DOCUMENT RESUME

ED 433 560 CS 510 141

TITLE Proceedings of the Annual Meeting of the Association for Education in Journalism and Mass Communication (82nd, New Orleans, Louisiana, August 3-8, 1999). International Communication, Part 1. INSTITUTION Association for Education in Journalism and Mass Communication. PUB DATE 1999-08-00 NOTE 263p.; For other sections of this proceedings, see CS 510 132-153. PUB TYPE Collected Works Proceedings (021) EDRS PRICE MF01/PC11 Plus Postage. DESCRIPTORS Development Communication; Foreign Countries; Higher Education; *International Communication; *International Relations; *Internet; Journalism Education; *Newspapers; Public Relations; War IDENTIFIERS Bosnia and Herzegovina; Chile; China; Croatia; Japan; Kenya; *Media Coverage; New York Times; Peoples Daily; World Intellectual Property Organization

ABSTRACT The International Communication, Part 1 section of the Proceedings contains the following 9 papers: "Chilean Conversations: On-line Forum Participants Discuss the Detention of Augusto Pinochet" (Eliza Tanner); "Media of the World and World of the Media: A Crossnational Study of the Ranking of the 'Top 10 World Events' from 1988 to 1998" (Zixue Tai); "Is the System Down? The Internet and the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO)" (Dane S. Claussen); "Professionalism and African Values at 'The Daily Nation' in Kenya" (Carol Pauli); "Refining the Participatory Approach to Development Communication through the Public Relations Excellence Model" (Dan Berkowitz and Nancy Muturi); "National Interest and Coverage of U.S.-China Relations: A Content Analysis of 'The New York Times' & 'People's Daily' 1987-1996" (Xigen Li); "Worthy Versus Unworthy Victims in Bosnia and Croatia, 1991 to 1995: Propaganda Model Application to War Coverage in Two Elite Newspapers" (Lawrence A.[Luther] Di Giovanni); "'Interactive' Online Journalism at English-Language Web Newspapers in Asia: A Dependency-Theory Analysis (Brian L. Massey and Mark R. Levy); and "Praising, Bashing, Passing: Newsmagazine Coverage of Japan, 1965-1994" (Anne Cooper-Chen). (RS)

******************************************************************************** * Reproductions supplied by EDRS are the best that can be made * * from the original document. * ******************************************************************************** Proceedings of the Annual Meeting of the Association for Education in Journalism and Mass Communication (82nd, New Orleans, Louisiana,..August 3-8, 1999): International Communication, Part 1.

Association for Education in Journalism and Mass Communication.

1999-08

PERMISSION TO REPRODUCE AND U.S. DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION DISSEMINATE THIS MATERIAL HAS Office of Educational Researchand Improvement BEST COPY AVAILABLE BEEN GRANTED BY EDUCATIONAL RESOURCESINFORMATION CENTER (ERIC) EeChis document has been reproducedas received from the personor organization ,\fIN c6-;ii originating it.

