless, this difference does not seem to hold with cases such as billboards, which are a form of advertising and target participants, spectators, and media followers when they are placed at an event (Cornwell & Maignan, 1998). Furthermore, Marshall concludes that sponsorship can ensure the sponsor’s communications with relevant elements that would be impossible to reach through advertising (Beech & Chadwick, 2013). Meenaghan also wrote that advertising and sponsorship are integral to one another; however, he noticed that there
15 are essential distinctions between the two, for instance, the lack of sponsor control over the quality and quantity of the coverage as well as that the sponsorship is a non-verbal medium (Hoek et al., 1997; Cornwell & Maignan, 1998). He also claimed that traditional advertising and promotional activities should be used in the assistance of sponsorship to guarantee the sufficient use of property rights to sponsor purchases (Hoek et al., 1997). Moreover, in 1985 researchers examined the differences between sponsorship and advertising in objectives, awareness, promotion, and audience characteristics. As a remark, the studies showed that the effectiveness of sponsorship should be measured differently than the effectiveness of advertising (Cornwell & Maignan, 1998). On the other hand, Witcher et al. have a broader view and proposed that sponsorship is another form of advertising, due to its possible impact on market behavior (Hoek et al., 1997). Lastly, it is crucial to notice that sports event sponsorship is eight to ten times more effective than advertising because sponsored events are most often supported by significant promotion (Krstić & Durdević, 2016). Despite many differences, there is one feature that links sponsorship and advertising – managers have used both forms to fulfill similar objectives associated with the company's awareness and image (Hoek et al., 1997). Along with the growing recognition, expanded investment, and numerous advantages, and successes associated with sports sponsorship, there are also some sponsorship’s inherent risks. For instance, the result of the agreement between the sporting event and sponsoring company can be unpredictable, especially for the sponsors. That means that companies cannot be guaranteed that the sporting event will be of high quality; hence there is the uncertainty of return in investment, brand image improvement and changes in the perception of the customers they are looking for (Smith, 2008; Copeland, Firsby & McCarville, 1996). Moreover, sponsors cannot control many circumstances during the event, such as weather conditions, problematic behavior of fans, or the event's failure, which can influence the success of the sponsorship agreement and lead to damaging the sponsor's image (Krstić & Durdević, 2016). Another issue associated with sports sponsorship might be the presence of a big number of sponsors during the event that can confuse the audience and reduce the sponsorship outcomes (Krstić & Durdević, 2016). Lastly, companies are exposed to ambush marketing, which happens when competitors use the chance and profit without investing in sponsorship (Copeland et al., 1996; Krstić & Durdević, 2016). One
16 example of high-risk sponsorship investment is Australian airline group Ansett, in which obtaining the status of official sponsor of Sydney 2000 did not turn into a competitive benefit for the sponsor on the market (Fahy et al., 2004). The investments did not protect the public image against unreasonable financial exposure and internal mismanagement (Fahy et al., 2004). As a result, it might have committed to the safety matters and the final economic collapse of the airline (Fahy et al., 2004).
2.3 Sports Sponsorship in Poland
When it comes to Poland, the sports sponsorship market exists since the late nineties (Fundacja Promocji i Rozwoju Sportu SportLife, 2018). In the years 2003–2005, the value of sports sponsorship in Poland remained relatively similar, reaching more than EUR 100 million annually (Kończak & Jedel, 2019). Nevertheless, the development of sponsorship in Poland started in 2008, reaching almost EUR 400 million, which was caused by the greatest successes of Adam Małysz – polish ski jumper (Kończak & Jedel, 2019). At that time, brands associated with ski jumping dominated the market in terms of achieving media results (Kończak & Jedel, 2019). Another breakthrough moment in the polish sports sponsorship was Euro 2012. The football championships co-organized in Poland showed that it is possible to make a successful international sporting event in Poland, implement effective marketing activities, and prove how big marketing potential major sports events have for sponsors (Fundacja Promocji i Rozwoju Sportu SportLife, 2018). The companies that have not been involved in sport sponsorship became more interested in it. They saw the potential of events, the positive emotions that sport generates, and the huge interest of people of this type of event (Fundacja Promocji i Rozwoju Sportu SportLife, 2018). Thus, they started to perceive sponsorship as an effective tool for implementing marketing plans (Fundacja Promocji i Rozwoju Sportu SportLife, 2018). Nowadays, research shows that companies allocated their sponsorship activities, mainly to sport (Fundacja Promocji i Rozwoju Sportu SportLife, 2018). The sport is followed by culture and art, social activities, science, and ecology (Fundacja Promocji i Rozwoju Sportu SportLife, 2018). The sport also dominates in the case of sponsorship agreements (Fundacja Promocji i Rozwoju Sportu SportLife, 2018). Further, the group of sponsors in Poland is nowadays broader, and the companies’ desire to show up is greater than it was years ago. It is related to the successes of polish
17 teams internationally and the perception of promotional potential, reach, and interest (Fundacja Promocji i Rozwoju Sportu SportLife, 2018). In 2017 sponsoring companies less often used the traditional advertising methods: printed materials, direct marketing, radio, and television broadcasts (Sponsoring Insights, 2018). Instead, a stronger focus was on digital marketing, which allows companies to reach customers, build a relationship with them, and quickly analyze the campaign (Sponsoring Insights, 2018). When it comes to the recognition of sport disciplines in Poland, the most popular is volleyball and football (Matuszak, Muszkieta, Napierała, Cieślicka, Zukow, Karaskova, Iermakov, Bartik & Ziółkowski, 2015). In the nineties, the polish sport established a relationship with the polish media, in particular with the television (Matuszak et al., 2015). From this point, volleyball and football matches have become a media product acquired by Polish Television, which caused the sponsors to believe in the power of sponsorship and were eager to get involved in It (Matuszak et al., 2015). As the statistics show (figure 1), Poland's role in sports clubs and organizations is dominant (Sponsoring Insights, 2018). When it comes to sports events, every second Euro is spent on its sponsorship. In other countries, this ratio often reaches 20% -30% (Sponsoring Insights, 2018).
Figure 1. Sports sponsorship market and the categories of owner rights. Source: Sponsoring Insights, 2018.
18 Moreover, the statistics show industries that sponsor Polish sport the most (figure 2). As can be seen, the most involved in terms of expenditure on purchasing sponsorship rights are the energy and fuel industries. In contrast, the highest growth is recorded in the construction industry. It is essential to mention that included graphs can be useful to recognize and analyze trends in Polish sponsorship. Thus, it can help to decide which companies to choose and interview for the purpose of the thesis.
Figure 2. Top 10 industries. Source: Sponsoring Insights, 2018.
Despite many successes and rapid development, the sponsorship potential in Poland is still not sufficiently used by companies (Kończak & Jedel, 2019). After the success of Euro 2012 Polish sponsorship market got momentum and enthusiasm for action, however, now it lacks an impulse to an even bigger revolution in the market (Fundacja Promocji i Rozwoju Sportu SportLife, 2018). Poland already has international successes in sport and recognizable teams and athletes. Nevertheless, there might be a deficiency in professional marketing and large sponsorship agreements that show that the brand can build a unique image and achieve business benefits through sports sponsorship (Fundacja Promocji i Rozwoju Sportu SportLife, 2018). Moreover, the reason for poorly developed sports sponsorship in Poland is budget restrictions and a combination of lacking knowledge with an insufficient ability to execute sponsorship activities successfully. Businesses are often too small or do not have sufficient funds to buy
19 attractive sponsorship rights (Fundacja Promocji i Rozwoju Sportu SportLife, 2018). Thus, when looking at the number of sponsored brands, it can be seen how few companies have achieved the most important and the biggest sponsorship agreements (Fundacja Promocji i Rozwoju Sportu SportLife, 2018). Regrettably, there are still companies that have never sponsored any sports event, and their knowledge is similar to twenty years ago (Fundacja Promocji i Rozwoju Sportu SportLife, 2018). When looking at sponsoring football in Poland, only a few companies have a well-developed marketing awareness (Fundacja Promocji i Rozwoju Sportu SportLife, 2018). A large part of polish sponsors limits their activities to brand their exposure on stadiums walls wherein lacking the activation of unique brand communication (Fundacja Promocji i Rozwoju Sportu SportLife, 20a18). Despite the issues in Polish sports sponsorship, experts assure that the potential of sport sponsorship in Poland is much higher than sponsorship expenditure. The potential is seen in the desire to succeed, the sizeable European society, many good polish athletes, and in spectators that support individual sports disciplines (Fundacja Promocji i Rozwoju Sportu SportLife, 2018).
2.4 Sports Sponsorship Objectives
When sports sponsorship became more popular, the researchers have started to investigate the objectives of sport sponsorship. One of the most known reasons for companies' involvement in sport sponsorship is the desire to increase brand awareness and improve the image of the brand (Schwarz & Hunter, 2008; Apostolopoulou & Papadimitriu, 2004; Dolphin, 2003; Walliser, 2003; Hoek et al., 1997). In one of the studies regarding the 1996 Olympics sponsors, researchers determined that the company's growing public awareness was the most crucial motive to engage in the sponsorship agreement (Apostolopoulou & Papadimitriu, 2004). It is worth mentioning that maintaining the Olympic tradition was ranked as the least relevant; thus, it confirms the need for sports sponsorship to reach commercial objectives (Apostolopoulou & Papadimitriu, 2004). The researchers also distinguish other motives such as sales boost, larger market share, and target reach (Mack, 1999; Apostolopoulou & Papadimitriu, 2004; Papadimitriu, Apostolopoulou & Daunis, 2008). Concerning marketing goals, researchers also identify the potential for media coverage, the possibility to convert event viewers into company clients, and
20 occasion for public relations with current and potential customers (Apostolopoulou & Papadimitriu, 2004). From a business point of view, companies use sports sponsorship for business development purposes. For example, through positive relationships with other sponsoring companies, they can influence the view of consumers (Schwarz & Hunter, 2008; Slåtten, Svensson, Connolley, Bexrud & Lægreid, 2017). Moreover, the researchers describe image transfer as another sponsorship objective. It shows the sequence by which a sponsoring company profits from the essential attributes and specific characteristics of a sporting event (Alonso-Dos-Santos, Vveinhardt, Calabuig- Moreno & Montoro-Rios, 2016). In this way, the company tries to categorize itself or its products and services with the positive images of the event by the event’s customers – spectators and participants (Ferrand & Pages, 1996). Hence, the individual consumer combines information about the event’s characteristics, advantages, and attitudes in his memory and transfers them to the brand (Alonso-Dos-Santos et al., 2016). The researchers identify many examples that explain image transfer, including, ‘this sport is brought to you by video, Philips video camera are recording it, and Philips is sponsoring it’ (McDonald, 1991, p. 34). Another identified perspective in the literature is the distinction between internal and external motives. The internal sponsorship goals are also important for companies engaged in sports sponsorship (Slåtten et al., 2017). The sports sponsorship is a perfect way to increase employee motivation, pride, and morale (Mack, 1999; Slåtten et al., 2017) and create a commitment to the company among its employees (Slåtten et al., 2017). Walraven et al. explain that ‘Sponsorships, when used as an internal branding vehicle, have the potential to contribute to employees’ identification and commitment with the corporate brand, their level of company pride and ultimately loyalty’ (Slåtten et al., 2017, p. 148). Lastly, companies apply sports sponsorship into their strategy to improve staff relations by offering possibilities for employees to attend sponsored events, including participation in hospitality areas (Schwarz & Huner, 2008; Apostolopoulou & Papadimitriu, 2004). Additionally, Smith (2008) states that most of the sponsor objectives are marketing goals; thus, he divided them into different segments – the general public, target market, distribution channel members, and internal stakeholders. For example, the objective of the last segment addresses to the mention above internal goals; however, he also added that the sport sponsorship improves positive communications with media (Smith, 2008, p. 197).
21 Next to the external and internal sponsorship objectives, researchers identify personal objectives. As Meenaghan (1983) stated, the owner’s keen individual interest can be a crucial motivation for engaging in sport sponsorship. Here, a decision-maker often selects the preferred sport discipline to sponsor. The literature in recent years has also referred to greater accountability (Beech & Chadwick, 2013). Researchers state that many sponsorship initiatives were seen as nonchalant with limited reflection or strategic justification (Beech & Chadwick, 2013). It led to the term ‘chairman’s wife syndrome’, which implies that specific sports were selected for sponsorship because they appealed to the family members of senior staff within the business (Beech & Chadwick, 2013). The literature also suggests that some actions that aimed to bring commercial benefits to the sponsor have turned into philanthropy due to a lack of effective process management (Beech & Chadwick, 2013). Lastly, Meenaghan (1983) described the medium for community involvement as another sponsorship objective. Here, a sponsorship has more significant ability for direct influence on the community than any other promotion measure. Such sponsorship can be linked to a particular goal where help in a community project may be an efficient counter to local competition (Meenaghan, 1983). What is more, in 1995, Mount and Niro examined purposes of small and medium-sized businesses that participate in sport sponsorship in small towns (Cornwell & Maignan, 1998). As the research showed, in this case, sponsorship aims to build name awareness and form relations with local communities (Cornwell & Maignan, 1998). There can be plenty of sponsorship objectives; nevertheless, the sponsors’ purposes often depend on many particular aspects such as sponsorship industry, company size (Walliser, 2003), the character of the sponsorship relationship, and the type of supported sports field (Smith, 2008). For example, social and environmental sponsors participate in sponsorship to demonstrate social responsibility (Walliser, 2003). Wherein, for the art, sponsors, the main objective is the hospitality and service sponsors’ desire to enhance employee’s morale (Walliser, 2003). Furthermore, Amis, Slack, and Berrett (1999) state that sponsorship should generate an outcome that fits well with the image that the sponsor is trying to express. One of the cases that present business objectives is Nike, which used Michael Jordan to promote the company through building pride and to develop the corporate culture (Amis et al., 1999). Therefore, the event organizer and sponsor must have a clear understanding of the purposes of a sponsorship deal (Smith,
22 2008). It cannot be forgotten that sponsorship objectives are associated with the benefits of sports event sponsorship.
