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Evaluating and Treating the Reproductive System

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Evaluating and Treating the Reproductive System 18_Reproductive.qxd 8/23/2005 11:44 AM Page 519 CHAPTER 18 Evaluating and Treating the Reproductive System HEATHER L. BOWLES, DVM, D ipl ABVP-A vian , Certified in Veterinary Acupuncture (C hi Institute ) Reproductive Embryology, Anatomy and Physiology FORMATION OF THE AVIAN GONADS AND REPRODUCTIVE ANATOMY The avian gonads arise from more than one embryonic source. The medulla or core arises from the meso- nephric ducts. The outer cortex arises from a thickening of peritoneum along the root of the dorsal mesentery within the primitive gonadal ridge. Mesodermal germ cells that arise from yolk-sac endoderm migrate into this gonadal ridge, forming the ovary. The cells are initially distributed equally to both sides. In the hen, these germ cells are then preferentially distributed to the left side, and migrate from the right to the left side as well.58 Some avian species do in fact have 2 ovaries, including the brown kiwi and several raptor species. Sexual differ- entiation begins by day 5 in passerines and domestic fowl and by day 11 in raptor species. Differentiation of the ovary is characterized by development of the cortex, while the medulla develops into the testis.30,58 As the embryo develops, the germ cells undergo three phases of oogenesis. During the first phase, the oogonia actively divide for a defined time period and then stop at the first prophase of the first maturation division. During the second phase, the germ cells grow in size to become primary oocytes. This occurs approximately at the time of hatch in domestic fowl. During the third phase, oocytes complete the first maturation division to 18_Reproductive.qxd 8/23/2005 11:44 AM Page 520 520 Clinical Avian Medicine - Volume II become secondary oocytes. Completion of the second AVIAN REPRODUCTIVE maturation period results in an ovum.30,34,53,58 PHYSIOLOGY Avian reproduction is guided by seasonal physiologic The ovarian medulla consists of blood vessels arranged in controls such as favorable climate, low predation risk, irregular vascular zones, interstitial cells, autonomic social interaction, and food and nest site availability. nerve fibers and smooth muscle. The ova are located Internal physiologic processes work in combination peripherally in the cortex of the ovary. The ovarian sur- with external factors to promote gonadal development. face is covered by parietal peritoneum with an underly- This annual cycle involves integration between environ- ing layer of dense connective tissue, the tunica albuginea. mental, physiologic and behavioral conditions. Biologic The ovary is located just caudal to the adrenal gland, clocks control the release of hormones and other near the tip of the cranial division of the kidney. It lies chemicals that regulate metabolism, reproduction and deep to the abdominal air sac, which forms an ovulation behavior. Photoperiod plays a key role in this system pocket near the time of lay. This pocket is thought to using environmental light, which stimulates neural help receive the ovulated ovum with its yolk into the receptors, and clock information from an internal circa- oviductal opening. The pocket is suspended by a dorsal dian cycle. This allows the bird to measure day length. mesentery, the mesovarium. Vascular supply to the ovary is through the cranial renal artery, which has several In most of our Neotropical psittacine species, birds short branches. There are often two ovarian veins that normally start to nest when the rains begin, when drain blood directly into the caudal vena cava. The ovary food is the most available. In temperate zone species, has a roughened, granular appearance due to follicular reproduction is stimulated by photoperiod. The length- development. As the hen becomes sexually active, the fol- ening day in early spring stimulates gonadal develop- licles begin to grow in a hierarchal pattern. 30,34,53,58 ment. Warmer temperature, rainfall and behavioral dis- plays fine-tune the physiologic events of breeding and The oviduct enlarges to occupy the dorsal aspect of the the resulting increased secretion of sex hor- left intestinal peritoneal portion of the coelomic cavity. mones.23,47,55,58 Seasonal growth and differentiation of the reproductive tract is under hormonal control. In a mature hen that is There is strong evidence that the pineal gland (hypoph- not reproductively active, the ovary and oviduct appear ysis cerebri) is largely responsible for photoperiodic similar to that of a juvenile bird: small with no active control. However, unlike reptiles, the avian pineal gland follicles. The oviduct develops from a thickening in does not have primary light receptors, but they do have the peritoneal epithelium between the degenerating photoreceptors like cells in the brain and retinae. Birds pronephric ducts and the first mesonephric tubules. do not monitor day length visually, but rather by means These thickenings invaginate to form a tubular structure. of special receptors in the hypothalamus. After