Minor changes have been madeto improve reproduction quality. 0 TO THE EDUCATIONALRESOURCES INFORMATION CENTER (ERIC) Points of view or opinions statedin this document do not necessarilyrepresent official OERI position or policy. Chilean Conversations/Tanner, page 2 "Long live technology!" wrote Cecilia Alejandra A. in an on-line forum. On-line forum participants discuss the detention of Augusto Pinochet Chilean Conversations: Cecilia and more than a thousand other people in forty countries were discussingdebateIS the CATHARSIS." over October the historic1998 (#1182) detention events thatof occurred in"For the the country first time, in the we last Chileans 25 years. have YES, the THIS opportunity to assist and participate in a true Chilean Conversations: forgiveness,inversionthe Spanish. Chilean of the Forex-dictator truth, Chilean months democracy, newspaper andafter actual Pinochet's liberty, senator-for-lifeLa Tercera sovereignty, arrest, (www.tercera.cl), Chileans Augusto and human argued Pinochet rights. overwhich in the They London.publishes meanings debated The daily of eventsforum justice, news sinceis and partreconciliation, theinformation of 1960s,the on-line On-line forum participants discuss the detention of Augusto Pinochet by Eliza Tanner future.personalcolonialism.examined experiences; the They more criticized recent proposed transition governments, solutions to democracy, topublic current officials, reviewedsocial andproblems; 19th political century and parties; constructed history, attacked and visions decried opponents; of forms their shared country'sof University of Wisconsin-Madison [email protected] contentcopiesen Internet of of the these between original, letters 16 unedited isOctober extremely email1998 rich, anddocuments it 23 is Januaryimportant while 1999. Ito was delineate The doing editorial athe year parameters staff of Thisfield provided paperresearch of this meis paper.part inwith Chile. of electronic Ia am larger Since study the and is based on a textual analysis of 1670 letters sent to La Tercera looking detention of Chile's ex-dictator and actual senator-for-life Augusto Pinochet. MoreAbstractThis textualthan a thousandanalysis ofpeople 1670 participated in an on-line discussion of the October 1998 London withsociety,fromat the the possibilitypublic aspects especially sphere relating of in formingstudies, the to Internetreconciliation Ipublic argue communication opinion.that process. this Suchforum In on-lineand Chile,is anthe example theforumsfunctioning possibilities canof an play of independent an for an on-line publicimportant forum. debatespace role forFollowingon in publicnational Chilean debate ideas or local Chileaninletters a virtual shows reconciliation space that thatparticipants wasprocess important inand the a waySpanish-languageto them. to strengthen Forum participants civicforum life. of La saw Tercera this communication en Internet created as essential and interacted to the surroundingand"publicissues outside is opinion" extremely thePinochet's country. or limited;the detentionopinions The the paper on-line ofin will commonLondon, forumproceed emphasizingfolk. was as Itfollows:one also of allowsthe first perspectivevery Ifor will few interaction provide places of the wherea betweenpeoplebrief oneoutline living Chileanscould of in get eventsChile. living a glimpse Then inside I of communication,will explain how the the interaction, on-line forum and functions the virtual and space look created at the participants.by La Tercera Third, andHistory theI will participants. examine the types of actual senator-for-life Augusto Pinochet was arrested at the London Clinic. ScotlandOnresentful 16 October Yard, communists." acting 1998, onthe (#790)an unthinkable happened:"Let mythe Generalaging Chilean go you retired @#-%&$%"@#I general, ex-president, English. Andand stop clowning around you 3 BESTCOPYAVAILABLE frominternational a hernia arrest operation. and capture The Spanish warrant judge from Baltasar Spain, detained Garvin andPinochet the Uni6n in the Progresista hospital where de Fiscales he was recoveringde Espana thewere Chilean pursuing military legal actionregime. against Pinochet for genocide and terrorism in the deaths of Spanish citizens during Chilean Conversations/Tanner, page 3 defendingcrimes outside a specific its borders. person, The i.e. government Pinochet. In repeatedly one impassioned insisted speech it was supportingto the nation, principles President of Eduardo sovereignty, Frei not Chilean Conversations/Tanner, page 4 celebratedThethe time. protests It the was and event assumed celebrations and called Pinochet's began for constitutional diplomaticalmost immediately. immunity reforms. TheAnti-Pinochetistaswould government protect him formallyNo andfrom one human the protestedin SpanishChile rights imagined the legalsupporters breach actions. that of such an event was possible, though the Spanish case was well-known at gatheredinterests.formerRuiz-Tagle military inAt thereminded the rich government;end area of citizens October, of Santiago however, that different many and now ofabout groups thethey officialsthe hadin same Chile to putin number held the the government largegood celebrating demonstrationsof the hadnation the been arrest above exiledwith in their the30,000 or large torturedpersonal Pinochetistas O'Higgins by the protestprominentupper-classdiplomatic and politicianimmunity. aneighborhoods mayor stoppeddaringly Pinochet and garbage drove supportersheld his violentcollection white and demonstrations Mercedes partiesat the Spanish of in the front inChilean embassy front of the of Right police inthe his Spanish organized watercity. tanksand protests British during in embassies. one Santiago's such A notcountryPark really in Santiago.continued disrupt every to work day normally. life. Much Everyone more disruptive had an opinion were the on power the Pinochet outagesDespite case,that beganbutthe thepolitical on political 9 November problems, crisis anddid the government paralysis, and the saturation media coverage, the seemedberesulted nicely toin covered reachthe defeat back up, oferased,to Pinochetthe 1973 and inmendedcoup the orOctober thesuddenly 1970 1988 electionwere plebiscite. just of as Salvador pertinentThe decade-old Allende, andWithin decisive. divisionsdepending days In the fact,that on country hadthe woundsgroupappeared appeared in to to be polarized along the same Yes-No dividing lines that had thehandcontinued days down running until their the decisionup end to the of onthedecision, Pinochet's month. all the immunity. media were This running decision special coincided teasers, withOn reminding Wednesday, Pinochet's everyone 83rd 25 November birthday. to watch In at or 11 a.m. local time, the five law lords in the House of Lords would question. diplomaticwarrant---thatThe day after immunity Pinochet's he killed as arrest,Spaniardsquote Iunquote received while senator ina"CNN short power. for noteis reportingChilelife. from Have is a protestingfamily that you Pinochet heard member stating anything was in thatthe arrested Unitedabouthe has in States: London on Friday, on a Spanish electricityandlisten the to vote their on to Wednesdayexclusive end military coverage so rule. everyone Theof events. day could before The watch Pinochet the the decision, news. case thewas power seen as companies perhapsEarly that the decided biggestmorning, to eventnot all turn the since televisionoff 1988the and news radio stations began their coverage; one station, Radio ofmediaOf thecourse Pinochetpainted the irony a case,picture is five that of minutesfora polarized about of two commercials, nation. weeks The after evening and the 10arrest televisionminutes there ofwas news soccer. no would otherthis?" Newspapers newsbroadcast in Chile. filled about The 90% 45 localminutes of their toAtgroups,Cooperativa, celebratethe Pinochet businesses, his announced release.Foundation, and Whenuniversities every supporters the few Law minutesbrought Lordsof the howin recognizedex-dictator televisions much time Pinochet'shad and was an set 3-foot-tall leftup diplomatic large-screenuntil the cake, decision. immunity, buffet, displays Schools,and heto cocktailswouldwatch offices, thebe all event. ready Chile.andfrontnews radio pagehole The stations withlistingmedia news coverage,thesupported numberof Pinochet. of the of course, daysofficial The Pinochet didafternoon government not mean had paper beenthat position, La nothingarrested. Hora which beganelse All was calledmajor running happening fornewspapers, aPinochet's permanent in Chile. television release counter Public and stations, schoolon return the to signalgroupswhisked and were out everyone ofpreparing the hospital watched their toprotests the the five airport against law and lords Pinochet on walk a plane into and back thethe chamber.Houseto Chile. of Anti-PinochetistasOneLords byA in one,few both minutesthey London briefly and after andhuman stood 11 Chile. am., rightsand the read Chilean television stations received the House of Lords television powerdroughtteachers outages. ofwere the in century the middle was takingof a national, its toll onmonth-long agriculture strike; and soonthe economic would be crisis theOn excuse 28was October, deepening; for several the Highand weeks the Court of in London accepted the appeal from Pinochet's lawyers and recognized itslordsBello,their breath. prepareddid students not The recognize statements. TVNwatching reporter Pinochet's the The proceedingswho first was immunity. two supposed recognized began Suddenly toto keepbe Pinochet's translating score,the tension asdiplomatic withwas increased soa soccerflustered immunity. and match. hethe could In countryThe the thirdnot university seemed translate and fourth toAndres the hold LondonlowerForcehis diplomatic sentcourt's Clinic, an decision.airplane immunity. Pinochet to After England,was This repeated moved decision ready to complaints a wasto public take immediately Pinochethospital, from family backGrovelandappealed tomembers Chile to Priory the when of House other Hospital, the ofHousepatients Lords on of the in andLords theoutskirts the exclusive upheld Chilean of the Air peopletheproceedings darker were side orsurprised ofeven the speak. military would The begovernment, fifth an understatement. lord stood were and shaking saidThey heas were didthey notcompletely listened believe or Pinochet shocked.watchedPeople sat had theEven in decision.diplomatic stunned though To silence.everyone immunity. say Many of the older generation, the people who had experienced some of Condor.investigateLondon The the Chilean crimes government committed inprotested Chile and the Argentina decision, duringsaying the 1970sSpanish andThe government 1980s Audiencia as part had Nacional of no the power Operation de Espafiato try ruled on 30 October that Judge Garzon could continue to dispersedbeatknew up this the bywas foreign the a possibility,police reporters with nosentwater one to tanks. expectedcover Mostthe suchevent. went a Other ruling.on with people No their one. wentbusiness, out into Thenslightly the came streets stunned, the to reactions. celebrate watching Pinochet and TV were and supporters at the Pinochet Foundation erupted in rage and began to muchlistening rather to the see radio. Pinochet Even brought the anti-Pinochet to justice in people Chile andhad notmixed by feelingsa foreign about government. the decision, The government since they would held a Chilean Conversations/Tanner, page 5 deepen,official proclamationswith many people to the losing contrary, their thejobs, economic especially problems in the poor started sections by the of Asian Santiago crisis and continued Chile. to grow and Chilean Conversations/Tanner, page 6 familylegalthree-and-a-half battles moved that to hourmightan exclusive security mean Pinochetcouncilprivate mansionmeeting would spend within Wentworth, the Christmas armed forcesSurrey, and New to where decide Year'sWith he on incontinued thea London. course decision ofunder Pinochet action. of thepolice Lawand hisLords, the news reports began to talk about the possibility of extended RightPragmaticpresidential capitalizing socialists elections. on Pinochet worked The Pinochet to to unify secure casethe Pinochet's parties became and yetrelease, attack another saying and issue divide that to beitthe would used government inPerhaps be the impossible political reactingand socialist battles,for to their this, parties. with candidatepoliticians the and political parties began to focus more on the upcoming 1999 recognizerefusedextraditionsurveillance. any to accept tribunalprocess Two any weeks tothat jurisdictionSpain. is later not That ofon my that9same December, country was week not that onChilean. British 11 can December, judge Interior"With me all Minister Pinocheton due these respect JackappearedSpanish IStraw want lies." in toopened a say BritishThat that the same courtI waydo day, not andfor the amillionto shortage win if unemployed, Pinochet of electricity, was a outsevere and of variousthe economic country. other crisis In social 1999, said problems. Chileto be aswas bad facing as the a 1982-83difficult year,recession, with amore continuing than half drought, a in"Nevergovernment,Pinochet these have years," published Ihis desired he success said,an theopen adding in death restoringletter thatof to anyone heall Chile isChileans, "absolutely and to a I democracy,feel where sincere innocent he recounted andgrief of his forall construction the allhis the crimesversion Chileans and of atheacts whostrong 1973 with have economicmilitary which lost their I couphave model: lives and on a special Web site for the event. Since 1997, the on-line publication had beenWhenThe experimentingon-line