2.5 Sports Sponsorship Selection Criteria
When a firm selects an event to sponsor, it has to consider several key aspects, such as communication purposes of the organization, its key market, the danger of sponsorship, and the opportunities of promotion and sponsorship expenses’ (Kotler & Keller, 2006). Before the company decides to support individual sports events, responsible should also apply the company’s sponsorship selection criteria, which include factors that directly influence the choice of the event. Similar to the sponsorship objectives, the list of sponsorship selection criteria usually depends on the company profile, expectations, and purposes (Walliser, 2003). For instance, the researchers examined selection criteria in different food franchises where the findings showed that the decision about sport sponsorship depends on the structure and corporate culture of each company (Aguilar-Manjarrez et al., 1997). Nevertheless, researchers identified some of the sponsor’s priorities observed in the sport sponsorship industry. To the selection criteria, researchers include similarities between sponsor product and sponsored activity as well as the correlation between targets of sponsor and sponsored events (Walliser, 2003; Meenaghan, 1983). In 1995, Mohr, Backman, and Backman examined how sponsors select the sponsorship proposals (Cornwell & Maignan, 1998). The research showed that it is crucial to determine who in the company is responsible for the choice of sponsorship and to understand the promotional aims of the potential sponsor (Cornwell & Maignan, 1998). Further research demonstrated that media exposure (Meenaghan, 1983), exclusivity, and professionalism of event organizers are among the sponsors’ selection criteria (Cornwell & Maignan, 1998). Moreover, researchers determine selection criteria that refer to marketing goals and relationships with stakeholders. These include popularity and image of the potential sponsored organization, possibility to integrate the sponsorship into the marketing strategy, willingness to cooperate, and contact frequency and quality (Walliser, 2003, p. 11). Researchers also recognized that sponsors consider the geographical reach and audience size (Meenaghan, 1983), the event's reach, expected sponsorship costs and benefits, and the types of rights received (Walliser, 2003, p. 11). Another conducted
23 research demonstrated that the key criteria that influence the decision include being able to sell products and have commercial signs and visibility within the community (Aguilar-Manjarrez et al., 1997). Furthermore, the researchers argue that sponsorship type can be a crucial sponsorship selection criteria. Here, a corporation should consider the appropriate involvement – an established or new sponsorship; once-off or longer- term commitment; and the seasonality of sponsorship (Meenaghan, 1983, p. 39-40). In the 20th century, Howard and Crompton recognized five various criteria that sponsors consider when engaging in sport sponsorship. It includes sponsorship goals, fit, a choice of advertising tools, ambush marketing protection, and the length of sponsorship agreement (Lee & Ross, 2012). Further, researchers defined the ideal sports event to sponsor from the sponsor’s point of view (Kotler & Keller, 2006). According to it, the sponsors look for events that are unique and do not have other sponsors as well as the one that attracts public attention and commit to a greater image of the product, service, or business (Kotler & Keller, 2006). Lastly, Meenaghan (1983) identifies executive preference as one of the sponsorship selection criteria. The Marketing Magazine considered it as less commercially logical sponsorship selections (Meenaghan, 1983). Nevertheless, Fletcher argued that it is not a wrong decision because, first of all, when the decision-maker is interested in sponsorship, it is less likely that the company will be deceived into bad offers. Second of all, the owner’s choice ensures commitment ‘from the top’ (Meenaghan, 1983, p. 38). Even though more and more researchers focus on the sponsorship selection criteria of sporting events, most of them contain descriptive characteristics of the requirements that the company should apply (Copeland et al., 1996). Besides, as the number of sponsors and sporting events increases, selection criteria are becoming an increasingly important area. Choosing the right event to sponsor is evolving into a more difficult task, and taking on strategic importance (Walliser, 2003). Companies that can understand the key importance of the selection process will enhance their chance of building a profitable sponsorship deal (Aguilar-Manjarrez et al., 1997).
24 3. Theoretical Background
This chapter identifies relevant models and theories related to sports sponsorship to support the understanding of the research topic and the interpretation of the final results.
3.1 Decision-Making Theories
The research of decision-making has been developing with contributions from the number of fields of study for over 300 years (Oliveira, 2007). As a consequence, decision theories have included several common concepts and models, which exert an essential impact on all the biological, cognitive, and social sciences (Oliveira, 2007). Decision-making is a process of choosing the optimal and best option among many choices (Verma, 2014). It includes the process of human thought and reaction about the external world, which involves the past and possible future events and psychological consequences to the decision-maker of the events (Oliveira, 2007). The nature of decision-making appears to combine both the beliefs about specific events as well as people’s subjective responses to those events (Oliveira, 2007). Thus, decision-making could be recognized as an argumentative or emotional process which could be irrationally or rationally based on implicit or explicit assumptions (Shahsavarani & Abadi, 2015, p. 214). The researchers distinguish two critical factors in any decision- making: the value of deciding and implementing it and the possibility of the desired results if one acts following this decision (Shahsavarani & Abadi, 2015). Moreover, researchers identified factors that impact decision-making: • Rational factors – quantitative aspects such as price, time, predictions • Psychological factors - include determinants such as the decider’s character, abilities, experience, perceptions, values, aims, and roles • Social factors – other’s agreement, particularly those who affect decider • Cultural factors - are influenced by the form of socially accepted values, trends, and shared values (Shahsavarani & Abadi, 2015, p. 216). Further, the decision-making has many phases such as identification of the problem, initiation of the goal, collection of the data, generation of all the alternative options, the examination of their positive and negative points, decision, implementation of the decision and learning from it (Verma, 2014; Delaney, Guidling & McManus, 2014). By
25 introducing such standardization, an organization can have consistency in its activities, regardless of who makes the decision (Delaney et al., 2014). The researchers also recognize many models of decision-making processes. Many forms experience common aspects and attributes; however, distinct in the order, area of emphasis, or underlying assumptions (Azuma, Daily & Furmanski, n.d.). Some of the most known approaches are: The Rational Model In the rational model, the decision-maker analyzes several potential alternatives from scenarios before making a decision (Turpin & Marais, 2004). Probabilities weight these scenarios, and decision-makers can define the expected situation for each option. The final choice would be to demonstrate the best-expected scenario with the highest likelihood of outcome (Oliveira, 2007). Rationality has been described as the agreement between choice and value. Rational behavior aims to optimize the value of the results, focusing on choosing rather than highlighting the preferred alternative (Oliveira, 2007). It is expected that managers who make a rational decision identify all potential options, know the results of completing each alternative, have a well-organized set of preferences for these outcomes, compute the results and decide which one is preferred (Turpin & Marais, 2004). The Bounded Rational Model In the bounded rational model, the decision maker’s rationality is bounded by the information he has, the cognitive limitations of the mind, and the limited amount of the time he has to make a decision (Lee & Stinson, 2014). Options are searched and assessed sequentially. If an alternative meets defined implicitly or explicitly declared minimum criteria, it is assumed to ‘satisfice’, and the research is finished (Turpin & Marais, 2004). This model mainly illustrates how organizational decisions are made on a day-to-day basis (Aguilar-Manjarrez et al., 1997). Here, the decision-makers have no other option but to choose the first solutions which satisfy the minimal requirements that are propitious for reaching organizational objects (Aguilar-Manjarrez et al., 1997). The Political Model In the political model, the decision-makers pursue their self-interest, even at the expense of the organization. Moreover, such individuals employ unethical methods, threats, and pressures to assure that decisions are made in their favor (Aguilar-Manjarrez et al., 1997).
26 The Garbage Can Model In the garbage can model, it is impossible to define how managers make decisions precisely because the decision-making environment is too complex (Aguilar-Manjarrez et al., 1997). This model stresses the fragmentation and disorganized nature of decision- making in the company instead of intentional manipulations proposed by the political model (Turpin & Marais, 2004). Furthermore, decisions are made when a problem occurs and when the problem and its solution are known to the decision-maker who has the time, energy, and power needed to complete the solution (Aguilar-Manjarrez et al., 1997). When the decision is made, the garbage can is cleared away. It can happen without resolving all or some of the related problems in the garbage can. Because members produce garbage or issues and solutions, the decision depends entirely on the team of members in the can (Turpin & Marais, 2004). The researchers also recognize the Buying Center, whose creation is related to the fact that more than one person often makes decisions in the company (Aguilar- Manjarrez et al., 1997; Arthur, Scott & Woods, 1997). The buying centers are informal, cross-departmental systems of all the people and groups that have a role in the decision- making process (Aguilar-Manjarrez et al., 1997, p.12). There are usually five roles in a buying center: • Users – people that use the product or service • Gatekeepers –people who originally take charge of the flow of purchase information • Influencer - people whose opinions or recommendations affect a buying decision • Deciders - people who have been given formal right to decide on goods and suppliers demands • Buyers - people with formal purchase rights (Aguilar-Manjarrez et al., 1997; Arthur et al., 1997). It is noteworthy that many people can perform the same function, and one person can be involved in more than one position (Aguilar-Manjarrez et al., 1997). The concept of the buying center will be further described in the next subchapter. The decision-making models can also be applied to sports sponsorship. Sponsoring companies receive a large number of unsolicited requests to sponsor sports. Events often offer many attractive benefits, which means that choosing one or several events from many can be problematic for decision-makers. It stresses the need for a greater
27 understanding of essential influences on a decision by companies (Aguilar-Manjarrez et al., 1997). Furthermore, the decision-making models are significant for the thesis. It can help to create a good base for the analysis of the differences and similarities in decision-making processes within various companies. Moreover, relying on concepts of decision-making theories is relevant and applicable to companies who engage or wish to participate in sport sponsorship. As a result, these theories can improve companies’ knowledge and recognition of the decision-making processes. Lastly, the theory can describe the components of sponsorship that may affect the decision-making process. Considering it, the theory helps in answering research questions.
3.2 Sport Sponsorship Acquisition Model
Due to the development of sport and sponsorship, sponsorship has become viewed as a legitimate part of the promotional mix that needs to be verified as a business investment (Arthur et al., 1997). The sponsored companies require qualitative and quantitative data on how and by how much their corporate aims will be fulfilled. It led to a change in the sponsors' decision from emotional to more rational conforming to expanded business orientation (Arthur et al., 1997). Therefore, Arthur et al. (1997) developed a sports sponsorship acquisition model (figure 3). It implies that once goals and other variables are defined, choosing and concluding the contract with sports events should be initiated as a formal organizational purchasing process similar to other company expenses. The model was based on ten in- depth interviews with companies involved in sponsoring major regional sporting events, including industries, for instance, soft drink, sporting goods manufacture, and air travel. The interviews were conducted with managers responsible for sponsorship decisions. They included questions related, for example, to decision-making processes within the company, individual or department who is responsible for the final decision. When all interviews have been conducted, the gathered information was formed together into a comprehensible and valuable decision process model (Arthur et al., 1997).
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Figure 3 . The Sport Sponsorship Acquisition Model. Source: Arthur, Scott & Woods, 1997.
As the figure above shows, the sports sponsorship acquisition model consists of four stages: Stage 1: Proposal Acquisition The proposal acquisition includes receiving offers from organizations attempting sponsorship support. It can be either proactive - initiated by the respective corporation or more usually reactive - sports event representatives send offers to companies. Stage 2: The Composition of the Buying Center In the composition of the buying center, received offers are subject to different treatments. Some corporations may check them internally to reject unwanted proposals or use external agencies to screen offers. Other companies may not carry out any preparatory work in this area. As mentioned in the decision-making models, more than one person contributes to the stages in the acquisition of company sports sponsorship. The composition of the buying center includes: The Interaction Process In the interaction process, the purchase decision process covers many individuals; hence it is complex. Each participant presents a personal agenda of individual and organizational goals that must be solved. The interaction may include and depend on several rational and emotional factors, as well as task-related and non-task-related determinants.
29
The Buying Grid The buying grid refers to three fundamental situations. First of all, where the company evaluates a property new to it (new sponsorship tasks) – the information required would be great and with many options. Secondly, the corporate involvement in the property was ongoing (straight sponsorship rebuy) – the information demands would be minimal with no alternatives. Thirdly, after evaluation, sponsorship is renegotiated to a higher level (modified sponsorship rebuy) (Arthur et al., 1997, pp. 225-226). Stage 3: The Purchase Decision In the purchase decision, both rational and emotional circumstances determine the decision to buy a sponsorship. Sports sponsorship acquisition may not be as rationally motivated as initially intended, with heuristic approaches at play in some situations. Stage 4: The selection of the Preferred Sports Sponsorship Property When the process passes through the stages mentioned above, the sponsorship investments will be selected for implementation. This decision is then passed on to the property owners. The sports sponsorship acquisition model will be beneficial for the study. It can help to recognize and analyze the decision-making processes within the interviewed companies. Moreover, it can show whether examined organizations have standardized sponsorship processes as well as whether they follow presented in the literature stages or make the decisions based on their own established list of points.
3.3 Exchange Theory
The exchange theory is a family of conceptual models rather than a single method (Cropanzano, Anthony, Daniels & Hall, 2017). The theory implies that an exchange situation occurs when the desired results of more than one party are reached through the actions of both actors (McCarville, Copeland, 1994). It is characterized by interrelated conditions such as two parties that exchange resources (physical, financial or intangible), further, the resources proposed by each party need to be valued by the reciprocating partner (McCarville & Copeland, 1994, p. 104-105). Moreover, the exchange frame was defined as ‘Social exchange as here conceived is limited to actions that are contingent on rewarding reactions from others’ (Emerson, 1976, p. 336). Homans described the exchange as the exchange of activity, tangible or intangible, and
30 more or less rewarding or costly, between at least two persons (Cook & Rice, 2006, p. 54). He specified social behavior and the forms of social organization produced by social interaction by showing how A’s behavior strengthens B’s behavior (in a two- party relation between actors A and B) and how B’s behavior strengthened A’s behavior in return (Cook & Rice, 2006, p. 54). Blau expressed his micro-exchange theory also in terms of rewards and costs but took a more economical and utilitarian view of behavior rather than building upon reinforcement beliefs obtained from experimental behavioral analysis (Cook & Rice, 2006, p. 54). Even though there are many various alternatives of exchange, most models share a few general characteristics: an actor’s primary treatment towards a target individual, a target’s reciprocal answers to the action, and relationship formation boundaries (Cropanzano et al., 2017). Moreover, Bogozzi (1975) recognized three types of exchange: Restricted Exchange Restricted exchange occurs when one party ‘gives’ and another party ‘receives.’ It may be expressed diagrammatically as A « B, where « means ‘gives to and receives from.’ Parties represent social actors such as consumers, retailers, salespeople, organization, or collectivities. Moreover, both parties must get approximately equivalent utility if the exchange is repeated (Bogozzi, 1975). Generalized Exchange Generalized exchange occurs between three or more groups, where the groups’ action benefits each other only indirectly (Bogozzi, 1975). For example, a generalized exchange may be represented as A ® B ® C ® A, where ® signifies ‘gives to.’ In this exchange, social actors form a system in which each participant gives to another but receives from someone other than to whom he gave (Bogozzi, 1975). Complex Exchange Complex Exchange is a mutual connection between at least three parties. Here, each social actor is involved in at least one direct exchange, while the whole system is designed by an interconnecting web of relationships (Bogozzi, 1975). An example of a complex transaction can be the channel of distribution where A expresses a manufacturer, B a retailer, and C a consumer (Bogozzi, 1975). Diagrammatically it looks as A « B « C. Whereas in the marketing exchange, Bogozzi (1975) identifies three groups: Utilitarian Exchange
31 Utilitarian exchange is synergy in which the goods are delivered in exchange for money or other products, and the motivation between the activities is the expected use or tangible features generally linked with the objects in the exchange. The utilitarian exchange relates to economic exchange and, thus, to economic man. It implies that men are rational in their behavior, they try to maximize their satisfaction in trades, they have full information on choices available to them in exchanges and these exchanges are relatively free from external impact (Bogozzi, 1975, p. 36). Symbolic Exchange Symbolic exchange is a shared exchange of psychological, social, or other immaterial objects between two or more actors (Bogozzi, 1975). It indicates that people buy and exchange items not only for what they can do but also for what they intend and symbolize (Bogozzi, 1975). Mixed Exchange Mixed exchange includes both utilitarian and symbolic exchange and suggests a man in his real complexity as aiming for both economic and symbolic profits (Bogozzi, 1975). Here, a marketing man is sometimes rational, sometimes irrational, tangible, and intangible rewards drive him, he engages in utilitarian and symbolic exchanges involving psychological and social aspects. Moreover, he has incomplete information; he proceeds the best he can and makes a simple and unconscious estimation of the costs and profits. Lastly, the exchanges do not happen in isolation but are subject to many single and social restrictions – legal, moral, normative, and coercive (Bogozzi, 1975, p. 37). The exchange theory can also be applied to the topic of this thesis – sports sponsorship. Researchers imply that sponsorship includes an exchange of resources with an independent party to obtain an equivalent return for the sponsor (McCarville, Copeland, 1994). The exchange in sport sponsorship is based on usually transferring cash or sports equipment to the recipient by the sponsor. In contrast, the sponsee role is the application of previously agreed services that directly or indirectly contribute to reaching the sponsor’s marketing objectives (Iwan, 2010). Moreover, researchers describe three bases on which exchange theory in sponsorship is established – rationality, marginal utility, and fair exchange (McCarville & Copeland, 1994, p. 105). These principles indicate that the exchange of valuable resources usually describes effective sponsorship based on each actor’s contribution to the sponsorship (McCarville & Copeland, 1994). Actors exchange to enjoy profits that cannot be obtained in
32 isolation. Hence, people looking for partners should first determine rewards that possible partners now seek but cannot get on their own (McCarville & Copeland, 1994). Moreover, new sponsorship actions are more likely to be attempted when putting in the circumstances of past achievements and existing priorities (McCarville & Copeland, 1994). Considering the above information and implication of the exchange theory in sport sponsorship, this theory can help to understand the connections that are created and maintained between the sponsoring company and sponsee (event organizer). It can also show whether sponsoring companies in Poland apply the above types of exchange theory. Lastly, it can illustrate what the costs and rewards of this relationship are. Therefore, theory can help structure the answers to research questions.