direct This process occurs bilaterally and symmetrically in both stimulation of the photoreceptors, neurosecretory cells sexes, but regression and disappearance of the ducts in the hypothalamus induce the release of neurohor- occurs in the cock and a relative regression of the right mones in the median eminence (neural portion) of the duct occurs in the hen. A right oviduct may be present epiphysis (pituitary), which is linked to the midbrain. in some raptors. The opening of the oviductal lumen These neurohormones are then carried via the blood- into the cloaca often appears near the time of produc- stream to the anterior pituitary gland, inducing the syn- tion of the first egg.30,34,53,58 thesis and subsequent release of luteinizing hormone (LH) and follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH). There is a period of time during fetal development when Luteinizing hormone stimulates gonadal activity and in the testes are ambisexual due to extensive covering with combination with FSH stimulates ovarian development a cortical crust. These cortical remnants normally disap- and testicular spermatogenises.23,37,54,55,70 See Ed. Note on pear prior to hatch; however, they may remain and fur- page 522. ther complicate visual sex identification. The seminifer- ous tubules differentiate in the medullary portion of the Each circadian cycle includes a limited time period of gonad. The ductus deferens develops from the meso- each day during which photoreceptors are particularly nephric duct, while the epididymis arises from the sensitive to light. This stimulates a series of physiologic mesonephros. The epididymis and ductus deferens ini- reactions. As daylight length increases each year, so tially develop in both sexes, as does the oviduct. The does the opportunity for light to stimulate these recep- male tubular structures normally regress in the female. tors during this limited time period. In addition, the However, they have been reported to persist in some length of time these receptors are affected increases passerines and domestic fowl, but are significantly with increasing daylight length (see Chapter 19, smaller than the oviduct.23,35,58 Endocrine Considerations).23,37,55,70 18_Reproductive.qxd 8/23/2005 11:44 AM Page 521 Chapter 18 | EVALUATING AND TREATING THE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM 521 During the late summer after breeding season has and crows lay a fixed number of eggs, while indetermi- ended, the shortened daylight length stimulates the nate layers such as domestic fowl and Japanese quail main molt. Gonadal hormones and tissue size decreases replace eggs that are lost. Continuous breeders lay dramatically. Although the days are still relatively long, throughout the year. A rate of lay is the number of eggs there is a photorefractory period that does not stimulate laid in a given time period. A sequence is a number of gonadal hormone release and tissue growth. This pho- eggs laid on successive days, separated by pause days. A torefractory period is best developed in migratory tem- clutch is a number of eggs laid during a sequence. A perate zone species and is weak to absent in most tropi- longer sequence is associated with a shorter oviposi- cal zone species. This may represent an adaptation for tion/ovulation cycle.30,31,34,52 scheduling a major molt and preparation for migration by terminating reproductive activity while days are still During the non-breeding season, ovarian follicles nor- long. The shorter days of winter inhibit gonadal growth. mally undergo atresia. Atresia is a process of regression This is necessary to restore photosensitivity during the and resorption of a follicle. Two types of atresia have spring, as gonadal tissue will not grow in response to been described: bursting and invasion. Bursting atresia increasing day length unless there has been a prior occurs when the follicular wall ruptures and the yolk is period of short daylight length.34,35,58 released into the coelomic cavity where it is usually absorbed without any harm to the bird. Invasion atresia Birds have developed several mechanisms to reduce involves granulosa and thecal cells invading the ovum body weight, thereby conserving energy expended dur- and subsequent in situ yolk absorption. Early atresia is ing flight. The reproductive tract (ovary, oviduct, testes noted when a vesicular lesion appears on the follicular and ductus deferens) is greatly reduced in size during surface. This vesicular formation progresses until the the non-breeding season, and eggs are laid and incu- entire follicle is covered. As the largest F1 follicle is 34,35,58 bated externally. absorbed, the other smaller follicles will progress in a similar manner. Small follicles may be covered with con- Physiology of the Female nective tissue, occasionally leaving a scar-like area. Large When reproductively active, the ovary enlarges and folli- follicles may undergo cystic degeneration. If ovulation cles form in a hierarchal manner. The primary or F1 fol- ceases suddenly, as may occur during trauma or stress, licle is the largest and first in line to be ovulated.
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