the story forum first with broke the on new a late Friday "Iafternoon, want to thank the team La Terceraat La Tercera for giving en Internet a space began for my work opinion." (#486) hearTheirrationally Housethe case. ofbeen LordsThe charged." case accepted opened the on appeal 18 January and on 1999, 17 December with a new they set voted of law to lords annulPinochet's hearing the previous lawyers, the arguments decision now joined andbefore re-by the Chilean government, appealed the House of Lord's decision. Workingimportancewhichmedium are ofaround Web electronicwere sites thehighlighted clock,within communication. the in journalistic largerthese specialon-line One team of sectionspublication's the put group's together through Webdevelopments the the site.site use "PinochetEvents of hypertext, was of anationalCase" series images, that of or "specialfirstinternational and weekend. audio sections," files. Over defense,diplomaticthatdeciding Pinochet humanif immunityPinochet could rights be has from triedgroups, diplomatic extradition.in Chileanthe Chilean immunity courts The government, law for or lords humannot. Theheard andrights Chilean argumentsthe abuses, Spanish government while from government. stillthe began variousarguing Theyto parties: morethat then he forcefully enjoyedPinochet'sentered ainsist linkOctober,Besidesthe next to a detailingfew specialarchives months, historical theof importantlatestthe site Web news underwent relatedsite, on Pinochetand documents severalall the each reader's redesigns and day, legal thecomments and sitetexts, name contains hundreds to changesthe anon-line archiveof to audio reflect forum. of files, all the news photos,latest articles developments. cartoons, since a England.toallowinglengthy release process all their Chilean decision of deliberation politicians and the that toChileans take coincided their seemed vacation nicely to be with time. getting the By Chilean usedMarch, to summerthe ideaLaw monthofLords the ex-dictatorappearedof February, to under be thus in arrestno hurry in publicationdiscussions,the on-line in which theforum Web meant for site. the all Even Pinochetreader though comments Case it iswas possible were set up now towith have supposed a simplesubmissions to email be edited automaticallylink.Earlier byOne ain journalistclick 1998, posted on La the before Tercerato submission a Web en site, Internet had experienced some policy changes relating to on-line torture.crimesPinochet committedThe did stage not have was after diplomaticthus 1988, set whichfor immunitya lengthy is when legalas the a former Unitedbattle over headKingdom extradition of state; signed however that the Finallycould international he lastcan on foronly24 monthsMarch, convention face charges orthe even seven on on Law Lords handed down their decision. Ruling six to one they said messagefirstsendbutton fewit openedoff haddays to Lato afterthe beTercera. emailextracted Pinochet's function Journalist from arrest, of the Fernandothe Cardoch'semail Web file, browser,Cardoch emailedited allowingthenbox for wasspellingreceived aflooded participant and the grammar,messagewith to hundreds type in and hishis converted emailofor messages.her in-box. message to HTML EachIn and the for years.versusarrest really the middle did not and deeply lower affect classes most continued Chileans. to The grow. gap This between could the be politicalseenSince when rulingNovember, various class organizations andit became upper moreclass began and more evident that the "political crisis" started by Pinochet's letters,problemleadinguse in the regardless many for Web journalists. Spanish-speakers site. of Oftentheir Editor politicalaccents Juan to andwritepositions. Carlos other without Camus specialAt timesaccents insistedcharacters the in deluge their that do Laemail of not Terceramessages translate letters. en Thiscreated wellInternet compounds across a backlogshould computer publishthe as Cardochediting platforms, all the and onepolitical50to dopercent were surveys party. to of listen theand The people tointerviews vast the majoritynewsdid not in and lateidentify listed politicians, November the with economic eitherthe and major earlythe crisis governmentissue December. as wouldthe most or haveDepending theimportant toopposition, be the onissue Pinochet the nor in survey the with case. country, ora specific poll,Despite though at least if fromandhundredsother limit thejournalists on-linetheof email length notforums, messages ofonly their includingcontinued comments.they received. thewith Pinochet In all MarchBy of thetheir Case 1999,end regular forum.of the the duties,print year, version Cardochbut also of attempted wasLa Tercera pleading to began edit with and readersto respondpublish to try lettersto the Chilean Conversations/Tanner, page 8 spellingForum participantsmistakes since I was four years old'Thanks I've lived for in opening Brazil." this (#133) space so that the people can express themselves, excuse the Chilean Conversations/Tanner, page 7 submittingThe most number 22 letters. of letters No one written else came by one close person to that during number this oftime submissions. period was 24, with two other authors issince almost we areimpossible dealing withto ascertain a form theof virtual identity communication. of people over TheInternet. first thingOne of that theJust must most who be loved,were acknowledged these and hated, people is features participatingthat it in the on-line forum? The question is somewhat complex living33.6% outsidewere Chileans Chile, 7.9% living were in Chile, not Chilean 37.5% livingwere Chileans outside Chile, living 0.4%outside were Chile, Thenon-Chileans 18.3% nationality were living ofChileans the in writers Chile, probably wasand relatively easily identified, mainly through textual analysis. About emailconditions,of Intemet addresses, is however, its potential names it isand forsurprising signatures, anonymity the and andamount textual the abilityof clues.information for From people readingone to cantake the gather on letters various about it soonpersona. the becameparticipants With apparent these from that Internet,Internetparticipants2.3% were inwhich Chilenot are ableisChileans since about to beby 1% andidentified.then of the endthe majority population.of The 1998, obvious of it those wasIt is pattern calculatedlivenot surprisingoutside that thatappears Chile. thatpossibly ismostThis that 300,000 canof almost the reflect people people90% the ofare lack had the Chileans ofaccessforum access tosince to La Rather,namebehind was everythey correct. were opinion students, was a professionals,person with some and reasonteachers. for They communicating were also military thoseThe thoughts, peoplepeople, participating sons whether and daughtersor innot the the forum of were not politicians, public officials, or well-known figures. thoughcontroversialTercera a is handful a Chilean figure of inpeopleon-line recent submitted publication, Chilean history.materials the forum Almost in Portuguese, is conductedall of the Italian, communication in Spanish, French, andMy and intheinformation theEnglish. topic forum is the wason most email in Spanish, addresses came from the email header or the person's signature. Email possibletheparticipantsChilean restrictions, exiles,position generally andthe and breadthex-political theme were of fromin thethe prisoners. the debatePinochet upper and Given classes,case. the thesheer usedconstraints volume Intemet of to at lettersInternet work, managed oraccess were in touniversity Chiletouch andon students. justglobally, about Despite theevery serversAddressesperson'sheaders of containconfiguration thein ChileChilean several generally long-distance for common his end browser withelements: company .cl, or herthough from, emailEntel. thereto, program.The subject, are subject some date.The varied,such "to"The as was "from" dependingentelchile.net always information on the ifthat address people are is setbased usedof up La intheon Tercera. a thepre- basedfromletters servers addresses,originated outside whoseon servers Chile, servers andin Chile, are8.4% generally 64.8% were Web- came The email addresses showed 26.5% of the 432Number letters1 letter of letters 248601101065People usuallyset computer,subject lists for the thenthe date forum the and date (Pinochet_detenido)time will the appear message to be was wrong. or sent not. orOne This generated. participant often became If awrote person a title back has for to an the La incorrect person'sTercera, date email. set The on her date 'The other thing that you could do is set your computer clock to the year 1998 since (4percentlocated letters) outsidewas since I unable Chile.the header to With identify information only the less email than must addressone have 765 letters8 letters 22304418 unable to identify in any way. To distinguish men from women, I looked Aboutyourfirst at mail 73%the toname of me the andwas forum then dated participantsat 1997."the text (#1258) appeared to be men, with 14% appearing to be women, and 13% frombeen suppressedChile,at least followed forty or countries, erased. by Canada, The with letters thethe Unitedlargest were sentStates,group 9 letters121110 letters 61115 sinceof the theletter. writers Spanish will namesuse feminine are almost or masculine always clearly endings either on malethe words. or female. For example, (#992)Textual clues also are obvious "As a Chilean [woman] living abroad and an assiduous reader of La Tercera Internet..." Chileanrepresentedand Sweden, exile are incommunities, mostlythat order. known The such to other haveas Australia countries large and 16151413 letters 34 possible location. The easiest letters were those in which the email addressThe and task header became information a bit more matched complex the when I identified"I am a Chileanthe nationality [woman]" of the (#1170) writer and his or her writtenofNorway. the letters by There someone analyzed), were who 1065 with had unique 36% previously remainderaddresses sent (64% in a 20191817 letters 3 Textualsignature clues at the would end of be the phrases letter. suchBesides as these elements, I looked for textual clues and self identification. "We Chileans are the ones that must call..." (#1338) thatletter. 23% A glance of the atforum the people participants writing wrote letters, a second shows 2221 letters 3 1 "his"It is arbitrary embarrassing detention that isjustice an insult still tohasn't our country"been obtained (#1188) in our own country" (#950) wroteletter, 10%four orwrote more at letters.least three letters, and 6% 2423 letters 1 BESTCOPY AVAILABLE "Once again our dignity and sovereignty is trampled" (#1582) 1 0 Chilean Conversations/Tanner, page 9 "From Boston, USA, I have learned from La Tercera en Internet about the detention of Chilean Conversations/Tanner, page 10 themsellvesThus the use Chilean, of words whether such as or "our" not theyor "we" live demonstrates in Chile. This thatcontrasts the people with the writingdivide few non-Chileansthethe letter Chileans." considers who (#1079) "Until when will this continue to divide us? It is shocking how this person continues to This man is pointing out that he is Chilean, but living in the United States formanyhim business who countries is purposes, universally (including to calleddistinguish USA) Dictator .... graduate and Criminal, student sought in Boston, by the Massachusetts." Spanish justice (#1209) and programs,people'participated; who television live they in would Chile shows, werenot or use specificmuch "our" more events, or "we,""in tune"such but aswithreferred an Chilean accident to "the current at Chileans" an intersectionevents or and just inmade Chile.Santiago. references Furthermore, to radio Thishimself following from Chileans man is emphasizing living in exile: that he is Chilean and that he went into exilea company during thein the military U.S.A. a company I was able"I am to establisha Chilean through proud of a mylot ofroots effort." and (#1293) the history of my beautiful country, right now I run identification"historyand critics or current of Pinochet, of forum political theparticipants. and Pinochet social caseParticipantsproblems. was yet These chose another ideas to exampleidentify are important themselves how foreigners toChileans understand in a do variety arenot thesensitiveunderstand of "selfways. to The Chileancriticism most from non-Chileans or other countries. For many, both supporters Chileansgovernment. who This returned will identify to Chile him at theas havingend of thea specific military political government position. and It those alsoRUT showswho 4.553.890-7" did the not. distinction (#643) between "A Chilean living in the United States since 1983 Oscar Horacio Gutierrez San Martin father'sname.common At and wastimes, mother's through the person surnamesa signature used thisa at first the provides initial end ofand somethe a letter.last interesting name, Many or times possibilitiesa partial the personname. for signatures.Sinceseemed Chileans to signA woman usehis orboth inher Chile,their real theconfusedAnother transition Chilean with to Chilean democracy living outsideexiles and who Chile the are currentgoes celebrating to government. great the lengths arrest to of show Pinochet. he is anHe ardent also makes Pinochet specific supporter, references not to to be "Hi, I'm a Chilean and tocopillano [resident of a city in northern Chile] who has now XimenaBarriamother's Andrea (#1630). surname. Barria Mario SheVelasquez, Hector most Solislikely signed Soto is known her signed name by his her Andrea name friends Velasquez,Hector and co-workersSoto using (#1029). herAnother as middleXimena form name Barria of identification,and or herAndrea though not very common, was the use of the