33 4. Methodology
This chapter of the thesis presents and discusses methods and techniques employed to achieve the underlying objectives of this research, which were introduced in Chapter One.
4.1 Research Design
The purpose of the thesis is to analyze the differences and similarities in the decision-making processes of companies sponsoring sporting events at local, national, and international levels in Poland. Therefore, a comparative research design will be used. Comparison is inherent in all science (Lor, 2011), and primarily, all empirical social research contains a comparison of some kind (Ragin, 2013). It gives a foundation for making statements about empirical regularities and for assessing and describing cases relative to substantive and theoretical criteria (Ragin, 2013). Further, comparative research can be defined as identifying similarities and differences among macrosocial units, which gives the key to understanding, explaining, and interpreting various outcomes and processes (Lor, 2011). With these means, any technique that supports the purpose of clarifying variations is a comparative method (Ragin, 2013). The researchers distinguish four types of comparative research: 1. Individualizing comparison - contrasts’ a small number of cases to understand the peculiarities of each case. It thoroughly explains the characteristics or features of each of the cases that are being studied (Adiyia & Ashton, 2017). 2. Universalizing comparison – intends to establish that every example of a phenomenon follows the same rule. It includes the use of comparison to explain fundamental theories with significant generality and importance (Adiyia & Ashton, 2017). 3. Variation-finding comparison – aims to compare various forms of a single phenomenon to identify logical differences among examples and establish a standard of variations in the character or intensity of that phenomenon (Adiyia & Ashton, 2017). 4. Encompassing comparison – places various examples at different locations within the same system, on the way to defining their characteristics as a function of their multiple relationships to the system as a whole (Adiyia & Ashton, 2017).
34 In the communication and media studies, the comparative design is recognized as the contrast among different macro-level units, for instance, world regions, countries, social milieus, at one point or more points in time (Esser & Vliegenthart, n.d.). Comparative research leads our attention to the explanatory importance of the contextual environment for communication outcomes. It focuses on understanding how the systemic context develops communication phenomena differently in various settings (Esser & Vliegenthart, n.d.). However, comparative research varies from non- comparative in that it attempts to reach conclusions beyond single cases and describes differences and similarities between objects of analysis and connection between objects (Esser & Vliegenthart, n.d.). Furthermore, comparative studies apply to a bigger family of international and global or transnational studies. Nevertheless, single-country studies are also covered in this family because they can contribute to the comparativist’s knowledge base through their country-specific analyses (Kosmützky, 2018). Research that compares units on a spatial scale below the country level, for instance, analyses of different regions of a country, also refers to the comparative family and has been named as ‘home comparison’ (Kosmützky, 2018). Moreover, it includes both quantitative and qualitative comparisons of social entities (Mills, Bunt & Bruijn, 2006). The comparative researchers focus on a qualitative approach point to ask empirically determined questions and, historically, answer these questions in terms of origin (Ragin, 2013). Hence, qualitative comparative researchers are holistic and explanatory in their way to comparative materials (Ragin, 2013). When qualitatively oriented comparativists compare, they examine how various conditions or causes fit together in one setting and contrast that with how they suit together in another context (Ragin, 2013). It means that they aim to analyze each observational entity as an explainable combination of parts as a whole. With the above information in mind, the comparative design and following it universalizing comparative research design are the most appropriate for the study and answer the research questions. Nevertheless, initially, the idea was to use a comparative multiple case study. It involves an in-depth analysis of similarities and differences across multiple cases (Gustafsson, 2017). However, having almost 20 cases and relying only on interviews, the thesis could not be in-depth enough for a case study's needs. Secondly, the plan was to use descriptive research. Nevertheless, as the researchers state, this design is more interested in what rather than how or why something has occurred (Nassaji, 2015).
35 The study considers the phenomenon of sport sponsorship as well as investigates the differences and similarities between companies engaged in the sports event sponsorship on the international, national, and local levels. The qualitative approach of comparative research design undertaken in this thesis aims, according to literature, to interpret, discuss, and explain the sponsorship phenomenon. Hence, comparative research provides valuable views and insights that can lead to understanding and differentiation of sponsorship decision-making processes among companies based in Poland.
4.2 Data Collection Techniques
To discover companies’ sports sponsorship motives as well as their decision-making approaches and selection criteria, it is necessary to choose suitable methods and techniques of empirical research. First of all, the master thesis consists of two approaches – primary – first-hand data and secondary data – information collected by someone else (Walliman, 2011). By combining two approaches, the researcher can get trustworthy information and more reliable results. Second of all, the thesis consists of qualitative methods. Qualitative methods produce rich and detailed results (MacDonald & Headlam, 2008) and include exploring and reflecting on the less visible aspects of a research subject – values, opinions, and perceptions (Neville, 2007). Since the thesis seeks to understand different decision- making and selection criteria processes and people’s motivation and approaches to sports event sponsorship, qualitative methods suit the best. Individual interviews support the qualitative data. Interviews are used to collect insights about interviewee’s experiences and feelings as well as provide an opportunity to listen to what respondents say about studied problems in their own words (Kuada, 2012). There can be various types and methods of conducting the interview. However, for the purpose of the thesis, structured and individual interviews will be carried out. Furthermore, as the qualitative data and interviews refer to respondents’ experiences, opinions, and feelings, it would be good to verify the gathered data with another data collection technique. A suitable technique could be a document analysis of company documents to confirm and validate the respondent's answers. Regrettably, this data collection technique has not been used due to the unavailability of such data on the
36 internet, as well as the lack of desire to provide the above documents by companies explaining that they are confidential data.
4.3 Empirical Data
As stated above, qualitative research is supported by secondary and primary data. The secondary data includes electronic sources such as articles, journals, academic books, and other studies. The secondary research included keywords such as ‘sports marketing,’ ‘sports sponsorship,’ ‘sports sponsorship in Poland,’ ‘sponsorship decision- making process,’ ‘sponsorship selection criteria,’ ‘sponsorship objectives’ and was searched on Malmö University Libsearch and CBS Library. The secondary sources were written in English as well as in Polish. Moreover, the primary data are supported by in-depth and structured interviews to examine the motivation and decision-making processes of sponsoring companies. The total sampling size consists of 19 interviews. Representatives are divided into three groups – companies that sponsor local sports events (nine companies), companies that are engaged in sponsorship of national sports events (six companies), and companies that sponsor international sports events (four companies). Interviewed people work, for example, in the sports clothing companies or the construction industry as marketing specialists, sponsorship managers, or company owners. More information about interviewed companies can be found in appendices 1. The process of finding and approaching companies involved three steps. Firstly, sports events that took place in Poland or are held annually on a local, national, and international level were researched. The second step was to search for companies that sponsored or continue to sponsor these sports events. The names of companies, in most cases, could be found on the official website of the specific sports event. Nevertheless, there were also cases where it was impossible to find a sponsor for a given sporting event. The last step was to find the companies emails and approach them by sending an invitation to take part in the study. In each group (local, national, and international), individual interviews have been conducted. Moreover, 16 interviews have been carried out via telephone and three via email. The initial plan was to carry them all out via video call. Nevertheless, none of the respondents expressed the willingness to do it. Moreover, since the companies are based in Poland, and the interviewer lives in Copenhagen, it was impossible to carry them out
37 face-to-face. Conducting interviews took part from the 19th of February to the 8th of April. The long duration of the interviews was due to the busy schedule of respondents. It could be noticed that interviews responded to the invitation to participate in the study quickly, and email communication was good. However, it was challenging to find a suitable time and day for interviewees. Thus, some of the interviews were scheduled even after two weeks from expressing the willingness to take part. Moreover, in some cases, the respondents could not pick up the phone at the scheduled time due to other important tasks; hence the interviews had to be postponed to another appropriate time. In the case of email interviews, the willingness to participate in the study was expressed quickly. However, answering questions in the form of an email took more than a month. Again, it could be caused by the busy schedule of interviewees. Furthermore, before conducting the interviews, respondents have been asked to give their permission to participate in the study by signing a consent form. The approval has been sent to all respondent’s emails before the scheduled interview. It consisted of information such as interview's anonymity and confidentiality, length, and purpose of the study. The consent can be found in appendices 4. Some of the interviewees have signed the consent and sent it back via email, but in most cases, the permission has been given verbally during the call and before asking questions. Moreover, the interviews for each group consisted of seven the same open-ended questions and three open-ended sub-questions. Open-ended questions allowed the respondents to contribute to the topic and questions as much as they desired. In the case of two respondents, the interview questions were sent by email before the interview upon request. The interviews consisted of questions that aim to understand the sponsorship promotional activities, selection criteria, the purpose of sponsorship, and the decision-making procedures. Moreover, the interview included questions about the sports events that the organization sponsored, sponsorship activities performed during the sporting event as well as the company’s benefits of sponsoring. Asking these questions helps in answering the research questions and covers the aim of the research. Lastly, at the end of the interviews, respondents were asked to add final thoughts. The interview guide can be found in appendices 2. However, after the interviews, one more question about company size has been sent to all interviewed respondents via email. The question was necessary to systematize results. Replies were sent back the same day or the next day. The interviews were carried out in polish. The length of interviews varied – the shortest lasted 12 minutes and the longest 44 minutes, wherein the majority
38 took about 20 minutes. It is supposed to be because some of the respondents were more open than others as well as because some of the interviewees' answers were very long and contained information that was not required while others answered straight to the point. The interviews were digitally recorded on the interviewer computer and transcribed verbatim. The process of interviewing came out well. The amount of interviews is gratifying, and during interviews, all questions have been answered satisfyingly. It could also be noticed that when conducting more interviews, the interviewer was more aware and experienced in carrying out the interviews. Hence, the next interviews were conducted more professionally and had better quality. However, conducting interviews also encountered some difficulties. First of all, during one of the calls, the connection was poor, which made it difficult to hear and record all information well. Furthermore, in some cases, respondents were not given an answer to the questions or talked about something else; thus, the interviewer had to repeat questions a few times to receive a satisfactory answer.
4.4 Methods of Analysis
As mentioned earlier, the thesis focuses on qualitative research; therefore, it will be followed by the qualitative method of analysis. In terms of qualitative analysis, it can be identified several rules that can help in getting more effective results (Ibrahim, 2012). The first rule is to compact comprehensive and diverse raw data into a succinct format that can be made by arranging oral and write data into charts and tables (Ibrahim, 2012). The second rule is to create a connection between the research aims and the summary in an understandable way (Ibrahim, 2012). The last principle proses that it should be completed by establishing a model and/or enhancing the research's conceptual ground (Ibrahim, 2012). For the purpose of clarity as well as to get the most accurate findings, the gathered data will be analyzed thematically. Nevertheless, before starting the analysis, all the interviews had to be transcribed. During the transcription, the interviewer realized new and important facts and respondents’ opinions related to the topic of sport sponsorship that has not been observed during the interviews. Moreover, after data collection, the companies were grouped and linked into patterns under similar thematic assemblies in order to get as much as possible from the answers.
39 The thematic analysis process concentrates on classifying and defining themes or patterns within the qualitative data and will consist of six steps: Step 1: Familiarization In Familiarization stage, all the verbal data will be read and reread as many times as required to form relevant notes about the concepts that can help to answer research questions (Maguire & Delahunt, 2017; Herzog, Handke & Hitters, 2019). Moreover, the data will be divided into companies that sponsor sports events on the international, national, or local level. Step 2: Coding In the Coding phase, the data will be organized in a proper and standardized way. Further, initial codes for the data will be highlighted and defined. That means that all data extracts will be coded, and after that, all data extracts with the same code will be assembled (Maguire & Delahunt, 2017; Herzog et al., 2019). Step 3: Search for themes Search for Themes will focus on a deeper level of codes and themes and sorting the different codes into potential themes by using a mind map. A theme is a pattern that catches something meaningful or interesting about the data and/or research question (Maguire & Delahunt, 2017; Herzog et al., 2019). Step 4: Review themes During the Review Themes stage, the preliminary themes will be reviewed, modified, and developed to ensure that they fit the data. This phase might include, for example, reorganization of some coded data, a grouping together of two temporary themes, renaming a theme, and/or dropping another (Maguire & Delahunt, 2017; Herzog et al., 2019). Step 5: Define themes The Define Themes stage will focus on naming themes and defining the essence of each theme. It is important to ask questions such as what does the theme tell us that is important for the research question? How does it suit the ‘overall story’ the researcher desires to tell about the data? Themes' names need to be suggestive, short, catchy, and informative so that the reader can immediately understand the sense of the theme (Maguire & Delahunt, 2017; Herzog et al., 2019). Step 6: Writing-up The last step – Writing-up will include collecting, developing, and editing existing analytic writing and establishing it with the overall report. Here, the researcher needs to
40 move constantly back and forward. The final report should involve such data extracts as interview quotes, which best describe a particular theme that arose from the analysis (Maguire & Delahunt, 2017; Herzog et al., 2019). The thematic analysis appears like a simple method; nevertheless, the researcher shall be aware of pitfalls. A good thematic analysis should not only summarize or paraphrase the data but also interpret and make sense of it (Maguire & Delahunt, 2017). Moreover, the analysis can also be fragile if it is not coherent or lacks evidence (Braun & Clarke, 2012). The researcher needs to present many examples and analyze enough data to assure the reader that this pattern is apparent (Braun & Clarke, 2012). Despite the challenges that thematic analysis might bring, it is a suitable method of analysis for the thesis. As mentioned in the data collection technique, the study focuses on interpreting the views and experiences of respondents and seeks answers to ‘why’ and ‘how.’ The thematic analysis can help to identify differences and similarities in reasons to sponsor a sporting event, selection criteria for choosing the sporting event, and decision-making procedures. Each theme is analyzed separately and displayed in the table. In this case, the researcher and the reader can get a better overview of the findings. Moreover, it provides a chance to understand the potential of any issue more broadly as well as connect and compare different concepts and opinions of interviewees (Ibrahim, 2012). Lastly, the thematic analysis helps in clarifying and organizing the data of a bigger sample size of interviews, which without the use of thematic analysis, can appear vague, challenging, and complex (Braun & Clarke, 2012). Nevertheless, the thematic analysis caused some issues. The divergence of the respondent’s opinions made it sometimes hard to distinguish relevant themes and initial codes. Moreover, the thematic analysis may be exposed to the author's interpretation.
4.5 Scientific Consideration
First of all, the master thesis includes concepts of validity and reliability, which are an essential for an effective research. The study contains scientifically valid articles, journals, and books that are provided by academic researchers, and thus it can be assured the overall validity of the thesis. Further, the research shows real stories of people and is built of specific and existing cases. The thesis also focuses on achieving the purpose of the study, and there is a clear connection between the topic, research questions, and methods. When considering interviews, the interviewees were informed
41 about the purpose of the study; hence there was no uncertainty and confusion as to what could be expected, and respondents answered extensively. Moreover, interviews were recorded to decrease the possibility of forgetting or misinterpreting the answers. Additionally, the interview questionnaire was firstly piloted with a small group to evaluate their value, validity, and reliability. Lastly, the interviews were held in Polish. It is a mother tongue of all respondents and the interviewer; thus, both parties understood well what was said and could answer freely. It resulted in increased validity of the study. Nevertheless, the study might also be exposed to issues in validity and reliability. Firstly, the research concerns topic of sport sponsorship and strategies which are applied by companies. This matter might be too confidential to share with an external party; thus, many companies refuse to participate in the study, explaining that they could not provide such information. Moreover, the respondents’ answers could be influenced by internal parties within the company; thus, the interviewees could state what they were told to say. The study also concerns points of view and experience; therefore, the data are labile and can easily change. It means that if the author decided to interview the same people again at another time, the answers could differ. Moreover, there is a risk that the interviewer did not understand well and misinterpreted what was being said during interviews. The study also included a relatively small group of respondents concerning the whole population of companies involved in Poland's sponsorship. Moreover, the majority of interviewed companies engage in the sponsorship of local events in Poland. Businesses that sponsor events on the national and international levels are also included; however, in smaller quantities. The outbreak of the coronavirus pandemic could also cause a small number of interviews. It can be assumed that nowadays, many companies struggle with issues related to the national lockdown; therefore, they could not have time for an interview during this challenging period. Considering the above aspects, the study cannot be generalized to other groups of people as it focuses only on one primary research method - interviews. To have more valid and reliable data and confirm the finding, the study could include other primary sources, for example, document analysis. When it comes to the research process and analysis of the findings, there could be a tendency for the interviewer to see the respondent in her perception. Moreover, included polish secondary sources and answers from the interviews, had to be translated into English. In some cases, these translations may be too literally translated from Polish. Thus, this may not reflect what the
42 interviewees and authors of the used sources said. It again could impact the final findings. Over and above that, interviews were held by telephone what also could expose the validity and reliability of the study. Most importantly, a phone interview does not allow to observe the behavior or body language, which is essential while studying the respondents' experience and opinions. Lastly, this kind of interview may be exposed to technical problems, which may result in misunderstandings and that relevant statements were not heard.
4.6 Ethical Consideration
The qualitative research also has ethical aspects – they involve interpersonal interaction and provide information about the human condition and can appear at all stages of research (Cohen, Manion & Morrison, 2007). There are many issues that the study shall consider, for example, voluntary nature of participation and possibility to withdraw wholly or partially, anonymity, or confidentially of provided data (Cohen et al., 2007). In the case of the master thesis, taking part in the interview was voluntary, and respondents were free to withdraw their participation at any time without being negatively impacted. Moreover, the respondents had the right to privacy, confidentiality, and anonymity, which influenced the truthfulness of the answers given by the respondents. The consent letter with the fully described information about the study was sent to participants before conducting interviews to ensure confidentiality. The consent was understandably written. Following GDPR, interviewees were informed about the purpose of the study, how the results will be used, who will have access to the information, and the consequences of participation in the research project. Further, research records that are reviewed, stored, and analyzed are in the author's personal computer, and only the researcher has access to the information. Additionally, data will be stored for a specific required time, and after this, all records will be deleted without the possibility to recover the data. Lastly, the study does not cause any physical or mental harm to any company or person.
43 4.7 Social Consideration
Lastly, the significance of the project and the impact on society will be discussed. First of all, the study contributes to the sponsorship research area by doing a study based on companies that engage in the sponsorship of local, national, and international sports events in Poland. The field of sports event sponsorship in this country has not been previously analyzed in more depth. Additionally, the thesis concerns a popular, developing, and profitable filed, which is sports sponsorship. The included knowledge about different selection criteria and decision-making procedures can help many companies and individuals in the organization of a successful sponsorship strategy. Moreover, the results of the study can provide professional sports managers of international, national, and local events information and insights about currently engaged types of the organization sponsoring particular levels of sports events as well as the objectives and selection criteria of sponsorship decision. Further, knowledge can help sport event managers create a better-suited sponsorship proposal. The thesis can also impact the companies that are not engaged in the sports event sponsorship by educating them about the goals and benefits that other companies strive to achieve through sport event sponsorship. Lastly, sports sponsorship literature mainly focuses on international sports events and big and wealthy companies. Therefore, the study can provide insights and guidance for international sports events, big organizations, sports events at the national and local levels, and different company sizes. The master's thesis will also provide students and scholars with an explanation of how decisions are made and help to better understand exchange and decision-making processes.
44 5. Results and Analysis
This chapter of the thesis presents the analysis of the essential findings gathered during interviews with companies sponsoring local, national, and international sporting events in Poland. The qualitative data analysis will help draw conclusions that will be presented in Chapter Six. The section starts with a more detailed presentation of interviewed companies. Subsequently, the thematic analysis of the three groups will be introduced.
5.1 Sample Size
The qualitative research has gathered interviews with 19 companies - nine of them engage in the sponsoring of local sporting events, six of them focus on the sponsorship of national sporting events, and four of them sponsor international sporting events. The table below (table 1) introduces the numbers of companies sponsoring local, national, and international events of a specific size. As can be seen, the small companies (10 to 49 employees) interviewed for this study tend to focus on sponsoring mainly local events. Small businesses explain the dominance of local events’ sponsorship: ‘For big events, the problem is that large companies dominate them; thus, the entry fee (money) has simply become huge.’ Moreover, three small-sized companies sponsor national events. In the case of international sporting events, none of the small organizations engage in sponsoring it. When it comes to medium companies (50 to 249 employees), they do not consider sponsoring local events but rather concentrating on sponsoring national and international sporting events. Lastly, big companies (250 and more employees) emphasize sponsoring local and international events. Whereas, slightly fewer companies are involved in sponsoring national sporting events.
45 Local sporting National International
events sporting events sporting events
Small-sized X X X X X X company X X X
Medium-sized X X company Big-sized X X X X X X X X company Table 1. The size of the companies sponsoring an event of a certain size
5.2 Thematic Analysis
The thematic analysis of the transcribed interviews was performed after conducting interviews and collecting all the necessary data. It emerged six core themes: sponsorship promotional activities, sponsorship objectives, sponsorship selection criteria, decision- makers, decision-making procedures and length of the decision-making process. The thematic analysis of each group will be presented in the form of tables to give a better overview of finding for the reader. According to the literature, sporting events allow sponsoring companies to include additional promotional activities. It gives a possibility to interact with visitors and add meaning to the consumption experience (Close, Finney, Lacey & Sneath, 2006). Through, for instance, branding materials and consumer product sampling, brands can increase attendees’ engagement level; thus, participants are more open to the marketing message (Close et al., 2006). What is more, as written in previous research, scientists identify many different companies’ motives for sponsoring sporting events. However, to the most known reasons, researchers include brand awareness and improvement of the brand image (Schwarz & Hunter, 2008; Apostolopoulou & Papadimitriu, 2004; Dolphin, 2003; Walliser, 2003; Hoek et al., 1997). Furthermore, the researchers determine that companies engage in sponsorship because they wish to increase sales, improve media coverage, as well as create and enhance the relationship with customers (Apostolopoulou & Papadimitriu, 2004) and employees (Mack, 1999; Slåtten et al., 2017).
46 The same as with the sponsorship goals, there are many sponsor’s selection criteria identified by researchers. For instance, it is stated that companies consider media exposure as well as reputation, popularity, and professionalism of event and event organizers while deciding what sporting event to sponsor (Walliser, 2003). Further, to the selection criteria, the researchers include the location of the event and expected sponsorship costs and benefits (Walliser, 2003). Besides, researchers recognize the rational model, bounded rational model, the political model, and garbage can model (Aguilar-Manjarrez et al., 1997). Moreover, the researchers has described the sports sponsorship processes. For instance, Arthur et al. (1997) developed the sport sponsorship acquisition model in which they describe major dimensions of the process of sport sponsorship procurement. In terms of sports sponsorship in Poland, researchers observe that sponsorship is not sufficiently used by companies (Kończak & Jedel, 2019). Many businesses are too small to buy attractive sponsorship rights or limit their sponsorship activities to brand their exposure on stadium walls (Funacja Promocji i Rozwoju Sportu SportLife, 2018).
5.2.1 Companies sponsoring local sporting events Before analyzing companies sponsoring local sporting events, the thematic analysis table (table 2) is introduced. By placing it at the beginning, the reader can have a better overview of findings. The table presents generated codes, description, created themes, as well as examples. The last column of the table (example) presents the most common respondent’s quotations. Below, each of the themes (first column of the table) will be discussed in different sections where the initial codes will be introduced and analyzed.
47 THEME DESCRIPTION INITIAL CODES EXAMPLE
Examples of sponsoring - Providing prizes In addition to classic support in the Sponsorship activities that the - Branding materials (logo, form of awarding prizes, we also promotional company perform during banners, roll-ups, tents) have social media, logos and we activities the sponsoring sport - Social Media also appear with a store stand. events - Contests and games - Reach target group In the case of the sport watches we - Advertisement sell, the main and largest group of Sponsorship goals for - Owner(s) passion for sport recipients are runners and active Sponsorship companies involved in - Desire to help people in need people. Thus, by showing up and objectives sponsoring of sporting - Sympathy to event organizers sponsoring marathons, we are able events - Local patriotism to reach those people who could then become our clients directly. - Location - Sport discipline of the event - Mass event Sponsorship selection Sponsorship - Marketing activities of the The most important event location criteria of the company selection organizer is for us - we prefer the local involved in sponsoring criteria - Sympathy for event organizers market. of sporting events - Long-term cooperation - Entry thresholds - No selection criteria Individual or group in - Owner(s) Sponsorship the company that makes - Marketing department The owners discuss all issues Decision- the final decision of - Managing directors related to sponsorship, and we makers sponsoring the sporting - Board make the decision together. event
The decision-making The decision-making process is Sponsorship process of the sporting Analysis à Negotiations à straightforward and based on decision- event sponsorship that Decision emotions. There are no marketing making takes place inside of the or advertising departments here, procedures company and the decision is ad hoc.
The length of time from - 1-2 weeks Length of the Due to the fact that we decide to initiating the idea of - 1-3 days sponsorship sponsor small events, it is a very sponsoring a sporting - 1-5 hours decision- fast process. Usually, the decision- event to implement the making process making process closes in a week. decision Table 2. Thematic analysis of companies sponsoring local sporting events
48 Sponsorship Promotional Activities Following collected data, companies, first of all, provide a sports event with prizes and goods. These prizes are the products or services the company offers, for example, watches, supplements, cosmetics, or tickets to the entertainment center. One of the company’s representant says, ‘We support events in the form of prizes. For example, we give watches to the most prestigious local ones. However, when it comes to smaller events, we often offer gadgets, vouchers to our store, or simply smaller products such as activity bands.’ The popularity of this form is understandable, as, for smaller companies, it is a better and cheaper form of sponsorship than investing money. Moreover, the company that provides sports events with water declares, ‘Our settlement currency is water, which from our point of view is the most favorable currency because, by transferring water, we promote the product.’ Thus, it confirms what researchers state about exchanging cash, sports equipment, and other resources for reaching the sponsor’s objectives (Iwan, 2010). Secondly, companies use branding materials in their sponsorship activities. According to Close et al. (2006), it is an excellent way to transfer a marketing message and increase the participant’s involvement. However, it is worth noting that these are basic materials such as logos, banners, roll-ups, as well as store stands during the events. It indicates a limited budget of the sponsoring companies as well as fewer possibilities during local sporting events. As one of the interviewees puts, ‘We usually have a stand and a banner behind us, people can come and talk to us.’ Another popular answer is related to activity on social media. Companies place information about event sponsorship on their channels but also require it from event organizers – ‘Because we are a sponsor, we expect publication, information, and tagging in various types of posts.’ Interest in this form of sponsorship activity is reasonable. According to previous research, social media is available for everyone and everywhere and is considered as an easy and cheap technique of promotion (Gillooly, Anagnostopoulos & Chadwick, 2017). Lastly, interviewed companies try to attract potential clients by organizing games and contests during the sponsoring event – ‘We organize additional competitions on the spot, for example, challenge zones.’ Another company is also part of the online competition – ‘Sometimes we give some prizes to a jointly organized competition, i.e., through social media, the organizer of an event announces a competition in which there
49 is something to be won that we sponsor.’ It is also an easy and relatively cheap way of promoting a brand and building a relationship with potential clients.
Sponsorship Objectives According to previous research, one of the sponsorship objectives is a desire to reach a specific target group (Mack, 1999). Interviewed companies that sponsor local sporting events also want to approach potential customers called by one of the interviewees as ‘exemplary consumers.’ As the respondent says, ‘This is the best way to reach the target group, for specific products or specific advertising campaigns.’ Moreover, the company that specializes in selling electronic sports equipment clearly states that through sponsorship, they want to reach people directly interested in their products. They argue that ‘In the case of the sports watches we sell, the main and largest group of recipients are runners and active people. Thus, by showing up and sponsoring marathons, we can directly reach those people who could then become our clients.’ Another reason why companies sponsor local events is the possibility of additional advertising. As one of the interviewees states, ‘Sponsorship gives us an advertisement that is relatively cheaper than if we had to announce something in newspapers or other media.’ This goal has not been included in the previous research. Nevertheless, it is worth noticing that several companies explained that ‘None of the forms of sport sponsorship did payback even in 10%.’ Moreover, the research shows that companies engage in sponsoring local sporting events because they want to support event organizers who need the most help and to show their local patriotism through sports sponsorship. One of the interviewees describes that ‘Sponsorship is not necessarily related to the sale of the image. But it is related to the fact that we want to support a given initiative and help if we can.’ Another company says, ‘We usually help people who don’t really have the money or products for events they organize.’ These examples show an altruistic approach to the sport sponsorship that confirms the patronage concept included in the previous research. According to the literature review, it is an action that does not expect anything in return (Fundacja Promocji i Rozwoju Sportu SportLife, 2018). In addition to that, some brands decide to sponsor local events due to the owner’s passion for sport or particular sports discipline and sympathy for event organizers. As one of the company’s owners says, ‘I sponsor marathons because I am an active runner taking part in local sporting events.’ Thus, they present a typical ‘chairman’s wife
50 syndrome’, which, as stated in the previous research, refers to sponsoring the sporting events because of the leader’s personal preferences (Beech & Chadwick, 2013). This example, as well as the patronage concept described above, shows that some of the interviewed companies that sponsor local sporting events do not look for commercial benefits through sponsorship. Instead, it is a philanthropy approach to sponsorship.
Sponsorship Selection Criteria While interviewing companies sponsoring local sporting events, it could be noticed that the sponsorship selection criteria are diverse and not entirely consistent. It is difficult to determine which selection criteria appear the most. According to previous research, one of the sponsorship selection criteria is the geographical reach of the event (Walliser, 2003). Also, the investigated companies state that location is the selection criteria that they consider. These companies prefer ‘the local market.’ It is understandable, as the brands that sponsor local sporting events are mostly small and local companies. Thus they focus on the region where the company is located and known. For instance, the company that runs paintball games in a particular city in Poland and provides the event with entrance tickets says that ‘A sporting event that would bring together 5000 people in another city is less valuable to us because they are people who will not come back to us. Thus, we do not gain new customers nor any brand awareness.’ Also, when it comes to the big water supplier in Poland they prefer to focus on the local market, as in different part of Poland this regional water is unknown – ‘We have a chance to build brand awareness in the community that has this product available and can buy it.’ Therefore, it does not make sense for these companies to sponsor larger events as they would not bring desire benefits. What is more, as stated in the previous research, one of the selection criteria is similarities between sponsor products or services and sports events (Walliser, 2003). Interviewed companies have also identified it as the sports discipline of the event. It is a reasonable criterium, as those companies choose the sporting event which allows reaching people interested in the offered product or service. An example can be a company specializing in selling running clothes that apply marathons as the sponsorship selection criteria – ‘The main criterion is the nature of the event, we focus on marathons.’ Additionally, interviewed companies state that they choose the sports events that bring the most significant number of participants and spectators. This objective has also
51 been covered by Meenaghan (1991) in the sports literature. One of the company state, ‘The number of participants is important to us because then we are able to reach more recipients.’ The research, however, showed that these companies are larger and international with headquarters in Poland. It could be a reason for choosing this selection criterion. Nonetheless, due to the product or service they offer, they still prefer to sponsor local sporting events; however, more popular ones. Furthermore, businesses, while choosing sports events to support ‘focus on long-term cooperation.’ Again, as the majority of companies that sponsor the local sporting event are small-sized, those selection criteria are essential to be able to involve in sponsorship and gain some benefits from sponsorship. Therefore, it goes in line with what Meenaghan (1983) declared about sponsorship type. Researchers also state that the expected sponsorship costs and benefits can influence the sponsor’s decision (Walliser, 2003). Interviewed companies also explain that they check entry thresholds, which means the cost of sponsorship benefits. Moreover, companies declare that they do not have any significant selection criteria. The decision is often subjective and based on emotion and sympathy for the event organizers. It can refer to the executive preference selection criteria presented by Meenaghan (1983). One of the sponsors says, ‘It’s a completely subjective decision every time. I have no criteria.’ Moreover, another company declares that ‘The first impulse in a decision is sympathy to the sports field.’ These brands wish to support event organizers that they know and like without considering any criteria that could bring greater benefits to the business. The last criterion mentions during the interviews are the marketing activities of the event organizer. One of the interviewees declares, ‘We check what media activities the organizer takes, for example, whether there are a separate website and a page on social media.’ The above criterion has not been covered in the previous research.