Chilean national thanimposedlivedrainbow askedoutside exile for,that Chile with wepromised forthebegged) almostcoming to Icome also10 of yearsPin8 went in colors toand into power justself-imposedbut likeonly(something many showed exilerockheads that up with inmany white the that true arrival and went Chileans black." of into the self- (#1218)more preserveperson'sidentification nameanonymity. number and ID The (C.I. number. custom or RUT). At is times, basedLetters the in to Spanishperson the editor willlegal injust Chileantraditions, use the print IDwhere number,newspapers the number which almost isis seenused always asto provea carryway theto the Non-Chileans had an even higher burden of proof to show they were qualifiedAllende,Chilean." to talk Iabout (#1052)am not the a topic.Chilean [woman], put I have"An"I'm a opiniona lot North love fromAmerican for Chile outside: and[woman] I herhad people." theand chance I have livedto live in in Chile Chile and during I am the married time of to Mr. a otherChile,heexistence really information.it is is ofrelatively who that he person, sayseasy he withto is.take or The withoutthe use ID numberof a thisname. number and If a find person is creditnow provides under histories, debate the bank I.D. since number,records, with computerhepolice is emphasizing records, networks and thatin person wrote several letters to La Tercera, it became easier to identify him orOf(#1416) her. course, It also some was people obvious did when not sign their letters or only are identified by an email address. If the Thisparticipation especially becamein the debate. important The followingwith Chileans are examples living outside of this Chile from who people almost whoA thirdalwayshave form email justified of addresses identification their outside occurred when people specified in the text of their letter who they were. "real"addressthe person name and was whenthe using writing they several werestyle or correspondingdifferent position names, on Pinochet with especially journalists did not when change.at allLa theTercera These names andpeople originated were also not fromtended writing the to asame useletter theiremail for Chile: "As"I as a a ChileanChilean" Chilean" attorney (#698) (#674) practicing in Spain, the decision did not surprise me in the least" work.thatpublication they were in the using forum. borrowed At times, email different addresses people since would they use did thenot samehave accessemail address to a computer and a fewin their even home noted or "Mr. Cardoch: I beg you not to give out the email [address], it was loaned to me since I ChileansOften these will identifications be able to read can these be seen identification as part of statements the Chilean and culture understand of speaking both(#769) whyin codes. they areIn other given words, and what other noteSome into used another person's email without permission. In rare instances, thedon't person have would the findluxuryLa out Tercera ofand having send a computer.""To (#1186) whomever received a letter in my name, I would like to tell him that I do not know to set the record straight. degreethemselvesthey mean. in the Oftenin United various the States. codesways. Thegive firstspecific is explaining clues to politicalthat he isand not social in Chile positions. because The he followingis working people on a graduate identify BESTCOPYAVAILABLE person'swho it was abuse. that in Speaking such a criminal for myself, form I senthave information never sent usingsuch information."my name. I apologize (#1493) for this 12 Chilean Conversations/Tanner, page 11 Chilean Conversations/Tanner, page 12 Chileanswould read who and were consider "ignorant" the opinions of Chilean in the history. forum. Others Participants would were base quick theirThe responsesto purposecriticize to ofparticipation lettersall of theboth self byon identification non-the is closely bound up in how other people, usually Chileans, CHILE BEGINS NOW"""""" (#1220) "English,"The"I am bestthe traitors" happiestnews received (#424) man in in the the world" entire (#1363) world. Pinochet "DETAINED" JUSTICE FOR thepersonif identification he or she became was an an exile, integral or livedpart of outside the functioning Chile, for of exampleas the forum. wellThe as forumwhat that letters person said. Thus criticismsinclusion of inthe the functioning Web site; orrequests non-functioning for specific of information the forum; orsubmissions document translations;of articles,Site housekeeping cartoons, bravos or or thanksletters photos (6.8%)for for the are those that were directed specifically to La Tercera. These were than 5200 words. Most of the letters were between 150 to 700 words, thoughThe submissionsit was not at toall the unusual forum for varied, with the "DIVINElength JUSTICem111,111,1111111111111,11111111" of the letters ranging from two words (#1) to more earlier.information One exampleprovided; of charges an appreciation of censorship; note is and as follows:even apologies for misunderstandingsday over Internet and nasty now lettersthat I livesent in Denver"I Colorado give a lot en of thethanks US andto La feel Tercera the need for giving to know me the opportunity to inform myself each awhenreaders major one toevent lookssubmit in atthe letters the Pinochet length of a thousandofcase: some the of detentionwords these or submissions. more.in October Cardoch's orThe the shorter plea decision for letters shorter by the came opinionsHouse in the of is firstLords understandable few in days after Other notes offered corrections or clarifications: coveringabout my the country arrest and of GeneralLa Tercera Pinochet, gives me I "Afterhave the opportunityto having make congratulateda few to docorrections so, thanks" you in your(#748) for the objectivity and precision with which you are exclamations,constructed.becameNovember. months, These I identifiedsite people lettershousekeeping, fivebegan were styles theto submitresponses, people'sof letters much first inand thelonger reaction testimonials. on-line essays, to forum. the many news. These of As them I the will casewell-thought-out call progressed commentaries, and and the finely weeks The criticisms for not publishing their opinions were quick to arrive at Lareadersinformation to participate under the iftitle only "Possible a few [opinions] Solutions"Since appear? to theyesterday Conflict"." Is it only we aare(#1303) coincidence viewing the that same the opinions on this page. Why do you ask the Tercera: participantshis thoughts continued on the detention to provide of Pinochet their opinions in London. on this Though broad subject many of throughout these Commentaries,were the written period in studied. whichOctober, were The forum 45.5% of the submissions, are those letters in which the writer expresses think14anmajority youincentive to give return)of the more to commentsincludingcontinue support visitingforeigners areto the from thecommunists detractors? whopage." did (#1583) not "...and Where thisexperience exiles, is isto Lawhosay Tercera's one thatstill dayyoulive [inabroadarepluralism? Chile] selecting (and between This dothe notisn't opinions, it appears to me that from page 1 to supporter:following two examples are rather short general commentaries. The first one is written by a Pinochet "Justice is slow but it comes. Thanks to God that in this case it won't be very slow and would1970-1973, appreciate Congratulations!" its publication." (#87)(#320) "Quite a long time ago I sent this message to the forum, and you have not published it. I defendtodaynation,Generalthe savior in forourselves hisPinochet ofhaving sick Chile bed fromoverthrown mustwill and soontotalitarian be for judged, return having international andtoyes, given his bloody he beloved us Marxismmust a doctrines protected be homeland. judgedon the(read democracy 11for I thatagreeofhaving September Communism, with with made the which Chile ofMarxists 1973 weMarxism). a cangreat y that Others were requesting information or submitting material for the Web site:Manyabout thanks."the 11 of (#1010) September of 1973. I can't find"I wouldthe archives like to knowin http://www.latecera.cVcasos/. if it is possible to have the information you gave over Internet isThe anti-Pinochet. second letter is an interesting contrast since it uses similar phrases and similarGLORY styles BE TOof capitalization, THE LIBERATOR but OF CHILE.""Justice (#262) is slow but it comes, I believe the attitude of the Chilean government is (#1568)wantInternet to say page it appears by sending to me inthat more was cartoons. a good"Together idea Once of again allowing with thanks thanking people and you tocongratulations." collaboratefor the publication on the of the cartoon I sent a few days ago, I ourtheirdiplomaticdefendunacceptable people. political him, immunity Asthe and the a crimes Chilean partisansame of Pinochet againstpeople I interests,support humanitythatis aall supposedlymockeryin actions favor should of andagainst a foughtgeneralbe excuse cleared Pinochet against whoto hideup cruelly hisand the government defendingsupport truthviolated taking the the the todaypeople care dignity of who of work:As mentioned earlier, writers were also apologetic for misunderstandings oremotion. sympathetic Use to it theas youjoumalists' wish, if you don't, it doesn't"I received matter. your I congratulate you for your mail, well it [the original submission] was written in a moment of ExclamationstheyQuintana,dare areto judge they Rodrigo (15.1%willthe beone Rojas, happy.of guilty the Rafael letters) "FORof so Moreno, muchAare JUST those death, theCHILE, letters decapitated torture thatYES areand TO short,professors, suffering.JUSTICE."' often Carmenexplosive, be (#298) sure Gloriathat reactions wherever to events. courage(#742) and seriousness." (#560) "I'm sorry that my email has caused problems. That was not my intention. I apologize." Some writers use all-caps as emphasis or textual shouts. "Long live free Chile. Long live Chile without communism. Long live Pinochet." (#152) 13 BESTCOPYAVAILAE3LE from the general commentaries in that they were directed at one person orThe an eventfourth that type was of not Pinochet's letter was the response letter. Response letters (25.6% of the submissions) differed 14 responsesarrest. These to actionswere responses of politicians to other or publicletters figures;in the forum, and responses which will to bespecific discussedResponses events. in some to otherdetail letters later; usually included a statement about the forum and the participants; then the Chilean Conversations/Tanner, page 13 hopegarbage that there England [in London], doesn't thebecome mayor infected, shouldn't"I think hee collect it hee is great heethe embassy'sthathee Providenciahee..." garbage... (#991) follows well, the I law of an Eye for an eye... if they keep our Chilean Conversations/Tanner, page 14 addresswriter would a forum direct participant. his or her response to a specific person. At times, however,of attention, the writer in would some directly there is a lot of hatred"I haveon both been sides. very I wantattentive to make to all athe small letters sent in and I have read each one with a lot bothThe openwithin letter and Pinochetoutside Chile. sent off to the Chileans in December generated a numberphrases of answersexpressed and in criticisms, this shows a type of"I cloning have carefully of ideas read of the the Chilean letter sent right," by (#247)mr. pinochet to his compatriots each one of the (#1367)contribution and focus the theme from a point"mr. ofarriagada, view that just I believe one question" no one has (#1443) touched on." thatandrealizing tormentsall thosehumanism that actsme, the itwere is"gentleman" that filled I can't with wasbelieve goodness almost how "Afteranda blind saint, motivated readingI havea hero, been the by a beinglettera all high these ofof purpose thisincredible years man, offor I patriotism spiritwasnot leftand very confused and feel an internal conflict " (#1192) ofPresidentactions the Right or Frei,words Pablo the or presidentLongueira, satire. The of Ivanpeoplethe Senate, Moreira, most Andres often Cristian to Zaldivar, fall Labbe, under Chancellor Joaquin the wrath Lavin, Joseof the OtherMigueland forum Evelyn writers Insulzaparticipants Mathei. responded and the wereThis politicians to doesChilean politicians not or public figures, usually through scathing criticisms of their othersSome ofwere general comments or repudiations. The last type of letterthe responses I identified were in satire,the forum others is thewere testimonial. detailed analyses Testimonials of the (7.0%)contents were of Pinochet's perhaps the letter, and still Presidentbroughtcasemean was that into named Freiother the and peopleanddebate, the criticized Christian were such not as or Democratsoccercriticized. applauded. stars, Party,Throughout Eventennis represented people players, the not months, and byremotely Zaldivar, television every connected personwere actresses. often associated with seenThe Chilean asgovernment with betraying politics the Pinochet orthewere identificationrememberedandmost memories. distinctive their testimonials, Here since experiences I thesewill present andwere during two the selections selections letters Allende's in from whichfrom Popular several people the peopleUnity examples, who government shared suffered two their underfrom frompersonal PinochetPinochet's 1970-1973, experiences, supporters military two brieflife who histories, Chileans by defending Pinochet: "PRINCIPLES",opposition"SOVEREIGN are IMPUNITY"working as they hard, repeat of spendingPinochet, in every resourcesPresidentopportunity,"It Freiand and alongtime, that in within the practice ministers defense asis and hasofdisconcerting alsobeen the the agitation of the government in defense of the so-called government.1973 military The coup.first two letters are written by people who support Pinochetoutrageslong and linesrecall my to the buymother events (bread, sufferedbefore meat, the while cigarettes trying "Itothat stillget my rememberus adult something family the membersto1,000 eat, days..." smoked,(#723) of the poorly all the named popular unity, how can I forget the Each new development generated comments from forum participants, especiallyAdemonstrated, thirdhis the government,type November translates decisionacts that in theof are the defense sufficiently of criminal impressive actions as toof havePinochet him beduring detained." the period (#672) of of response letter were the reactions to specific events other than the general Pinochet case. stopattitudesuch rememberinga complicated in defending the situation our times sovereignty. "of in London.the UP" I lament [PopularI"I congratulate join that the Unity] thesupporters things Presidentand the are of long soCaptainFrei complicated lines for hisGeneralwith dignified my but Don11- I can't Augusto Pinochet Ugarte as he faces LordsHouse ruling. of Lords. The selections from these two letters show some of the reactionsabove to all, the today November death isHouse vanquished of by life, and"Today because of that, in the name of the lives of is a great day. Today truth wins out over lies. Justice wins over injustice. But, Sometimes the testimonial came in the form of the writer's identification, asEspinosa,month in the -oldfollowing politicalson at two 10 prisoner atexamples: night who to buy disappeared 1 kilo of"My meat namethe from10th is Josesomeoneof April Miguel of grateful 1976 Enriquez in to Buenos Pinochet" Weinmann. Aires (#816) as I am a the son of Edgardo Enriquez stronglyduringwhothe more waits 25 during than yearstoday 3000 this andfor time, compatriotshis have imminent it shouted,is for themwho punishment, danced lost that their today and livesfor cried,we those becausecelebrate. making that ofhave ...." theirthe accompanied(#1543)arbitrary presence decision felt us more invisibly of him painfulconcentrationpowerfulresult of for theAugusto our "Condor camp,country." Pinochet." whoOperation" (#1602) was (#295) a directimplemented witness"Receive fromof the aChile eventsgreeting by thethat from then marked a dictatorChilean that andepochwho all- came so of age, detained in the Chacabuco communism,thatevencry, howthere be done,is is it the possiblefrom since possibility many for that me,atrocities, thethat Pinochet rights Pinochet and of is theeven my be chileans hero)judged "Ithough am in terribly toin ourthere doSpain. own justice traumatizedwere homeland,Pinochet terribleare mocked by liberatedthings and the thus (ifdecision that it us shouldpermit from of the lords in England. it makes me want to government.The last two examplesThe first one detail is athe selection experiences from ofa much two men longer who letter were written prisoners by aand Chilean then exilednow living under in the Canada. military "It snowed last night, and the road to work this morning was a bit cold, with the theReaders embassies also responded in Santiago to generated other events, quite television a few responses shows, and jokes,news reports.including fromhappenedThe the issuethe following: chaos ofduring garbage that his existed government,collection in the at stillcountry there before are many the 11who of thankSeptember...." him for our (#1109) LIBERATION 15 Chacabucospentparks.lightChristmas posts. inWe Chile: were lightsThere Concentration the onlyand are one waiting decorationsalso in 1973 lightsCamp...." for on theon in the thesnowall (#1070) Island thetrees to shop come. alongQuiriquina windows Ithe remember avenues and and the hanging the andone last onin two from1974the Christmasestrees the in theelectric in the I 16 atThe the second start of author the new recalls year his1999. experiences as a prisoner tight after the militarybarbed coup. wire, He is and sharing watched this memory by armed guards. At"During five in the the day afternoon, we had tothey remain shut ushunched up in a over or face down in a patio surrounded by Chilean Conversations/Tanner, page 15 The rest of the people wrote in to criticize other participants or to "clarify" thattable person's(#892) to debate incorrect with historicalthis man, in an atmosphere of mutual respect, objectivity, and ethics" Chilean Conversations/Tanner, page 16 theypunishment).hidingteachers,narrow are explosives, freight taking artists, Professor, car; me workers, would dozensto the he be Cerrosdoctors.... of saidcarted prisoners tode off me,Chena, One for intake coldthe from your thirdReg. September which blanket, timeof Puente forno night, Iinterrogation;one don'tAlto returns.... Mario, (Southneed ita (terribleSantiago):anyworker23rd more; of accusedSeptember tonight of 16position.interpretations. December At that 1998: In point, some however, cases, the the person debate attacked usually would degenerated then respond into name to Onethe calling forum series and toof defendinsults. interactions his or beganher when one person (#206) wrote a general comment about the forum on Victor,gunspebbles.Jara.of 1973, atIn the me.order aWhat far-offsinger It isto signs anescape radioof homage Chile; are announced: some these? for to ofthePablo Who the Poet, Pablo thesadness are Ipoet, replied.Nerudathey Iwhose triedfor!! died.A militaryto Threeheart Theydraw broke soldiers killedboota peace from smashed him, pointed dove pain; I thought, withmy for their hand. Mario,tears machinelike Forand aVictor The next day another participant responded to that letter, calling the person byoverthrownaccuse name: Senator Mr. PinochetAllende." of(#206) having been the greatest"I don't understandtraitor in Chile why or there a Hitler are so for many having poorly informed people in this forum who celebratetheinsisted:disappeared,working 7,000 "Ifather,this prisoners, do "CHILEANmurdered, not unjustly repent we whotortured... accused,andGOAL" wereI would of forinI thedon't thedothe English. itNational mothers,want all again!" friends Lic. Stadium sisters, Adrian and who soand and Cerdaforget mocked daughters never S.that C.I. Humanshouted person 10.202.804of the Rights... "goal",who 4000 one -Vzla. letFor day me ThreeRichard. days later, a participant commented on the writer of letter #1378, also callingignorance, him by becausehis signed of name, this I want to clear up"Do something you know, that Mr. you Barriga have Iforgotten" can't believe (#1378) that your mind is filled with so much filth and elementstestimonialsdemonstrate of several types, thesuch variety as a general of communication commentary thatin the also on-line criticized forum. theTheseIsla Somegovernment Margarita, five letters different andcombinedVenezuela offered types of , Januaryletterscommentaries, 1999," (#1511) exclamations, site housekeeping, responses, and Unlikeprobablyis the this same type is onwith of some interchange, this listRichard of the most who "disappeared"." letters appears generated"Just every (#43)like soonly I oftensaid one inand response. another like Mr. opportunity,However Urenda some says, the of pigshe the can't more express opinions over the stars, it revealedsuggestions the forinteraction facilitating among La Terceraforum participants. forum. Some of the most complex letters,The interactionhowever, were those that Disappeared.11controversial December letters1998 attacked inspired Solaa number Sierra, of the replies president and were of the referenced Association for ofweeks RelativesCommunists, afterward. of the etc.:One Detained- suchIf you letter want on to know where"I'm yourgoing disappeared to Humbly husbandContribute. is along Mrs. ?with Sole all Sierra and all the relatives, Socialists, between participants and La Tercera, and the contacts among participants outsideOne(#1153) of the the forum. interesting Seven developments percent of in the forum"If wasanyone the interactionwants to debate among this participants, theme, but the in interactiona civilized form, you are welcome to do so" linesyourdifference.andthe other send awfulto get UNPATRIOTIC them food,Iand will tocowardly ifgive you, you you didn'tbecause presidentPEOPLE the belong same between Salvador bonesto the a thatJAP dog Allende, you and gave your when us husband during you had thethere to UP wait shouldn't government in unending be muchwith I'm going to collect a large package of dog bones Is this a democratic form of provideall letters examples. were responses About toone previous third of comments these letters by began forum their participants. submission I will withclear indicate a statementthat somethere aboutismajor a profound thetrends forum: and division among "Havingthe inhabitants read an of important our Chile..." number (#766) of letters sent to your publication, it is more than CHILElibertyithusbandgovernment? is a complete to is speak, alive You mess showand Sole in respect Cuba,Sierra forWhyshould him don't call you yourself go look "whore for him Sierra" there? AND LONG LIVE PINOCHET" (#550) very similar to the UP times. General Pinochet has given you the filthy woman, just like all you Socialists. LONG LIVE and perhaps your dog I was in Cuba and Then they went on to discuss some of the themes or ideas that were discussedhere..." by other (#978) writers. "Isn't"Contrary it a bit to muchthe opinions to compare of the Pinochet series ofwith people O'Higgins? who have I believe expressed the debate themselves just sank Understandably, several readers responded with outrage in the next few days:Chile?country.mentions It Howison horrible, page is it 38 possible fascist,of this that forumscandalous, there are are clear and"Theindividuals examples moreover "beasts" so of it of closedthe upsets which mentality minded and Pinochet's enrages of and the ignorantson Right[us] speaks to of seein our and the "dogs" that Mr. German Z.S. letters,The other only letters three responded people wrote specifically into the forumto a writer, to say usually they agreed addressing with anothertheir commentsO'Higgins)."to author. levels thatOne to that (#1556) limitsuch person. onperson, the Of absurd self all the- (Moreover, it is a lack of respect to the memory of lawsuitvacationandhow use the against verbalpeople in a psychiatric terrorism. Germanon the Right Z.S. center. believeHis Mrs.personal they Sole Mistershave information Sierra: the Pinochet rightplease can to (seriously)insult Jr.be andobtained whomever German present in "ctcreuna." Z.S.,they a criminal chooseplease To keep quiet from now on and take a defined communist, complimented a person who defined himself as belongingopinions to the thatRight. are lacking from the right. I am "Ia communist want to highlight and I would the comments like to sit of down Mr. Joseat a Tomas Irarrazabal, it is this class of 1 7 BEST COPY AVAILABLE bythe Internetpeople atproviders ctcreuna: in the his useruse of"germanzs" the service has to sendinfringed messages on the that legal call norms for hatred established and 18 Chilean Conversations/Tanner, page 17 Chilean Conversations/Tanner, page 18 A few days after that response, another author wrote: societyviolence. in Pleasea civilized take form. the correspondingThanks. Pablo measuresGarrido." (#542) so that his user learns how to live in journalistscarriedThese andonthan more other might extended examples be expected conversations indicate at first. that Some someor debates. participants forum The participants access sent Christmas to were journalists more greetings closely and media tointeracting the workers journalists with could the or be an internationalwheresent as the an remains answer. stateless of I don'ther person)" husband know (#870) if youare, understood not"A your small mother. rectification Mrs. Sierra'sGreetings with petition, respectGuillermo she to Gonzalesisthe asking "package (an of dog bones," that you so elegantly participantsimportant factor outside in how the readers forum. However,perceive an the on-line people publication, would mention or if theythis contact,becomeThe thirdshowinga dedicated type that of interactionreadership. it was taking is much more difficult to track since it concerns the contact among himselfThe original by the author controversy. continued to participate in the forum and on 3 January 1999really he wasbegan the a letter,government identifying of Salvador Allende"Hi, I'm and the all "dog his bones"entourage guy ofSurely opportunists. none of these..." Humanoids will remember, what andperson.place. send People In a some copy would cases,of thesee reply theythe email wouldto the addresses forum.send a Itcopy wouldof participants of theirnot be letter uncommon on tothe the forum forum to andread as send well,comments letters or the directlysuchrecipient as to the wouldthat reply severalThe controversy previous wassubmissions: not forgotten when later that month another author began(#552) his letter with references to "I haven't been able to find the information in your pages about the letter of reply by following: approvalhasAMERICA to please and (one sendingeveryone, of the manymy but thoughts. ChileansI and others As [woman] a pleasantliked"I it,abroad)am to surprisesaddened which I found I Iresponded, received to a read real someOPINION, a showingreply of fromthese not my her, one"OPINIONS," but that it .... in one email that I read from LuisitoprayingwillOneChilean help of whothe towritersus Saintbetter getcriticizes overto Rita, ones, the the aormissive participant'sdon't thepestilence garbage you of thethink? of English."London ofthe theI amsanctimonious dog swine.sure (#1022) bones that Couldn't suchperson interventions a you letter or thepost will arrogant, the