Sponsorship Decision-Makers When it comes to decision-makers, it is the owner or owners who decide to support the particular event. One of the respondents states, ‘The owners discuss all issues related to sponsorship, and we make the decision together.’ Moreover, another company says that ‘Sponsorship offers come to me as the president of the board. But all issues are discussed between partners, and we make decisions together.’
52 Moreover, companies that sponsor local sporting events identify the marketing department as an actor that makes a decision. It is understandable because of the nature of sponsorship – it is related to brand awareness and promotion, and that it belongs to marketing. However, since interviewed companies in this group are mainly small businesses, the marketing team is also small - ‘Our marketing department consists of three people, and we make decisions together.’ Lastly, brands also declare that the managing directors make a joint decision, and in one company, there is a board that makes the final decision.
Sponsorship Decision-making Procedures In the case of the decision-making procedures, interviewed companies sponsoring local sporting events identify three stages of decision-making (figure 4). As can be seen, it is an easy process that includes analysis of the offer by the owner or individual responsible for sports sponsorship, negotiation with the event organizer, and the final decision. One of the interviewees describes the process – ‘When we receive an offer, and it is presented and approved by the head of marketing; eventually, there are some forms of negotiations with the organizer.’ Moreover, the analysis can involve, for instance, ‘Checking details of the event, listed sponsorship packages – how big the logo will be and how the company will be advertised on Social Media.’ The negotiations usually occur via email – ‘We try to communicate with the organizer via email because it is definitely more convenient and then all trace of arrangements remain.’ In the last step, the final decision is fast and taken by the above parties. As one of the respondents says, ‘The decision-making process is straightforward and based on emotions. There are no marketing or advertising departments here, and the decision is ad hoc.’ Therefore, considering the sport sponsorship acquisition model introduced by Arthur et al. (1997), companies sponsoring local sporting events cover all stages of the model. Nevertheless, it can also be noticed that these companies include negotiation that has not been covered in the model.
Analysis Negotiation Decision
Figure 4 . Decision-making process in companies sponsoring local sporting events
53 Length of the Sponsorship Decision-Making Process The length of the decision-making process also indicates a quick and straightforward procedure – ‘We decide to sponsor small sporting events, which is why it is a very fast process.’ Companies spend 1-2 weeks or 1-3 days to make a decision – ‘We usually close our decision-making process in a week.’ Moreover, other brands declare they make decisions within a few hours. It may be because local events are small and do not require much time spent on planning and negotiations.
5.2.2 Companies sponsoring national sporting events The below table (table 3) introduces the thematic analysis of companies sponsoring national sporting events. Again, the table is presented first to give a better overview for the reader. The table shows created themes, descriptions, generated codes, and the most common respondents’ answers. As in the previous group, each theme will be discussed further down.
54
THEME DESCRIPTION INITIAL CODES EXAMPLE
- Providing prizes Examples of sponsoring Our logos are on the player’s t-shirts. Sponsorship - Branding materials activities that the company The whole event is branded, i.e. some promotional - Social Media perform during the banners with our logo, press activities - Traditional advertisement sponsoring sport events publications, posters. - Fan zones
Sport itself carries the best emotions, Sponsorship goals for - Image transfer thus it is very easy to combine such a Sponsorship companies involved in - Reach target group positive emotion from the sport with a objectives sponsoring of sporting - Owner passion for the sport positive image of the company. events - Advertisement
- Mass event - Organizer’s professionalism Sponsorship selection National sporting events are a huge Sponsorship - TV broadcast criteria of the company undertaking in which a big number of selection - Location involved in sponsoring of people take part and this criterion is criteria - Familism of the sporting event sporting events important for us. - Owner’s sports discipline preference Individual or group in the - Owner(s) Sponsorship company that makes the - Head of the marketing As a marketing manager, I make the Decision- final decision of department final decisions. maker sponsoring the sporting - Board event After receiving the offer, we review it and send any additional questions. So The decision-making Sponsorship the first phase is checking the data process of the sporting Decision- Analysis à Negotiations à they send, the opportunities that they event sponsorship that making Decision can give us and what they expect in takes place inside of the procedures return, social media channels. And company then it's conversations and negotiations. The length of time from Length of the - 2-5 months initiating the idea of It is a process of conversation, work sponsorship - 6 months sponsoring a sporting on a contract, and sometimes it can decision- - 1 week event to implement the take months. making process decision Table 3. Thematic analysis of companies sponsoring national sporting events
55
Sponsorship Promotional Activities As the above table shows, the same as in the case of the previous group, companies sponsoring national sporting events provide events with prizes. These businesses also offer their products or services – sportswear, bike equipment, and bike services. One of the sponsor states, ‘Every participant who takes part in the competition gets a T-shirt made by us in the starter packet.’ Moreover, one of the companies sponsoring children’s sporting events says, ‘We sponsor the prize - a trip for children to the champions league match to cities in Europe.’ Thus, it goes in line with what Iwan (2010) states about providing events with companies’ resources. Moreover, interviewed companies sponsoring national sporting events use branding materials. These corporations promote the brand through logos, banners, roll-ups, and tents for selling their products or services. One of the respondents says, ‘Our logo is on players’ shirts, there are also banners with our logo. Actually, the whole event is branded.’ Furthermore, examined companies also apply social media to inform about the sponsored event by the company. One of the interviewee states, ‘We promote all events on our social media. We have a person responsible for social media and has a list of marathons that we sponsor, and there is always information about it.’ As mentioned in the previous group, this is an easy and cheap way of promotion. Moreover, companies engaging in sponsorship of national sporting events use a traditional advertisement to promote the event and the brand. It includes posters, newspapers, radio and outdoor. One of the respondents expresses, ‘We promote a sporting event in our stores - we display posters, we give out gadgets and leaflets.’ Lastly, one company organize fan zones during sporting events. It is a great way to promote the brand, bring customers closer, and build a positive image and relationship with clients.
Sponsorship Objectives Companies that sponsor national sporting events, first of all, identify image transfer as their goal. As mentioned in the previous research, it relates to transferring positive emotions associated with sport and sports events to the company (Alonso-Dos-Santos et al., 2016). One of the respondents explains that ‘Sport itself carries the best emotions; thus, it is straightforward to combine such a positive emotion from the sport with a
56 positive image of the company.’ The interviewee also adds, ‘Thanks to the good image, sales are still on.’ The interviewed companies want to transfer the image from the event when entering a sponsorship engagement. Consequently, they are associated as a company that supports a sports initiative and thus build the relationship and brand perception through sports emotions. The company that sponsors children’s sport says, ‘It’s about joining positive emotions with the company. And it is so natural by children because the whole family lives this children’s sporting event.’ The desire to increase the brand image through sport event sponsorship can also be associated with the exchange theory explained in Chapter Three. As mentioned there, sponsorship comprises an exchange of resources (Cook & Rice, 2006). In image sponsorship, the company aims to transfer or appropriate to itself the positive image of the event. In return, the event’s organizer receives financial support or prizes to use in the sporting event. It is, therefore, a benefit for both parties. Secondly, through sponsorship, interviewed companies want to reach their target group. This sponsorship objective is also acknowledged by researchers (Mack, 1999). One of the interviewees states that they sponsor national sporting events because ‘Our main client is a person actively spending time; thus, it is a customer who takes parts in these sporting events that we sponsor, or at least they follow them.’ Another respondent adds, ‘The most important thing in sponsoring is that we can have contact with people that can become our clients.’ Like in the previous group, companies sponsoring national sporting events take part in sponsorship because they want to be closer to potential clients. Moreover, companies identify the possibility of advertising the brand as another sponsorship objective – ‘First of all, our sponsorship goal is to promote the product. Through promotions at these sporting events, we noticed that after three years, our sales of premium products increased.’ This goal is not included in the described previous research; however, it can be identified with the desire to increase sales (Mack, 1999). Nevertheless, compared to the sponsorship of local events, the number of companies that state this is much smaller. It may be because national sports events have more potential than just advertising. Nonetheless, it can be noticed that one of the big-sized companies declares that they sponsor national sporting events because of the owner’s passion for specific sports disciplines. ‘We sponsor speedway due to the personal preferences and sympathy of our company's president to this field, which has been a speedway fan since
57 childhood.’ Thus, it can be seen that emotional decisions also drive these companies. Again, it confirms the ‘chairman’s wife syndrome’ (Beech & Chadwick, 2013) included in the previous research.
Sponsorship Selection Criteria Similar to the previous group, businesses sponsoring national sporting events also have different and not consistent sponsorship selection criteria. For instance, investigated companies choose sports events that bring the largest amount of participants. Thus, it is in line with what the previous research says about audience size (Meenaghan, 1983). One of the interviewees explains that ‘National sporting events are a huge undertaking in which a big number of people take part, and this criterion is important for us.’ Moreover, a manager from a large footwear company says that ‘We have stores all over Poland, so promoting some local event makes no sense for us.’ Hence, it can be assumed that these businesses look for events that can bring the most benefits to the company and reach as many people as possible. According to previous research, another sponsorship selection criteria can be the professionalism of event organizers (Cornwell & Maignan, 1998). Likewise, interviewed companies in this group state it as their selection criteria. It shows the companies are aware of what sponsorship is and what it involves. It also indicated that the business requirements are bigger and more conscious. During one of the interviews, it was said that ‘The organizer must have a specific and well-prepared business plan. We need to see that everything works well, and we can engage in that sports event.’ Further, a company that sells sportswear states that TV broadcast is the criterion for them – ‘One of the conditions is television broadcasting. We don't support small events anymore. We focus only on those that have televisions and significant media exposure.’ The media exposure is also the sponsorship selection criteria identified in the previous research (Cornwell & Maignan, 1998). The researchers also identify geographical coverage of the sports event (Meenaghan, 1983). Likewise, a company offering bicycle services applies location as an essential selection criterion – ‘We are a local bicycle company, so we are only interested in events in our region.’ The conducted interviews show that the popularity of this criterion is lower than in the previous group. It may be because they are more prominent companies with a broader reach; thus, it is more beneficial for them to be visible nationwide.
58 Furthermore, as mentioned in the previous research, selection criteria often depend on the culture and structure of the sponsoring company (Aguilar-Manjarrez et al., 1997). For example, a shoe store identifies an interesting and company-oriented sponsorship selection criteria – familism of the sports event. This company focuses on children’s sports events and explains that ‘We don’t want to be an adult football sponsor, for example, as it carries the risk of a football hooligan. We are a company that has an offer for the whole family, so we aim at an event dedicated to the whole family - children, parents, grandparents, etc.’ Here, a sports event sponsorship is a way of arousing the sympathy of families (customers) through children’s sport. Thus, they are worried that their brand will be connected to something bad. Nevertheless, in this group, there is also a company that does not have any significant selection criteria and instead focuses on sports events that represent the sport preferred by the owner – ‘These are the personal preferences of the owner of the company for a given discipline and his personal commitment to the sport.’ It shows an example of an emotional approach to the sponsorship selection criteria as well as matches what the researchers say about executive preferences as selection criteria (Meenaghan, 1983).
Sponsorship Decision-Makers The decision-maker in this group is similar to the one in the companies sponsoring local sporting events. It is the owner or owners that make the final decision – ‘There is always a meeting of owners. We discuss together whether we take part in the event or not.’ Moreover, respondents also include the marketing department that makes the final decision. Again, it is understandable due to the nature of sponsorship. However, it can be noticed that here the final decision is made by the head of the marketing department – ‘The foundation of the decision is created jointly in marketing, while the final decision is on my side - the marketing manager.’ It indicates that this team is bigger and has a larger team than companies sponsoring local sporting events. Further, the analysis shows that the board is responsible for making the final decision about sponsoring a national sporting event.
59 Sponsorship Decision-Making Procedures Also, the procedure of decision-making looks similar, as in the case of companies sponsoring local sporting events. The process consists of the same three steps – analysis, negotiations, and decision. However, the analysis of the offer is more extensive. It includes, for example, the analysis of expenses, participants, profits, event, media coverage, what event organizer expects, and what sponsoring company can get in return. As one of the interviewed companies describes, ‘Nationwide events take a long time because of negotiating, debating, checking with PR agencies, and talking about publicity and the number of participants.’ Therefore, companies sponsoring national sporting events cover the stages of the sport sponsorship acquisition model presented by Arthur et al. (1997). Similarly, as companies sponsoring local sporting events, this group involves negotiation as one of the process stages. Moreover, it is worth noting that big-sized companies expressed that the sponsorship process is ‘a series of activities without a major plan, without calculating benefits, these are individual and quite spontaneous decisions.’ This case shows that the decision- making process has no pattern, and each company decides what is best, and the decision to sponsor national sporting events could also sometimes be based on emotions.
Length of the Sponsorship Decision-Making Processes Lastly, it can be noticed that the length of decision-making in the case of companies sponsoring national sporting events is longer than in the previous group. Here, companies need two to five months – ‘For the marathon last year, we had to prepare, discuss, design a new tent, think about buying a new car, and it lasted several months.’ Furthermore, the research of companies sponsoring national sporting events presents that the decision-making process can even last half a year. The longer process in the above cases is caused by a comprehensive analysis of the offer and the contract's work. However, the research also reveals that the decision-making process lasts only a week. The discrepancy in the sponsorship process length may be due to the company’s profile, event category communication with organizer, and commitment from both sides. As one of the interviewees says, ‘Each sporting event is completely different, and the process is different too. There are no such paths that you cannot enter the number in Excel, and the result comes out.’
60 5.2.3 Companies sponsoring international sporting events Similar as in the case of previous groups, before the thematic analysis, the table (table 4) of companies sponsoring international sporting events is introduced to give a better overview for a reader. As can be seen, the table presents a theme, description, initial codes, and examples of the most common respondents’ answers. Each of the themes (first column of the table) will be further discussed in different sections.