ofrefresh those letter us uneducated whoin allInternet? areand today,things"peoplewholeheartedlymade me weIthave is sadhaven't sad written to withto read lookbeen you...lrude some around able and will of to insulting hermetell grow youfirstand spiritually thatwordsseemessages, becausethat "I orsincerelyeven morally." wishing of though this thank message me(#32) we badyou have forluck I sosent your andmuch many letter, all technology sorts resentful I agree of As withremembered this letter, and several discussed other bydocuments the forum generated participants. the same type of controversyThe second and weretype oflong- interaction was the dialog some readers had with journalists at La Tercera, or with communistsviewsendingthe many in the messages [women] forums or socialists whoand that nowlikes disagree with theyto rude send have with [messages], in people,mymy email,comments"I Iam Ionly whichknow very read to thatis angrythe filledand isdifferent theand laugh,every only upset forums, dayand thing with withgive they ...your those my can Publication,point do.... of which I read every day, I am one of I don't like Theaskingthe participants newspaper them towere shortenin general. usually their politeSome letters unlessof orthis soften theydialog weretheir was insultsgrouching generated before about when he wouldcensorship Cardoch post wrote theor were documents back upset to the when on participants, the their Web site. received:Others were more brief, but also commented on the number of negative responsesSincerely" they (#707)had personally thecontrasted lettersfollowing were sharply and not received withquickly the a postedinsults response oron attacks thefrom forum. the in theauthor: In actualfact, the forum civilized letters. nature In one of suchthese letter, comments Cardoch sometimes suggested havereceived received in themany which anonymous I have been mails" accused (#832)"It"I wantofis impressivebeing to take anti-Semitic." advantage the answer (#82) of Ithis have occasion received to to respond my previous to some opinion, of the unfortunately email I have I aboutin>In>Hi lower orderRodrigo: the case to"bastard publish and with jerk" your about so collaboration, that 700 they characters don't I recommend censor >less. us. Also that I recommend you send it thatto us you again soften but thewritten part Original Message A few people encouraged or solicited email contact, but usually with the caveatcharacterizes that it be "civilized." a true democracy is maintained""Answers (#278) and commentaries are openly accepted only and when the cordiality that AUTHORIZEINABILITYRegards. YOU TO WRITE TO CUT IN ANDLOWER-CASE, EDIT WHAT IT"THANKS I WOULDSENT YOU. TAKEFOR I AMYOUR A LONG SURE ANSWER. TIME THAT TO YOU BECAUSE FIX HAVE IT. I OF TIME CONSTRAINTS AND THE Some requested email information if it was not readily available so they couldnotIf contact you anonymous....bye" think a specific as I do, person. send (#80) me an email with"long your liveaddress, chile!.. if longyou arelive apinochet!.., lackey of mart, let's bringas well, back our liberator and show our loyalty. Another author wrote to Cardoch to explain that there had been a mistake in SOMEMOREposting FORM.OPTIONShis letter THANKS. on THAN the forum. IBEST TO DO WISHES." THIS. I HOPE"Unfortunately (#1408) THAT YOU I can't PUBLISH solve your MY problemsTHOUGHT of INtoo much mail, but I can tell you that I To make things more complex, readers also were interacting with other peopleChileanhim in a newsgroupsfew and words soldier." to or express in (#339) other my on- admiration"I forknow his thatgreat don work Augusto, and for over being there a tremendous in London, is typing in internet. I would like to send General"didn't write which the mail is an "Relax, answer General." to the person I only who wrote wrote the partthe originalif you read mail. carefully ..." (#1258) "RE: Relax, 19 BESTCOPY AVAILABLE line publications and then sending the results of these discussions to La Tercera forum. At times they would 20 pick up conversations from these other media and shift them to La Tercera. In this case, the writer refers to a Chilean Conversations/fanner, page 19 is slow but it comes, I hope that you don't "Mr.suffer Director the same for your self censorship." (#1587) give space for real communication, don't censor, it is apparent that justice Chilean Conversations/Tanner, page 20 Spanish publication. judgedthatpeople itin hurts Chile."in Chile you, (#309) with not thatfire inPinochet their belly. would You be"After are judged, true reading Chileans, but that this and puts in your in doubt letters that it ishe evident can be your answers in El Pais, I congratulate you, because I see that there are Do(#675) you have to be from the left or the right">I'm"For to be the sending considered?" second this time e-mail (#469)I send in for in mythe opinion,second time.I hope Are that you this selecting time you the don't letters censor to publish? me!" technologynot without to contact its defaults. other Atpeople, least tosome share readers their ideasare quick and comments.to take advantage They Theseseem of the to various new be building communication forms invisible of interaction show that the forum is a dynamic form of communication, though Over the months they continuedthis.published. Once to insist againAt last that I Iinsist." theirunderstand ideas (#1217) be that published, the immense"Despite as wrote number the following of missives participants: could be the cause of having sent in my opinion about this topic several times, I still have not seen it networks, with La Tercera forum being a small window on a more complexThe process. virtual space created "thanks for the space" (#814) by La Tercera and the participants (#933)2 emails and they have not been published."Mr. A Director,Directorpermanent Iearlier consider reader I have fromit unjust commented Mexico...very the attitude on angry."the of yourvalue publication, of your Paper to the to maintainwhich I have an send debate issues of national importance. In their letters they talked about this spaceThrough and commented the interaction on the and value discussion, it the forum participants and La Tercera created a virtual space to Thankfully..."respectfullyinternationalpublished... thatThe community,page,(#1393) youtopic but publish of I am Mr.and sorrymyPinochet's so opinionI thatinsist for arrestwithsent the faith muchsecond is of in high earlier...letyour time, interest professionalism my opinionme to sendthe Chileandoes a and copy not I and ask ofappear it. andcouldcommunicationheld the for have chargesthem the or future ofandthe censorship. roleits of role theirit played in country. the in Chilean their The lives. forum'stransition, Readers value as pointed wellis evident as outthe inthepossibilities the importance demands that theyfor this access saw communicative in to the medium for writer,participant,In Cardoch explaining recounts what somemost happened of of the the problems cases,or how the the the journalists newspaper journalists responded functions. were facing: to In the one charges such response of censorship to an angry by sending a note back to the changed. The least delay in publishing their opinions on the Web site broughttheIt complaints was transparency,public very in important ofthis censorship. manner, in order to the thisthat forum ismany ethical. participants people (#1129) can"To that formLa their Tercera their ideas own Paper,were opinions, published I ask instruct,you and to maintainnot and censored inform this standardor of impartiality and thethatdoesLooking [Senator-for-life].this happen isat whatthe is opinion thathappened sometimes Since pages, in your the you thequestionmail can e-mails where prove"Censorship is are stillyouthat mislaid relevant, askthe aboutwhole exactly and I combinedwhospectrum don't such, pays get doesn't forispublished.it withrepresented. the exist, yourexpenses It opinionexcept appears What of in cases of a message overly obscene. Chile.response]. Greetings" please (#1166) inform me about this. To"I keepwantknow tosendingabout know the whyopinions impartiality my opinion and of... journalismfromnothing." the 21st(#951) in was not published. 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(this At wasAs seen the valuethroughout of self the expression. submissions, perhaps one of the most important aspectsThe secondof the forum way infor which participants the forum was valuable was because it provided a way for previously don'trestricted.Chileans deal around withSome "political" theradio world stations or can current interact.offer events a bit Access more topics. accessto the Some Chilean through of the media, call-invery feweven shows, ways through though people letters many can to communicate of the those editor, shows is veryis countryaspects"unheard" andof voicestheir other lives. to people. be As heard. part The of Itfollowing this,brought it allowed participantstogether Chileans people showed livingwho their probablyoutside appreciation Chile would to not maintainfor be the interacting space contact in whichinwith other their common Thus,communicationthrough when informal the arewriters small very groupfound localized agatherings, space and that thus demonstrations, allowed would notexpression, include or alternative Chileans the threat orforms of people censorship such in asother generatedgraffiti. parts These of thethe previouslytypesworld. of people could express themselves: servesopinions for of something." the people, (#934) I'm only a 19-year-old"Well, young this man has and been I hope my humble that this commentary, commentary thanks for the opportunity to reveal the reconciliationindividualmentioned feelings, responses. process a space and civicto hear life previouslyin general. "unheard" I will now voices,briefly discussand a space theseForum essential three participants issues to the and Chilean discussedprovide some the value of the space in three different ways. It was a space to express Internet also offers people who otherwise are formally restricted from sharingIvoice, BELIEVE their noropinions meansTHAT an MOREto opportunity reveal THAN our to opinion70% OF we THE think"I COUNTRY hope that that pinochet myTHINKS commentary should SO." be (#1439) judged.serves toAT show LEAST you that those of us who don't have a expressexamples. themselves. Submissions often began or ended with a phrase"Pinochet that in thanked jail, or detainedLa Tercera or forretained, the opportunity it doesn't to matter. It is marvelous! Now I know express their views. realthankfulwill not situation." give for Internetmy (#830) name which because allows you you know to express what"I amhappens yourself a current to just us member likeif we the say ofrest whatthe of Chilean thewe peoplethink. Carabineros I'm our [national police force], obviously I out."believethat there (#290) my is identity some hopeis my in own this email world. [address].)( (I don't"THANKING know Thanks if you YOU for have theIN to ADVANCEopportunity identify yourself, FOR to pour THE but my OPPORTUNITY Iheart TO EXPRESS MY keptsince them it allowed informed them of to events keep inimportant contact inwith Chile, local and events allowed and thempeople. to maintainThe informationThe contact forum wasandwith usefulthepeople. on-line for them, publication was especially important for Chileans living outside of Chile, itOPINION./ presents andAN EX-POLITICAL I ask that you publish PRISONER" this "First"Thankssmall (#1211) ofreflection." all,for congratulationsallowing (#1413) me to giveto this my publication humble opinion." for its excellent (#1338) coverage of all the news journalismwhich, for over those Internet, Chileans since who the find information ourselves"Congratulations is"Lastly, abroad,complete, let is meveryand and congratulate veryuseful." thanks lively; (#769) to because youLa Tercera for the of good for the and excellent complete coverage way in whichit offers you across do your At times it became obvious that it was the act of writing the letter and sending ithappiness off to La Tercera and satisfaction that was over the historic"We events are thankful we are for witnessing." the opportunity (#1273) that the paper "La Tercera" gives us to express our haveInternet contact and for with keeping our Beautiful in touch Country with Chile." and"First our(#1120) of people." all I want (#558) to tell you that we Chileans who are living abroad, by Internet we moreactuala veryimportant forumpolite thantoneletter. thein his actual note publication. to La Tercera, This which can be contrasts seen in sharplythe following with the submission. anger towards The authorthe Spanish maintains in the writer:This information from La Tercera was used in different ways, though usuallyhappening for discussions, with Chile's as indicates ex-dictator. this Together"Through with other CNN Chileans and the wepublication have debated La Tercera the we have informed ourselves of what is anger;>Don't>Spanish>I'm in sure any come thatfriends,case to you ChileI'm will grateful any never more. to publish you for this the letter, ">Mr.opportunity. butDirector, just as well I'm sending it to vent my livedBefore outside about the1994 country. and the Sometimes growing use you of could Internet, obtain it wascopies much of old more Chilean difficultcase..." newspapers to obtain (#180) news or follow of Chile events if you >You>Justescapingelectricity>Don't aredon't come yournotor come. road asnow own tourists, companies;welcome civil wars. or asin orthisinvestors even country. less or as businessmenarms merchants; from not telephone, even as immigrantsdrinking water, BESTCOPYAVAILABLE providethrough thephone same calls type and of letters.coverage However, or depth mostly that is