61 THEME DESCRIPTION INITIAL CODES EXAMPLE
- Money support - Branding materials Examples of sponsoring Sponsorship - Traditional advertisement Showing the event in the media, for activities that the company promotional - Fan zones, VIP zones, and example, TV, Internet, and press perform during the activities contests coverage. sponsoring sport events - Match tickets for customers - Social Media - Brand positioning - Brand awareness From the point of view of marketers Sponsorship goals for - Image transfer and the company they represent, Sponsorship companies involved in - Sponsorship attractiveness sports sponsorship is simply a very objectives sponsoring of sporting - Increase loyalty among effective way to build the position of events customers your brand or simply product - Employer branding position. - Reach target group - The popularity of sports Sponsorship selection discipline in Poland Sponsorship criteria of the company - Mass event We focus on sports that are the selection involved in sponsoring of - Media coverage most popular in Poland. criteria sporting events - Event and organizer reputation - 360-degree sponsoring Individual or group in the - Owner(s) Sponsorship company that makes the - Head of the marketing This is a democratic decision of the Decision- final decision of department company's owners. makers sponsoring the sporting
event The responsible person analyzes not only the offer, but also the The decision-making market or enterprise, closer and Sponsorship process of the sporting Analysis à Discussion à further environment, possible Decision- event sponsorship that Preparation of contract terms à threats. We also prepare SWOT and making takes place inside of the Negotiations à Decision threat analysis. Then we meet the procedures company management, present the offer, and whether this is the right direction. And then it's negotiation. The length of time from Length of the initiating the idea of Strategic decisions at large events sponsorship - 1-5 months sponsoring a sporting last much longer, even several decision- - 1 year event to implement the months. making process decision Table 4. Thematic analysis of companies sponsoring international sporting events
62 Sponsorship Promotional Activities In the last group, the list of sponsorship promotional activities is longer and more inventive than in previous groups. First of all, these companies provide sporting events with financial support. It might be because they are big companies with a larger budget but also because international sports events have higher entry thresholds. Therefore, it confirms what Iwan (2010) stated about transferring cash in exchange for other benefits. Further, interviewed companies use branding materials during sports events. The same as in the case of companies sponsoring national sporting events, they include logos, banners, roll-ups, and tents. However, here, sponsors also add gadgets such as volleyball balls or clappers with the their logo. As one of the respondents puts, ‘We try to make our logo visible in stadiums, halls, on various sponsored walls and wherever the event takes place.’ Another respondent also emphasizes the importance of the company’s logo – ‘We make sure that the organizer has given us high visibility because it must pay off for us because it is not small cash.’ Moreover, examined brands, the same as companies sponsoring national sporting events, use traditional media. It involves posters, newspapers, and radio, and it is an integral part of sponsorship promotional activities – ‘We want our brand to appear in the media, for example, on television, on the internet or in the press.’ Additionally, interviewed companies organize fan zones and contests during the sponsorship of sports events. There are, for example, knowledge competitions where sports gadgets can be won. Investigated companies also arrange a VIP zone for the most loyal customers – ‘We have a VIP area where we invite VIP customers. We have special zones there, special competitions for them and specially manufactured gadgets that they won't buy anywhere.’ Moreover, brands offer match tickets for the key customers - ‘First of all, we get tickets for matches, and we can invite key clients from the management level. So we can build some relationships with them.’ These examples show that companies that sponsor international sporting events spend a lot of money on sponsorship promotional activities and are looking for various ways to promote the brand. Lastly, companies sponsoring international sporting events use social media to promote the brand and the event they sponsor. ‘We also use social media and our fan pages, where we have a lot of fans and organize competitions in which we distribute
63 invitations to the events.’ However, in this group, this activity was less frequently mentioned. It can suggest that these companies prefer to use more sophisticated promotion methods as opposed to companies sponsoring local and national sporting events.
Sponsorship Objectives Businesses that focus on sponsoring international sporting events identify many marketing-related sponsorship goals. As the research shows, interviewed companies state that the main objective of sponsoring international sports events is brand positioning and brand awareness. According to researchers, these goals are one of the most popular reasons (Schwarz & Hunter, 2008; Apostolopoulou & Papadimitriu, 2004; Dolphin, 2003; Walliser, 2003; Hoek et al., 1997). For this group of respondents, sports sponsorship is considered as a commercial activity aiming to gain marketing benefits, including financial. For instance, one of the companies says, ‘From the point of view of marketers and the company they represent, sports sponsorship is simply a very effective way to build the position of your brand or simply product position.’ Further, as in the case of businesses sponsoring national events also in this group image transfer is seen as an essential goal – ‘We associate with a company that supports a given sports initiative, that means we build relationships and brand perception through sport emotions. These are very expressive and positive emotions; thus, this brand perception is very persistent.’ Therefore, it goes in line with what the previous research about image transfer says. In addition to that, the interviewed companies explain that they sponsor international sporting events because sponsorship is a more attractive form of promotion than traditional advertisements. Respondents specify that ‘Sponsorship is a competitive form of advertising compared to building classic advertising campaigns. Sponsorship of international sporting events causes that this advertisement is more visible and reaches an extensive range of clients but subtly and unobtrusively.’ Another interviewee says that ‘Sport is a specific entertainment that you have to watch it live and in a certain way. That’s why we can talk here about a specific group of recipients who, at a given moment, selected by the schedule, sit down and watch our brand repeatedly.’ The attractiveness of sports sponsorship has not been marked in the previous research. Moreover, according to sponsorship literature, besides marketing goals, researchers also identify internal objectives. Sponsorship is a good way to increase employees'
64 motivation and pride (Slåtten et al., 2017). This goal is also visible in companies sponsoring international sporting events. They engage in sponsoring because of the possibility of increasing the relationship and motivation of employees. Interviewees call it as employer branding. According to the literature, it is the strategy in which marketing policies are used to maintain the tangible and intangible employment offers in the organization to increase recognition and strengthen relationships between the brand and desired attributes among employees (Theurer, Tumasjan, Welpe & Lievens, 2016). Further, employer branding concentrates on the maintenance of current workers as a target group (Theurer et al., 2016). In the case of interviewed companies, employer branding is applied by offering employees tickets to sporting events – ‘We get tickets that we can dispose of inside the company and thus increase employee loyalty.’ These tickets are expensive and often difficult to get; thus, the employee who received such a ticket is more connected with the company and automatically has a more positive attitude towards the organization he works in. Furthermore, companies that sponsor international sporting events use sponsorship to increase loyalty among customers. As in the case of employer branding, these companies offer match tickets to clients. However, it is often associated with the sale of the product. One of the companies explains that ‘We got a tool called match tickets, which we can use to invite direct clients of our company and thus build a business around it, simply saying selling the company’s products but also to increase loyalty among them.’ It is a good and well-thought-out strategy to earn through sports sponsorship and, at the same time, increase loyalty. Other researchers have also described such sponsorship goals. According to them, sponsorship is an occasion for public relations with current clients (Apostolopoulou & Papadimitriu, 2004). Lastly, a big construction company states that through sports sponsorship, they wish to reach their target group – ‘We focused on sponsoring international events due to our target group - men. They like to watch matches, especially international ones. So we are present there, and in this way, we reach them.’ Thus, it is consistent with what previous research on the target group says. Nonetheless, a little interest in this group's goal may be because these respondents are big, well-established companies with a large customer base. Thus, they focus on increasing and maintaining brand image and awareness rather than acquiring new customers, as is the case of previous groups.
65 Sponsorship Selection Criteria Interviewed companies state that the popularity of the sports discipline in Poland is the main sponsorship selection criteria. Other researchers have not mentioned the above criterion. Nonetheless, this choice seems reasonable, as the interviewed companies are big, with a large budget and capabilities. Therefore, they can afford to choose the most prestigious and popular sports events. One of the international companies expresses that ‘We focus on sports that are the most popular in Poland. So I think it is harder to get big sponsors from the Polish curling team concerning volleyball, which is extremely popular in Poland and attracts a lot of people to the hall.’ Only one of the investigated companies in this group does not consider the popularity of sports discipline while deciding on what sports events to sponsor. It is due to its company policy that states that the company’s sponsorship focuses on tennis, which is a niche sport in Poland. Additionally, the examined organizations that sponsor international sporting events set the mass event as their selection criteria. Thus, it goes in line with what Meenaghan (1983) states about the audience size. One of the sponsors says, ‘Following our policy, we choose an event that impacts the entire country and people throughout the country, not local markets.’ Again, this criterion is related to the size of the company and its reach. Large companies look for an event to sponsor that generates the largest group of participants and the most significant benefits associated with brand awareness. Furthermore, questioned companies base their choice of sponsoring a sports event on media coverage, which is also covered in the previous research (Cornwell & Maignan, 1998). The organization says, ‘We focus on events that have the best media effect - to what extent a given sporting event and our marketing investment is media and the degree of return on this investment.’ Moreover, according to previous research, one of the popular sponsorship selection criteria is the reputation and popularity of the sponsoring event (Walliser, 2003). The examined companies also identify reputation as another sponsorship selection criteria. This choice is justified as interviewed companies are big and well-known not only in Poland but also worldwide. Thus, if the event would have a bad reputation, there is a risk that this sports event will be unsuccessful, which results in the loss of the company’s good reputation. It can be referred to the image transfer introduced earlier; however, in the negative context – adverse event reputation is associated with a bad sponsored brand reputation.
66 Also, similar to the case of companies that sponsor the national sporting events, here brands have unusual and company-oriented selection criteria – 360-degree sponsoring, which refers to different target groups. The interviewee explains it as ‘Different target groups for professionals, for children, for employees, and disabled people. If someone said that we have a tennis tournament for doctors, we might think it might be interesting. Because it is already a different target group for us, smaller but non- interfering.’ It can be suggested that due to the uniqueness of the selection criteria, it has not been included by researchers in the previous research.
Sponsorship Decision-Makers In this group, the owner/owners or marketing team make the final decision. One of the respondents states, ‘The idea of sponsorship is created a little lower in the hierarchy, for example, among people responsible for marketing. But the owners make the final decisions.’ As mentioned earlier, sponsorship belongs to marketing, and in these big companies, the marketing department is vast and full of professionals. That is why it might seem that the marketing team shall be the only one responsible for making the final decision. However, it is worth mentioning that decisions about supporting international sporting events relate to the significant investment that requires a higher budget than in the previous groups. One of the interviewees says, ‘Big strategic decisions require the approval of the company's owner.’ Thus, it is a costly and complicated decision that often needs to have approval also from the owner.
Sponsorship Decision-Making Procedures The sponsorship procedure in this group differs from companies sponsoring local and national sporting events. It includes more steps – in-depth analysis, discussion with the board or marketing team about the activation of sponsorship, preparation of contract terms, negotiations, and final decision (figure 5). The analysis is more in-depth and consists of many elements - the analysis of the market, event, closer, and further environment, threats as well as SWOT, strategies, action plan, benefits, the potential of the event, what organizer gets, and what organizer receives in return. One of the interviewees adds that the process can include ‘Wondering if the event has business potential for us.’ Another respondent says, ‘We have to analyze everything, meet the organizer, check its reputation and the number of benefits.’ In the case of the biggest sports events in Poland, the legality of contracts have high importance. The complexity
67 of the process might also be because of money involved in sponsorship, and these companies want to ensure everything goes as planned. Further, it is noticeable that the sponsorship process in this group involves more people than in previous groups. Before making the final decision by decision-maker, it is discussed with other actors in the company. One of the sponsors explains, ‘All sponsorship offers go to a marketing specialist, she firstly segregates the offers.’ Therefore, companies sponsoring international sporting events include all stages presented by Arthur et al. (1997) in the sport sponsorship acquisition model. Nevertheless, this group enriched the model by adding a discussion and negotiation stage.
Preparation Analysis Discussion of contract Negotiation Decision terms
Figure 5. Decision-making process in companies sponsoring international sporting events
Length of the Sponsorship Decision-Making Process Consequently, the length of the decision-making process is also longer than in the case of companies sponsoring local and national sporting events. Here, the interviewed companies declare that it takes one to five months or even a year. One of the sponsors explains, ‘Strategic decisions take longer because they are related to the preparation of action strategies and the preparation of materials. Such processes can take up to several months.’ Another respondent adds, ‘Working out the terms of the contract can take quite a long time.’ Moreover, it is a complex process, and as one of the interviewees states, ‘It is about the comfort of the work. During the long process, we also see that the organizer takes it seriously, and does not just want to get money from the sponsor but also get involved.’ Further, the negotiations and face-to-face meetings are more extended and more complex than in the case of previous groups. It is carried out more professionally and involve more people, from both the sponsored event and sponsoring company side. Further, the international sporting events require more resources, money, as well as the whole promotion process starts earlier; thus, companies need to plan it way ahead.
68 6. Conclusions
The study aimed to identify the differences and similarities between sponsorship processes of companies in Poland that sponsor local, national, and international sporting events. A comparative study of 19 companies was conducted. This section includes a summary of the information gathered during qualitative research. The chapter begins by answering the sub-questions, and then the main research question will be examined. The answers introduce similarities and differences in the sponsorship processes between the discussed companies. Moreover, the conclusion focuses on theories presented in the theoretical background and the literature review to explain differences and similarities of the cases included in the comparative study.
6.1 Sub-question 1: What are the main motives present when companies decide to engage in the sponsorship of sports events in Poland?
The analysis of companies sponsoring different levels of sporting events has revealed that several objectives of sport sponsorship may be identified. First of all, it can be noticed that sponsorship objectives in all groups often depend on the range and type of the event as well as on company size and offered products or services. Interviewed companies look for new strategies that match the company profile and test them to get as many benefits as possible. Thus, it confirms what the researchers state about the dependence of objectives (Walliser, 2003). Secondly, it can be seen that all groups identify marketing goals in its sponsorship strategy. One of the examples is an advertisement. However, this objective has not been acknowledged in presented previous research. It might suggest that companies in Poland still perceive sponsorship only as a mere form of marketing, wherein previous research resigns from it by identifying more broad objectives within the brand communication field. Moreover, in reference to previous research, each group state that through sports sponsorship and their sponsorship promotional activities want to reach the target group and turn events viewers into company clients. Nevertheless, when it comes to reaching the target group, it can be noticed that with the increasing level of the sports event, this
69 goal is losing its importance. It may be because interviewed companies that sponsor international sporting events are well-established brands with a large customer base. Thus, they instead focus on improving brand image than on getting new customers. Lastly, it can be noticed that companies sponsoring national and international sporting events identify image transfer as one of their sponsorship goals. Hence, these groups cover one of the important objectives mentioned in previous research. It says that sponsorship gives a possibility to transfer a positive image from sponsored property to the sponsoring brand (Alonso-Dos-Santos et al., 2016). Nevertheless, the research also shows the differences between interviewed groups in setting sponsorship goals. Firstly, companies sponsoring local sports events often demonstrate an altruistic approach to sponsorship, and their objectives are often based on emotions. From a marketing perspective, it is considered as unreasonable goals, as marketing aims to achieve profits (Schwarz & Hunter, 2008). On the other hand, altruistic objectives can also be seen as a way to improve the local relationship, which seems to be essential for this group of respondents. According to the previous research, it can be identified as forming relations with local communities (Cornwell & Maignan, 1998); however, without looking for any specific benefits. Businesses engaged in national sports event sponsorship present mainly marketing goals; however, goals based on personal feelings and preferences can also be observed. Thus, again it goes in line with what Meenaghan (1983) states about personal objectives. Lastly, companies supporting international sporting events determine only reasonable and profit-oriented purposes. Secondly, investigated companies sponsoring local and national sporting events base their sponsorship strategy only on external goals. However, the previous research also identifies internal sponsorship objectives, such as improving relations with employees (Slåtten et al., 2017). The analysis demonstrates that only companies sponsoring international sporting events focus on external and internal objectives. It can indicate that these companies see the potential of sponsorship not only in case of increased sales and company visibility. Companies that sponsor international sporting events are also the only group that states the most known in sponsorship literature's objective - brand awareness and brand image (Schwarz & Hunter, 2008). It is one of the essential objectives identified by respondents.
70 Companies that sponsor international sporting events see that sponsorship is more attractive and unintrusive than traditional media. It suggests that this group has a higher awareness of what sponsorship is and what its aim is. It is not surprising, as interviewed companies are big and well-established brands with a professional approach to business and sponsorship. What is more, getting involved in the biggest and most popular events carries significant financial expenses; thus, these companies need to demonstrate marketing and sponsorship knowledge. Nevertheless, this objective has not been mentioned in the previous research section. It can suggest that sports sponsorship is continuously developing and new, individual sponsorship goals are created in each company. The size of interviewed companies can also cause differentiation in sponsorship goals. It can be assumed that the larger the sports event, the more aware and demanding goals the examined companies set themselves. The big companies focus on the most effective sponsorship objectives. Thus, it may indicate that these brands are more experience in sport sponsorship; they have more possibilities, and they have a marketing department who takes care of it. Whereas smaller companies might not be experienced in sponsorship, and they usually do not have a marketing department that could set reasonable sponsorship goals. It is also worth noting that none of the interviewed groups declare that through sports sponsorship, they want to increase sales (Mack, 1999), have a bigger market share, potential for media coverage (Apostolopoulou & Papadimitriu, 2004) as well as develop the business relationship with other sponsoring companies (Schwarz & Hunter, 2008). It confirms that the objectives of sponsoring companies are individual, depending on the company (Walliser, 2003) and type of supported sports field (Smith, 2008). Each brand sets goals that fit their strategy the most and do not always coincide with what the previous research says.
71 6.2 Sub-question 2: What are the companies’ selection criteria when deciding what sports event to sponsor in Poland?
The analysis shows that all interviewed groups demonstrate various selection criteria, which often depend, as the sponsorship literature states on the company’s size, expectations, goals, size, and profile of the sports events (Walliser, 2003). Further, Meenaghan (1983) recognized audience size as one of the selection criteria. The study presents that each group takes into consideration the mass event. Companies are consistently looking for the biggest event, as it can bring the most significant and visible benefits. Moreover, all groups indicate the desire to reach people interested in the company’s goods as their selection criteria. Accordingly, it goes in line with previous research, which states that one of the criteria is reaching a specific group in the market (Mack, 1999). In addition to that, companies sponsoring national and international sporting events determine a few similar selection criteria. First of all, they set specific, unique, and sophisticated selection criteria that match the company profile. It includes familism in the case of companies sponsoring national sporting events and 360-degree sponsorship in brand engaging in international sports sponsorship. Companies sponsoring national and international sporting events identify media exposure and professionalism of event organizers as sponsorship selection criteria, which is also stated in the previous research (Cornwell & Maignan, 1998). However, the analysis shows that interviewed companies demonstrate more differences than similarities in their sponsorship selection criteria. First of all, it can be observed that as the event's level increases, the criteria also change and become more demanding, specific, and consistent. For instance, in the case of companies sponsoring local events, many different approaches can be found. In contrast, in the case of companies sponsoring international sporting events, interviewees respond cognately and according to one scheme. What is more, previous research recognizes geographical reach as one of the sponsorship selection criteria (Walliser, 2003). Nevertheless, the location matters the most for companies sponsoring local sporting events. In the case of businesses engaging
72 in national sports event sponsorship, this criterion is less critical. Wherein, companies sponsoring international sporting events do not consider it. It suggests that as the level of the event increases, each location becomes profitable. As one of the interviewees notes, ‘Being a company that offers a vast range of its services, we cannot focus on one area or local group in a given city, because our services are purchased regardless of location.’ Companies sponsoring international sporting events also have a larger budget and more employees, which allows them to travel to other cities in Poland and represent the company during sporting events. Moreover, the previous research states that long-term cooperation and expected sponsorship cost and benefits can be the company’s selection criteria (Walliser, 2003). Nevertheless, this criterion is identified only by companies sponsoring local sporting events. It may be caused by the fact that companies sponsoring local sporting events are represented mainly by small companies. Hence, it can be assumed that they have a smaller budget, and sponsorship costs are essential. Moreover, by engaging in long-term cooperation, the company is assured to show up more than once at a specific local event and thus strengthening its brand image in the minds of potential customers. Furthermore, interviewed companies present different approaches to decision- making and selection criteria. According to decision-making models, three factors impact the decision – rational – quantitative aspects such as price; psychological – based on experience, perception, and character of the decider; social – agreements of those who affect decider; and cultural – depends on socially accepted values and trends (Shahsavarani & Abadi, 2015, p. 216). Moreover, the researchers distinguish rational model – where objectives and problems are clear, alternatives and consequences are evaluated and known; bounded rational model – where the first solution that satisfies minimal requirements is chosen; political model – based on the self-interest of the decider and unethical methods; garbage can model – a random decision with no specific goals (Aguilar-Manjarrez et al., 1997). Companies sponsoring local sporting events identify both rational and psychological selection criteria. Some companies’ decisions are influenced by prices, whereas others make a decision based on the experience, perceptions, and values of the decider. Accordingly, this group follows the rational decision-making model, bounded rational model, or garbage can model. Businesses sponsoring national sporting events focus mainly on reasonable selection criteria that bring marketing benefits. However, the subjective decisions are also visible by basing criteria on the owner’s opinion. Hence, this group follows the rational decision-making
73 model or the bounded rational model. The last group concentrates only on rational and business-oriented selections; hence they pursue the rational decision-making model. No emotional or subjective decisions can be found in this group, as in companies that sponsor local and national sporting events. Lastly, none of the interviewed companies represent the political decision-making model, as decision-makers do not make decisions that could negatively affect the company. Although it is also worth noting that previous research does not include some of the selection criteria that have been identified by respondents. It includes earlier mentioned familism, 360-degree sponsorship, the popularity of sports discipline in a particular region or country, and marketing activities of events organizers. On the other hand, there are selection criteria identified in the previous research that none of the interviewed companies mentioned. The sponsorship literature covers exclusivity (Cornwell & Maignan, 1998), type of received rights, possibility to integrate sponsorship to marketing strategy (Walliser, 2003, p. 11), uniqueness of the event, and contact frequency and quality with the event organizer (Kotler & Keller, 2006). The differences in criteria between literature and research show the rapid development of sport sponsorship and the individual approach by each sponsoring company.
6.3 Sub-question 3: What are the decision-making procedures followed by companies involved in the sports event sponsorship in Poland?
The analysis shows that decision-making procedures also depend on many factors, such as company size, field, and type of sports event. The most prominent common feature of all interviewed companies is the decision- maker. In each group, an owner(s) or the marketing department is responsible for sponsorship decisions. It is comprehensible because of the nature of sponsorship – it relates to marketing as well as because sponsorship is connected with the investment – sometimes bigger or smaller, which often has to be approved by the owner. Nonetheless, examined companies show many differences in decision-making procedures.
74 It can be noticed that there is no one general process for maintaining sponsorship; the process varies. Companies sponsoring local sporting events need 1-2 weeks or a few days to make a decision, wherein companies supporting national and international sporting events require months or even a year to decide. This dependence is understandable – the bigger events are more formal, require more planning, professional negotiations, as well as involve more people. These companies also invest more money in sponsorship to what they make. Hence, the longer process can suggest that they want to be sure that their engagement goes as planned, and financial contribution will bring benefits for the company. Whereas local sports events are usually small, and fewer people and resources are involved in the sponsorship process. Thus, decision-making procedures are simple, fast, and often based on emotions. However, it is also worth mentioning that the length of the process can be affected by other factors such as communication with the organizer, engagement, and the services and benefits that should be provided. The larger the sports event, the longer and more complicated process. Additionally, companies sponsoring local sporting events base their communication with organizers on emails. Wherein, companies sponsoring national and international sporting events prefer to meet in person with the event organizer. It shows that they do not rely only on trust, as companies sponsoring local sporting events. Here, the decision is driven more by facts than feelings. Furthermore, it can be observed that each group starts its proceedings with the analysis of the sponsorship offer. Nevertheless, as the event level increases, the analysis becomes more in-depth. Moreover, the process in the case of companies engaging in international sports event sponsorship involves more people, and the whole process must go through many approvals. Again, it is understandable due to the nature and importance of international sports events. These sporting events are the biggest and most-known events in Poland. Thus, an in-depth analysis of the sponsorship activation is an essential step as any event failure or negligence could carry risks for the company and its image. Lastly, it is also worth noting that interviewed companies follow the sports sponsorship acquisition model introduced in Chapter Three to a large extent. As the theory states, there are four stages of decision-making – acquisition of proposal, buying center, purchase decision, and selection of preferred property (Arthur et al., 1997). Nonetheless, all groups identify new stage – negotiations. In the case of companies
75 sponsoring international sporting events, there is also included a discussion with other parties in the company and preparation of contract terms. Thus, the introduced sports sponsorship acquisition model can be rebuild as a result of the thesis. The modification and development of the sports sponsorship acquisition model of interviewed companies are caused by the fact that the theory was introduced more than 20 years ago. As mentioned in the thesis, sponsorship is developing and becoming more demanding and competitive. Moreover, it nowadays involves more money, goods, and other resources. Thus, the development and changes in the sport sponsorship process, such as adding negotiations with event organizers are a natural procedure.
6.4 Main research question: In what way are sponsorship processes different or alike for companies that sponsor Polish sports events at local, national, and international levels? The thesis examined three different sponsors groups – companies sponsoring local sports events, businesses engaging in national sports event sponsorship, and corporations supporting international sports events in Poland. Moreover, the study considers sponsorship processes, which in the context of this thesis refers to sponsorship promotional activities, sponsorship goals, selection criteria, decision- makers, decision-making procedures, and length. After conducting interviews and analyzing collected data, it can be stated that the above groups demonstrate similarities as well as differences in sponsorship processes. When referring to similarities, each group considers sponsorship as a business exchange of resources, which is called in the exchange theory as a restricted exchange. It is a typical exchange type in case of sponsorship. Here, the sponsor provides the sports event with cash, products, or services. In return, they can use the event for commercial purposes - to promote the company and reach potential customers. Moreover, the similarities can be visible in the sponsorship promotional activities. Interviewed companies use similar methods - social media, brand materials, and personal presence connected with setting tents and organizing contests and fan zones.
76 Additionally, when it comes to the objectives and selection criteria of interviewed companies, they all look for events with the biggest audience size, want to reach a target group and promote the company through sports event sponsorship. Considering decision-making procedures, each group has the same hierarchy in decision-making. There is an owner, marketing team, or marketing manager that takes responsibility. Additionally, the decision-making procedures in each group consist of the analysis and negotiation stages. Nevertheless, despite that all companies focus on sponsorship of sporting events, there are more differences than similarities in their sponsorship processes. Foremost, a difference can be observed in the sponsorship promotional activities. Companies sponsoring local and national sporting events provide prizes that are products and services offered by the brand. Wherein, companies sponsoring international sporting events provide financial support. This difference is comprehensible, as first of all, international sports events are sponsored by big and well- established companies. Second of all, the requirements of these events are higher, and providing products and services might not be sufficient to become a sponsor. As the level of sports events increases, sponsorship promotional activities become a more sophisticated and luxury way of treating participants and customers. Moreover, as the exchange theory states there are three types of marketing exchange – utilitarian – refers to economic exchange in which both parties benefit, symbolic – focus on symbolism exchange and mixed – refers to both utilitarian and symbolic exchange where the company aims for economic and symbolic benefits (Bogozzi, 1975). The results show that companies sponsoring local sporting events in Poland represent either the utilitarian form of an exchange or symbolic. In some cases, sponsorship is seen as economic exchange and in others as an exchange that not only brings benefits but also symbolizes something. The group of companies sponsoring national sporting events performs mainly utilitarian exchange. However, it can also be noticed that one company performs a symbolic exchange, although it sponsors nationwide sports events. Lastly, the group that sponsors international sporting events represents the utilitarian exchange – the goods are delivered in exchange for tangible or intangible benefits. Furthermore, the interviewed groups have shown different approaches to sponsorship. The companies sponsoring local sports events base their sponsorship decisions and objectives often on personal opinions and feelings. Whereas, companies
77 sponsoring national sporting events mainly act in a rational way to bring benefits for the company. However, subjective decisions also have a place in this group. The last group has the most reasonable approach to sponsorship, and their strategy is business and profit-oriented. Consequently, companies sponsoring international sporting events are closest to the purpose of the sponsorship, which says that it aims to achieve commercial objectives. All the above approaches and objectives have been described in the previous research. Researchers are aware of personal objectives based on executive preferences and emotions, as well as on the corporate and profit-oriented goals and methods (Meenaghan, 1983). Furthermore, the differences are visible in the sponsorship awareness of each group. As can be observed, the knowledge, experience, and understanding of sponsorship raise as the event's level increases. In addition to that, the differences are distinguishable in the sponsorship processes. Here, also, with the increasing level of the event, the complexity and execution time rise. Lastly, it is essential to notice that the size of the event often does not depend on the size of the sponsoring company. There are big companies that prefer to sponsor small sports events because their product or service is more available in this region, and even though they have possibilities, it pays to sponsor small events. The greater divergence of interviewed company sponsorship processes may be associated with previously mentioned levels of events. Understandably, larger and more prestigious sports events require more commitment, knowledge, experience, time, and resources. However, it is also crucial to refer to the sport sponsorship in Poland as it can also be a reason for sponsorship diversity. It can be observed that the decision-making processes of interviewed companies sponsoring sports events in Poland do not differ much from what was stated in the literature review and theoretical background. However, the diversity between companies is still visible. On the one hand, it can be associated with a sponsorship phenomenon in Poland. As stated in the previous research, sports sponsorship is a comparably new phenomenon in this country, and the sporting event sector is relatively weak (Fundacja Promocji i Rozwoju Sportu SportLife, 2018). Many companies do not have well-developed sponsorship awareness, and they engage in sponsorship without knowing what it is and what benefits it should bring. Moreover, Poland is still entering the sports sponsorship market, and each
78 company that wishes to engage in it needs to learn a lot about that field of marketing. On the other hand, the variety of sponsorship processes suggests that sports sponsorship is the individual case of each company. It often depends on the company size, field, culture, and interest. There is no one sponsorship path that companies can take to achieve desired goals.
79 7. Discussion
The final chapter of the thesis discusses the research findings, provides sports sponsorship recommendations, and presents the implications for theory and further research. Moreover, the author refers back to the limitations of the research and discusses the process of the thesis and how it has supported the research area.
7.1 Reflection on the Thesis Process
The process of this thesis started in the spring semester of 2020. However, the planning of the research began in the autumn semester of 2019, when students were asked to write a research proposal for the thesis. At this point, it was already known that the thesis would concern sports event sponsorship due to personal interest and knowledge that sports sponsorship is a developing field with growing researchers and businesses attention (Walliser, 2003). Nevertheless, a rather broad research aim was established - it concerned a comparison of sports sponsorship processes between companies. The scope of a particular country or level of events has not been recognized yet. After consulting with the supervisor, it was suggested to focus on one nation, for instance, Poland. The topic of sports sponsorship was further researched and narrowed down to companies sponsoring local, national and international sporting events. Moreover, it was apparent that it is a relatively new and undiscovered phenomenon in Poland (Kończak & Jedel, 2019). Thus, it was agreed together with the supervisor that it is a relevant and interesting topic. Nevertheless, the main struggle at that stage was to propose more precise research questions. It was changed a few times throughout the process of the thesis due to many angles of sports sponsorship processes and difficulties on what to focus the most. The first interviews helped to get a better idea of the relevance of the topic and how the research questions could look like. Finally, the scope was narrowed down to sponsorship promotional activities, objectives, selection criteria and decision-making procedures (decision-maker, process, length). The above sponsorship concepts can be beneficial for sponsoring companies, marketing managers, and sports organizers of different event levels. It can also help to organize a successful sponsorship strategy and provide insights about sponsorship processes used by different sponsors.
80 Previous research chapter gives a thorough overview of the most important aspects of sports marketing, sports sponsorship, sponsorship objectives, sponsorship selection criteria as well as sports sponsorship in Poland. It also problematizes the concept of sports sponsorship in relation to marketing and challenges that Polish sponsoring companies face. Moreover, while researching about sports sponsorship, it could be noticed that researchers do not focus on essential parts of the sponsorship process, such as promotional activities, the final decision-maker, and the length of the process. As the research shows, such aspects help to visualize the sponsorship strategies on different event levels better. Moreover, the chapter might be recognized as lengthy; however, it presents research on different areas connected with sports sponsorship and provides all necessary background for further investigation and understanding of the relevance of the growing research field. The selection of theoretical framework encountered some difficulties. Initially, it was acknowledged that theories should consider sponsorship, decision-making and motivation aspects. However, it has been observed that there are not many theories that focus entirely on sports sponsorship. Moreover, the chosen theories were sometimes challenging to implement in the thesis. It could be caused by the fact that they are rather long-established theories, and as it was mentioned throughout the study, the sponsorship in Poland is a new and developing field of research. The choice of methodology was rather straightforward. From the beginning, it was stated that it would be a comparative study. Nevertheless, firstly a comparative multiple case study was considered. The decision changed when it was known that it is impossible to obtain an additional source of primary data, for instance, companies’ documents about sponsorship strategies. Thus, a comparative research design was further considered as according to this design; the study shall discuss, interpret and explain various aspects and make a comparison within and between cases (Ragin, 2013). Moreover, the various studies presented in the previous research chapter provided an idea for the selection of research methods and techniques. The methodology chapter further presents the justification of different research methods and techniques. Most difficulties in the thesis process were encountered at the empirical data collection and analysis stage. It could be because the author has the least practical experience in conducting interviews and analyzing data. Thus, the first interviews acted as a learning opportunity; however, they could influence the quality and outcomes of
81 the first interviews. Moreover, the usage of structured interviews was fundamental for the comparative approach of the study, as interviewees responded to the same questions (Rashidi, Begum, Mokhtar & Pereira, 2014). Thus, it helped to compare companies more effectively. Nevertheless, the structured interviews did not let to step outside the interview guide and explore interesting topics that could appear during the interviews and further positively affect findings. Undoubtedly, with more experience in conducting interviews, the data collection and results could have been more reach and detailed. Searching for participants to interview turned out not to be as challenging as previously assumed. The author sent a large number of interview invitations to sponsoring companies and after a while received many messages from businesses interested in taking part in the study. Thus, the author of the thesis managed to collect enough data to demonstrate interesting outcomes. Although, a couple of more interviews with companies sponsoring national and international sporting events could have been done to draw more profound comparison. It is assumed that many companies refused to participate in the study due to strategy-based topic. These companies stated that desired information might be too confidential to share with external parties, even if it is an anonymous interview. Thus, the initial contact with companies could have been approached differently, for instance, by ensuring that questions do not delve into companies’ confidential information and budget. The author also faced challenges in terms of transcribing interviews. Namely, the author initially underestimated the duration of time required for transcriptions and thus was behind the schedule. The issue has been solved by increasing the level of personal discipline in terms of following set plan. Furthermore, it is essential to refer back to the ethical perspective included in the methodology chapter. The researcher shall examine the ethical issues identified with the study and reflect whether the research method and design are socially and morally acceptable (Gratton & Jones, 2010). One of the critical aspects of this study was respondents confidentiality. During the interviews, it could be observed that many companies wanted to get information about other respondents, interviewed companies and their answers. The ethical consideration of the study was at risk; however, the author has demonstrated ethical knowledge and explained the concept of anonymity and confidentiality to interviewees. Moreover, as the research is based on the qualitative method as well as considers the author’s home country, it was difficult to stay objective and not identify with the respondent’s answers. Here, it was understandable that
82 whenever the researcher faces the ethical problem, it is crucial to contact the supervisor and ask about the opinion or check how other researchers handled such issues. Moreover, the thematic analysis was complicated due to three different groups of companies, various responses and flexibility that thematic analysis gives. At first, it seemed like a simple analysis; however, due to the lack of author’s experience in carrying out thematic analysis, it was challenging to decide on what aspects of data focus the most. Further, the use of this analysis may have resulted in valuable information being omitted or exposed to the author’s interpretation. Lastly, the results chapter introduces the final findings and respondents’ citations to present the context of the statements and show that the data was handled with transparency. Nevertheless, it is important to underline that the thesis concerns companies views on sports sponsorship and do not represent the universal truth about this phenomenon. Thus, it cannot be carried over to all companies sponsoring sporting events in Poland, as they might work with sports sponsorship differently. Nonetheless, the difficulties encountered in collecting and analyzing data should be seen as a learning process and opportunity for further development as a researcher. As a result of the thesis, the author acquired a better overview of planning and implementation of the scientific research and gained significant knowledge about sports sponsorship that can be used in the future work in the sports industry. Despite the challenges mentioned above and today’s knowledge about handling some parts of the thesis differently, the outcome of the study is satisfactory. The aim of the thesis, which was to analyze differences and similarities between companies' sponsorship processes that sponsor local, national, and international sporting events in Poland, has been achieved. Moreover, the research questions were answered in the best possible way, with a sufficient amount of collected empirical data. Finally, the positive role of the thesis supervisor needs to be stressed, who offered valuable and practical advice on solving issues appearing at various stages of the research, particularly in the stage of dealing with methodology and analysis.
83 7.2 Implication for Future Research
To get a full understanding of companies’ sponsorship processes, future research should be conducted. First of all, future research can include the effectiveness of sports sponsorship in Poland. It may clarify whether sponsorship execution influences the long-term remembrance of sponsors by spectators and potential clients and how time affects brand value. Furthermore, concerning image transfer, this research focused on a transfer from the event to the sponsor. However, the exchange also happens in the opposite direction. Future research could shed light on how the event organizers perceive sports sponsorship and cooperation with sponsoring brands. It could also demonstrate how events benefit from sports sponsorship and how choosing a sponsor looks like. Additionally, the thesis shows sponsorship as an effective way of advertising. However, it is essential to be aware that sports sponsorship also carries risks and adverse effects. Thus, future research may also present the other side of sponsorship and cases in which sports sponsorship undermined the image and reputation of sponsoring company. One of the risks for the sponsoring company is ambush marketing. It appears when a brand, which is not an official sponsor of the event, reach recognition and profits with it (Krstić & Durdević, 2016). Future research should also clearly distinguish between small, medium, and large businesses. This study has demonstrated that there are differences in the way companies of all sizes manage their sponsorships. For instance, smaller companies tend to have more straightforward and faster sponsorship procedures, as well as the objectives seem to be less profit-oriented. Whereas, big companies show a tendency for more complex and money-oriented decision-making processes with more people involved. Finally, the current study focused on companies involved in sport sponsorship in Poland. However, sports sponsorship, objectives, and selection processes may differ based on the nation. Therefore, similar research could be conducted in a different country and with different respondents to assess if any differences and similarities can be distinguished due to specific characteristics of context and geographical location. Conclusively, the research could determine how sport sponsorship is developed and how companies perceive it in different parts of the world.
84 7.3 Recommendations
The sports industry and sports sponsorship appear to be developing at a rapid rate. Over the last years, sponsorship emerged from a small scale activity to a global industry (Walliser, 2003). The development of sponsorship activities indicates a growing awareness of businesses. Through cooperation with the event, the company can create brand equity more efficiently than can traditional media advertising (Mazodier & Merunka, 2011). Companies, therefore, strive to increase brand awareness, image, loyalty, and revenues. Nowadays, sponsorship is understood as a communications tool to reach commercial objectives (Walliser, 2003). What is more, sport often brings tremendous positive emotions to many participants and spectators. People are passionate about sport, and the big championships can create happiness for an entire region or even nation. Hence, more and more events are being created, both at the local level as well as nationwide and international. Considering the development of sponsorship, businesses are becoming interested in this form of advertising and beginning to see the potential in sponsorship (Kelly, Cornwell, Coote & McAlister, 2012). Thus, sponsorship has become more expensive and dominated by large corporations. As a result, small companies lose their chance to show up on major sports events and appear in the consciousness of a broader audience. Moreover, sponsorship has become more demanding and complex. Sponsors need to look for ways to be more creative and unique, which is a constant challenge for companies engaged in sports sponsorship. One of the interviewed companies states that ‘Mere presence as a ‘sponsor’ at a sporting event is no longer sufficient for consumers. it is now expected that the sponsor will give something more than just prizes for the winners, or several flags and banners.’ Nevertheless, for those sponsoring organizations that are aware of the advantages of sponsorship, the struggle remains to design and perform a highly influential brand experience for attendees of the sponsored events. Besides, the corporations’ sponsorship goals and selection criteria are continuing to grow and becoming more complicated. Brands require more from themselves and strive to achieve even greater goals, but they also have higher requirements for sponsored events. Therefore, companies compete with each other for a better sponsorship deal. To be on the top of sport sponsorship, companies who want to engage in it, need to understand the potential of sponsorship, incorporate it into marketing strategy, and learn
85 how to use it best. The importance of sport sponsorship in company development and its successful use as a marketing communication tool can be seen in the case of Coca- Cola. This brand has a continuous agreement with the Olympic Games, which has been uninterrupted since 1928 (Martin, 2018). The sponsorship strategy of this brand is greater than merely listing the Coca-Cola and Olympic logo in exchange for financing. They are continually looking for new objects to link their brand with events that are related to their target markets (Martin, 2018). Moreover, the full range of other events they sponsor assures them that they reach all their goals to a high degree, making the use of sponsorship more efficient (Martin, 2018). Furthermore, when considering examined companies, it can be noticed that some of them strive to achieve its sponsorship goals and know how to use it effectively. These companies show that sponsorship awareness and interest are growing in Poland. However, in some cases, mainly in smaller companies, sponsorship is associated with donations that are not intended to bring commercial benefits and profits. They instead strive to help those event organizers who need it most. Thus, from the marketing perspective, the sponsorship actions and mechanisms of sponsoring companies might seem irrational. Contrarily, from a network perspective where companies strive to form and improve relations with local communities, it can be considered as a realistic and profit-driven approach. It would also seem that large and well-established companies should know what the primary goal of sponsorship is. However, as the research shows, even larger interviewed companies demonstrate emotional sponsorship decisions, selection criteria, and non-profit objectives. Nevertheless, brands that focus on non-commercial goals shall develop and enrich their sponsorship strategy. Naturally, it is not about a comparison of small polish brands with the worldwide recognized brand as Coca-Cola is. Smaller companies have potential; however, they have to take an example from more prominent corporations. As a result, Poland can have a big chance for a bright and prosperous future of sponsorship as it is an effective promotional tool. Finally, the sponsorship literature and the research show that it is significant to have reasonable and compelling goals, selection criteria, and strategy. Corporations that can exploit the advantage of sports sponsorship and knowledge will be the most successful.
86 References
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93 Appendices
Appendices 1: Companies overview
94 Appendices 2: Interview guide for the sponsoring companies
Introduction: Who am I (student of Sport Science, interested in sport, marketing and sponsorship), what am I doing (Master Thesis, purpose of the study), confidentiality agreement. 1. What kind of sporting events are you focusing on the most? Are they local, national or international sport events? a. Could you please name a few events that you sponsor? 2. What activities does your company do during sport events that you sponsor? 3. Why does your company decide to engage in the sponsorship of sport events? What is the purpose? a. What are the benefits of sport sponsorship for your company? 4. What are the selection criteria your company considers when choosing what sport event to sponsor? 5. Who does make the final decision to accept or deny sponsorship of sport event? 6. Could you please describe the sponsorship decision-making processes of sponsoring the sport event within your company? a. How long does the sponsorship decision-making processes take? 7. Is there anything else that you would like to add?
95 Appendices 3: Interview guide for the sponsoring companies. Polish version
Wstęp: Kim jestem (studentka nauk sportowych, zainteresowana sportem, marketingiem i sponsoringiem), co robię (praca magisterska, cel badania), umowa o poufności. 1. Na jakich wydarzeniach sportowych się Państwo koncentrują? Czy są to lokalne, krajowe czy międzynarodowe wydarzenia sportowe? a. Czy mógłby Pan/Pani wymienić kilka sponsorowanych wydarzeń? 2. Jakie działania wykonują Państwo podczas sponsorowanych wydarzeń sportowych? 3. Dlaczego decydują się Państwoo na sponsorowanie wydarzeń sportowych? Jaki jest tego cel? a. Jakie są Państwa korzyści ze sponsorowania sportu? 4. Jakie są kryteria wyboru, które biorą Państwo pod uwagę przy wyborze wydarzenia sportowego sponsor? 5. Kto podejmuje ostateczną decyzję o przyjęciu lub odmowie sponsorowania wydarzenia sportowego? 6. Czy mógłby/mogłaby Pan/Pani opisać proces podejmowania decyzji sponsoringowych dotyczących sponsorowania wydarzenia sportowego w firmie? a. Jak długo trwa proces podejmowania decyzji sponsoringowych? 7. Czy jest coś jeszcze, co chciałby/chciałby Pan/Pani dodać?
96 Appendices 4: Consent to participate in the study
To: XYZ From: Dorota Celczynska and Malmö University Topic: Consent to participate in the study Date: XYZ
My name is Dorota Celczyńska and I am a second-year MA student in Sport Science at the University of Malmö in Sweden. I am currently working on my master's thesis on Sponsoring Sports Events in Poland, with particular emphasis on local, national and international events. The aim of the research is to determine the differences and similarities in decision-making processes, the reasons for sponsorship and the benefits of sponsorship for companies that are involved in sponsorship of sporting events.
Thank you for taking part in the interview. Participation in the study is voluntary. You have the right to terminate your participation in the interview at any time and for any reason. If you choose to withdraw, all information provided will be deleted.
The interview will last about 30 minutes. To preserve the essence of your words, the interview will be recorded. You can ask me to view or hear the information I have collected at any time. The recording will be rewritten and kept confidential on a password protected computer.
The information provided will remain confidential and anonymous and I, the promoter and the University of Malmö will have access to it. Fragments of the interview may be included in the final report of the master's thesis, however, your name, company name or other identifying features will not appear in it.
In addition, records that are viewed and analyzed will be stored on my personal computer and only I will have access to them. The test will not cause any physical or mental harm to the company or individual.
97 Appendices 5: Consent to participate in the study. Polish version
Do: XYZ Od: Dorota Celczyńska i Uniwersytet Malmö Temat: Zgoda na udział w badaniu Data: XYZ
Nazywam się Dorota Celczyńska i jestem studentką drugiego roku studiów magisterskich na kierunku Nauka o Sporcie na Uniwersytecie w Malmö, w Szwecji. Obecnie pracuję nad pracą magisterską na temat Sponsorowania Wydarzeń Sportowych, ze szczególnym uwzględnieniem wydarzeń lokalnych, krajowych i międzynarodowych w Polsce. Celem badań jest poznanie różnic i podobieństw w procesach decyzyjnych, przyczynach sponsorowania i korzyściach płynących ze sponsorowania dla firm, które są zaangażowanie w sponsoring wydarzeń sportowych.
Dziękuję za chęć wzięcia udziału w wywiadzie. Udział w badaniu jest dobrowolny. Ma Pan/Pani prawo zakończyć udział w badaniu w dowolnym czasie i z dowolnego powodu. Jeśli zdecyduje się Pan/Pani wycofać, wszystkie podane informacje będą usunięte.
Wywiad potrwa około 30 minut. Aby zachować istotę Pana/Pani słów, wywiad będzie nagrany. W dowolnym momencie może Pan/Pani poprosić o wyświetlenie lub usłyszenie zebranych przeze mnie informacji. Nagranie będzie przepisane i zachowane w poufności na komputerze chronionym hasłem.
Podane informacje pozostaną poufne i anonimowe a dostęp do nich będę miała ja, promotor i Uniwersytet Malmö. Fragmenty wywiadu mogą być zawarte w końcowym raporcie pracy magisterskiej, jednakże w żadnym wypadku nie pojawi się w nim Pana/Pani imię, nazwa firmy lub inne cechy identyfikujące.
Ponadto, zapisy z wywiadu, które są przeglądane i analizowane będą przechowywane w moim komputerze osobistym, a dostęp do nich będę miała tylko ja. Informacje będą
98 przechowywane przez określony wymagany czas, a następnie cały zapis będzie usunięty bez możliwości odzyskania danych. Badanie nie spowoduje żadnej szkody fizycznej lub psychicznej dla firmy lub pojedynczej osoby.
99