people possible had with to localrely on media. foreign news coverage, which does not 24 Chilean Conversations/Tanner, page 23 Chilean Conversations/Tanner, page 24 expressioncivic life. This as a wasfundamental discussed liberty. in a variety of ways by forum participants. SomeA third writers value saw of freedomthe forum of was in its potential to"Only help the Chilean reconciliation process and strengthen long live Chile and long live freedom of expression!!!!" (#30) Another wrote in (#130)maketerrible a free of the hate and hypocrisy, an embrace to women and men withouttestimonies distinction." of those whoto say have that faith the forumin reconciliation. was an example Because of democratic liberty and communication, justice will an ideal that plays an One participant spoke of his citizen to express my opinion over the famous"I'm"Congratulations goingletter of general for Pinochet." the freedom (#543) to voice opinions over an historic event," (#392) to take advantage of this excellent virtual forum to exerciseright asmy a rightcitizen as to a express or publish his opinion. important role for Chileans as they construct their future through reconciliationdebatefollowedeternal with reconciliationsthatthe this past.was story produced, hoped products for [we] by ofmanymust conflicts rescueand also that "Inand feared arethese value difficult daysby attitudes some toso leave special others. and behind, consequences, for But all besides we of humanity,have the it is in which bitterness gives way to the always formulatediscussionThis right, theirthough,be civilized own was conclusions. or polite. When a variety of viewpoints were presented, readers would then be able to not viewed as absolute; rather it was important to most forum participants that the easy,ofthispublishingnot this possiblespace ... I wantit isbeginsthose necessary toto negatecongratulate that to apply were theto analyze theoverlyimpartiality this democracy medium,critical what of has ofthis inyou its happened,regards medium own have interests. fulfilledto to thean publish analysisliberty a I missionbelieve those of that opinion thatthat opinions allows thiswe and know publicationus even because to islook not toin fromcommunicatetruthdate 21theis that of things December I have the expressed idea tried of is to 1998 that synthesizehere." eachover (#250) of"The thebut Globetrotters" readersit"Fernando loses theof this Cardoch,essence and medium "In of ISearch whatform I'm hisof Resources" tryingown conclusions to the ask you to have the goodness to publish the letters sent with the Forumbehind,one'sthe future tears, participants it is with timelook optimism, toahead, thusgo on." andopening ( #1467) proudly the say,channels "Our deadof forgiveness can rest in and peace" reconciliation, the past is to left dry valued the space since it allowed them a way to vent or express their feelings, topicsandParticipants the was legacy seen emphasized of as the essential military the to importance govemment. the reconciliation of The ability process to indebate Chile. history, human rights, democracy, and other communication, especially when dealing with the topic of Pinochet demandsandit provided it had for to a possibilityaccessway for and people tothe help chargesto interactin the of reconciliation censorshipand communicate when process. when The they overall usually importance would not was have emphasized this opportunity, by the La Tercera delayed publishing the submissions. debatePinochet.repercussions the His topic. punishment or fear?Congratulations!" Thanks or freedom to God (#1449) is that not"Does Chileas"Imagine important a hasbetter beenthat systemas you ablethe have opportunity existto debate a where wound, the to the openlyaproblem deeppeople wound, ofcan openly pain inwrite your or body, talk without in your soul, line forum dedicated to this theme. Almost all the forum participants were Chileans,InConclusions this paper scattered I briefly around reviewed the the events surrounding the arrest of Pinochet and the structure of an on- happenedquietly,laugh,feeleverywhere. that celebrate, not what to talk, Imaginehim, happened not laugh but talk. thatit andis Andwas dangerousthe celebrate suddenlyonlyinfinitely thing to over unjust. a evenyou loved and want ask, Imagine oneover, tothey disappears; do you saythatis havecry, that,you shout, to can'tyouthey be suspect quiet,protest,talkdo it in andnot half whatbecause crywhile whispers, hasor othercry you housekeeping,Iworld, found but that brought the responses, letter together styles and fitto testimonials.discussfive different a topic Sincecategories, important this paper whichin their was I personalcalled focusing commentaries, lives on theand forum the exclamations,history itself, of some their siteof country. the Not only beenprotest,fear, rumors,avoided!" debate, danger, (#1186)coulddissent, death,some criticize, of everything the thinkproblems differently? is dangerous. possible My have AndGod, been if howthey avoided, much had let hatredthe me experience cry would out loud,have of the forum debate was seen forum.dialogmost interesting betweenThe responses the letters readers to were previous and the responses forum submissions because these demonstrates illustrated interactionthat at leastThree among some types ofparticipants. ofthe interaction participants evident are in the forum were the reactions or responses among participants, the La Tercera, and the indications of contacts among participants outside the as enriching the civic and social fabric in Chile. onedominatingLet's another grow up. our as Let's reason.people be free. whoWe needthinkLet's differentlytobe grow capable"Mr. civically but ofdirector: whotalking and have I'mthis without sorry thismeans right." havingthat being in (#836) yourour able emotions publication to tolerate and in this forum censorship is applied. criticized,personalreading the relationship and letters apologized. and with are willingtheThe on-line forum to send publicationalso in provided their comments.and a itsbrief staff glimpse Some as the readers ofreaders larger also sent interactions managed in material andto establishfor communication the Web a more site, reconciliationOne process. reader drew comfort from the ("theforum, English stating patient"), that the libertythe most of expressiondemocratic"After is of fundamental the moment, in since the it reflects the opinions, having criticized the impartiality of La Tercera, I'm obligated to praise this site differedwerenetworks reading from when andother participants submitting media in mentioned thatletters. it allowed In thisemail spacecontact contacts they among andwere other Chileans able media.to express around their theLa world. personal It also feelings. allowed The people spaceTercera and the forum participants created a virtual space that was important to the people who refreshingfilesignorance,without (another censorship, to insecurity knowbad habit that, of and Chileans fromdespite insensibility those everything,and that, foreigners. of yes, some; there were suchEven are traitors asin though this those to page,sovereignty). it who is disconcertingbeautiful want to It andcensoris, however, sometimesto knowthe audio the 23 BESTCOPYAVAILABLE tosomewho the were way.Chilean not An famous, reconciliationimportant nor theme politicians process that emergedand or public a way was figures,to strengthenthat foruma chance civicparticipants to life.contribute A keysaw to this the communication successdebate about of the Pinochet forum as essential in 26 suggestseems to solutions be its location: to current it is socialembedded problems. in an active news site that provides spacesThe public for readers sphere to concept debate allowsand people to identify social conditions that would allow argument or Chilean Conversations/Tanner, page 25 opportunitybetterMany countryChileans to anddebate in thefuture andforum for communicate, expressedthemselves a andasdesire at their least to families.move a step beyond in They the rightthe saw legacy direction.any small of the advance, military such years as and the construct a Chilean Conversations/Tanner, page 26 strengthsocialsphere"rational-critical and tries of cultural the to explainidea debate"bases might the that socialbe to incan become that foundations develop "it identifiesbasis an effectiveoffor democracy andpolitical stresses rational-critical actionby the looking importance and discourseatthus the democracy.' specificfor aimeddemocratic organization at resolvingIn politicsother within words,political of a spherecivil the disputes. societypublic distinct Theof PrimaryWorks Cited Sources pressureinformalfrom ofcontrolthe public economy over opinion. the and state: theThe State."2 "formalmedia are Jamescontrol central Curran through to this writes theprocess. election that Theythrough of governmentsdistribute the public the andsphere,information informal citizens necessary control exercise through for formal citizens the and to numberingInternet between system 16 is October from a database1998 and and 23 doesJanuary not 1999.necessarily In the reflecttext the the letters orderThe are in textual referedwhich the analysisto byletters number. was were based The on 1670 letters sent to the Pinochet case on-line forum of La Tercera en Pinochetofmake debate; an informedcan and be they seen choice enable as an at theexample election people oftime: to "independent shape they thefacilitate conduct debate" the of formation withgovernment the purposeof public by articulating of opinion addressing by their providing current views."3 political an Theindependent forumtopics. on forum thereceived translations by La Tercera.I attempted The to letters stay as are close available to the inoriginal the original punctuation Spanish and on capitalization theBBCOther web andprimary site BBC asat www.tercera.cl.possible. news online sources (www.bbc.co.uk) consulted In since October 1998 and the present include the following: accesswhichchallenges isto limitedInternet. or constraints access On-line to to theforums the technology public could sphere. have in Chile. interesting The AsLa mentionedTercera implications forum earlier, facesin Chileabout someAn if1% important access specific of the to people challenges,Internetpart of in public wereChile one spherehave of studies, pointed out by Habermas and many of the critics, are the LaElCNN MercurioSegundaflora and CNN and en El espafiol Mercurio (cnnenespanol.com) on-line (www.elmercurio.cl) Presidentialaccessexpandedaccess issues dramatically.to CommissionInternet to new communicationand Chilean otheron New new government, Information media technologies. for academics, Chilean and CommunicationThe citizens. first and majorthe The private proposal recommendationTechnologies business in the sector was1999 was to arereport secureto all ensure awareof universal the "equal, of the TelevisionRadioLasLa Tercera Ultimas Cooperativa Nacionaland Noticias La Tercera (TVN) en Internet ( www.tercera.cl) thenation."4 universalon-line debates access intoat a reasonablethe larger political cost, promoting discussions participation in the country. in the Onepolitical, wayRelated Lasocial, Tercera to accessand culturalis issuesaddressing life is a of second this the challenge for the on-line forum. This difficulty would be to transfer ChileanCalhoun, Presidential Craig, ed. HabermasCommission and on the New Public Information Sphere. Cambridge,and Communication Mass.: MIT SecondaryUniversidadTechnologies, Press, 1992. Sources Cat6lica 1999 report Televisi6n to (UCTV) participants,Pinochetproblem iscase its however, forum,publication the seemed discussion of on-line to police hascomments thethe potentialquality in the of to printthe degenerate submissions version intoof the themselves,name-calling paper.A third callingchallenge and insults. for woulda moreThe be the quality of the debate. As illustrated by some submissions to the Garnham,Dahlgren, Nicholas.Peter, and CapitalismColin Sparks, and eds. Communication: Communication Global and Citizenship:Culture and theJournalismthePresident Economy New Media andEduardo of the Information. Age. Public Frei London Ruiz-Tagle. Sphere and in New Santiago, York: Routledge,Chile, 1999. 1991. communication"civilized" debate Cecilia on the Alejandra important maintained issues. Despite a positive the many view: problems and constraints on the forum "At first I read everything; now, some opinions here and there I skip, because I have I See discussion in Craig Calhoun, ed., Habermas and the Public Sphere (Cambridge,London Mass.: and MIT Newbury Press, 1992). Park, Calif.: SAGE Publications, 1990. sobutbrothers,now much take identified out time...and the throw the Androttenness common the then plates we from groundwill at eachyour rest, and other.heart, then the we"Let getFromset will thisphrases. it this out,be venom calm, perspective,let it out andout!" that perhaps, as allhas you of been thiscan,sometime, locked willas you help upwish, the for country. Let's grab each other's hair, Age3Park,2 (London NicholasPeter Calif.: Dahlgren and Garnham, SAGE New and York:Publications, CapitalismColin Routledge, Sparks, and 1990), eds., Communication: 1991), 109.Communication 29. Global and Culture Citizenship: and the Journalism Economy and of Information the Public Sphere (London in andthe NewNewbury Media untilthesomeday, "fathers when?" we of (#1182) can the conversehomeland" seriously don't impose and in their peace. cowardly Of course, force brother, and leave always us as and enemies, when 27 BEST COPY AVAILABLE Frei4 Chilean Ruiz-Tagle Presidential (Santiago, Commission Chile), 29.on New Information and Communication Technologies, 1999 report to President Eduardo 23 MEDIA OF THE WORLD AND WORLD OF THE MEDIA:

A CROSSNATIONAL STUDY OF THE RANKING OF THE "TOP 10 WORLD

EVENTS" FROM 1988 TO 1998

By Zixue Tai

A Paper Accepted by the International Communication Division

of the Annual AEJMC Convention, Aug. 4-7, 1999,

in New Orleans, LA

Zixue Tai is a Ph.D. candidate in the School of Journalism and Mass Communication at the University of Minnesota, Twin Cities Campus.

Please address correspondence to: Zixue Tai, 111 Murphy Hall, School of Journalism and Mass Communication, University of Minnesota- Twin Cities, 206 Church Street S. E. Minneapolis, MN 55455-0418 Fax: (612) 626-8251; Phone: (651) 917-7120. Email: [email protected]

29 Top 10 World News Events 1

MEDIA OF THE WORLD AND WORLD OF THE MEDIA:

A CROSSNATIONAL STUDY OF THE RANKING OF THE "TOP 10 WORLD

EVENTS" FROM 1988 TO 1998

ABSTRACT

This paper studies the ranking of the top 10 world events from 1988 to 1998 by 11 media representing eight countries and examines the similarities as well as differences between/across media and nations. Findings indicate that all media display bias of their own in their ranking of the top world events and are myopic to those stories that are culturally, geographically and psychologically close. Media from the same national setting show strikingly similar patterns in their evaluations of world news. The U.S. media are the most provincial in their approach to world news while the United States is the top newsmaker with all media. The study also reveals some general patterns among media from different national contexts in their approach to evaluating world events.

30 Top 10 World News Events 2

MEDIA OF THE WORLD AND WORLD OF THE MEDIA: A CROSSNATIONAL STUDY OF THE RANKING OF THE "TOP 10 WORLD EVENTS" FROM 1988 TO 1998

Introduction

A central issue in discussions of world news flow is the imbalance of information flow among

nations and the dominance of global news by a few world powers, typically a small number of

industrialized nations in the West. Furthermore, the media have been criticized for a biased and unfair representation of the majority of developing nations and for being oblivious to expressed concerns of third-world countries. International media scholars have been a leading force in documenting the process of global news flow and formulating theoretical paradigms in studying journalistic news productions and representations by world news agencies in different political, economic, and cultural settings. A continuous theme in the research agenda has been the empirical examination of the complex social networks of factors through which production and presentation of world news take place.

The majority of past research projects have been conducted in such a way that data over a certain period of time (typically a week or a limited number of days within a month or year) are collected in different national/media settings and comparisons are made between nations and/or media. These cross-national comparisons have yielded some persistent patterns in international news coverage and contributed to our understanding of systematics in the selection and presentation of world news across national and cultural contexts. However, nearly all of the past studies focus their analysis and interpretations on "international news" only, whatever their operational definitions may be. Therefore, as an example, news in the US is excluded from the analysis of US media coverage of international news since it does not fit into the domain of

31 Top 10 World News Events 3 international news as defined by those studies. There is an inherent deficiency and bias in those studies then, because they do not adequately address the issue of how different national media address their domestic news stories within the larger parameter of their global impact and relevance.

This study compares the ranking of the "Top Ten World News Events" among 11 news organizations representing eight countries within the last 11 years. In particular, the study explores the questions of "what makes important news stories" globally in different cultures and media systems. What makes this study different from past international news flow studies is that the ranking of top international news events reflects the specific values and criteria among the media in the different nations and very often includes the evaluations of domestic events in the context of global reach and impact, while traditional research in international news flow generally focuses on the amounts and variations in coverage world news events (generally excluding news stories which take place within the domestic settings of the specific media under study).

Moreover, a period of 11 years covered by this study can tell us more about the persistent patterns and paradigms in the evaluations of global news by the media under investigation.

Review of Literature

Views on what makes news, especially in the coverage of global events, vary substantively across different media systems. Not surprisingly, the nature and the process of international news coverage by mass media in different nation-states have been a focus of academic discussion and debate and have triggered an abundance of international communication scholarship in the past decades. Much of the research has been conducted in the exposition of the imbalances and inequalities of global information flow. Meanwhile, the variation in origin and destination of

32 Top 10 World News Events 4

international flow of information has been empirically attributed to several influential

determinants.

Central to this line of research are the different approaches to defining news in various

societies and cultures, among them the controversies between the Western the-exceptional-

makes-the-news approach, the Third World development news philosophy, and to a lesser extent,

the Communist system of adopting news as a mass mobilization and propaganda tool. In the

Western world, led by the United States, textbook definition of news in terms of news in terms of

timeliness, impact, prominence, proximity, conflict and unexpectedness or novelty (e.g., Brooks et

al., 1992; Mencher, 1994). It is treated as a commodity and is generally regarded as what the

audience wants to know. Market is the driving force for news selections. In most Third World

countries, national development and certain educational goals are decided by the powers that be,

the government and news is a tool to meet these goals through direct control and indirect

influence from the government in the news reporting process. In the Communist system, censors

representing the Communist Party interpret news stories and determine what they need to know.

What people want to know is largely irrelevant. However, with the collapse of communism and

subsequent dramatic changes in the former Soviet blocks and Eastern Europe, and massive transitions to a market economy and unprecedented reforms in the mass media in China in the last two decades, it is hardly appropriate to describe any media system in the globe now as following the Communist system (perhaps with the exception of North Korea). The effect of market forces is increasingly manifest in the media sector in the former Soviet blocks and China.

More than two decades ago, the quest for a New World Information and Communication

Order (NWICO) was the hallmark of global debate in the United Nations and its specialized agencies, especially in UNESCO (the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Top 10 World News Events 5

Organization), as well as among many nongovernmental organizations, academia, and the world's media. This debate has involved scathing attacks from the Third World countries, beginning in the

1970s, on the West's traditional methods of collecting and distributing international news and popular entertainment, and has led to repeated calls for a radical but vague reordering of the international communication system. On critic of NWICO called a "slogan in search of a program" (Hachten, 1992, p. 174).

NWICO advocates point out that a few Western powers provide most of the world's news coverage, entertainment, and advertising. They argue that much of the news is controlled by a few multinational news agencies which devote little attention to the reporting of developing nations; moreover, the news fosters a negative image of the developing countries (Alleyne, 1995; Hachten,

1992; Stevenson, 1988). It seems to many that most of the news Western countries circulate about Third World nations focuses on sensational and disastrous events while ignoring positive stories, particularly development issues. This phenomenon has been called the "coups and earthquakes" syndrome (Rosenblum, 1979). However, news satisfies or feeds the basic human curiosity to know and there is reason to believe that curiosity is a universal human trait, which shares more than it differs. Audience interpretation and consumption of news may display similar patterns across media systems and cultures. Cultural, ideological, and other constraints may not always override the human need to be informed. Therefore, what is deemed newsworthy in one country may also often be the case in another. It is enlightening to find out these universal patterns of newsworthiness across national and cultural borders.

Partly triggered by the global NWICO debate, communication scholars worldwide have conducted a vast amount of research concerning the international information flow. Within the last two decades, studies have consistently confirmed the preponderance of media resources and Top 10 World News Events 6

capabilities in the industrialized nations, particularly the United States, and the lack of attentionto

Third World countries among the Western media agencies (e.g., Masmoudi, 1979).

Not surprisingly, international news has been the most contentious and controversial

aspect of the NWICO argument. In their seminal "The 'World of the News' Study" of 29 national

media systems, Sreberby-Mohammadi et al. (1984) found that world news everywhere showsa

similar selection process. The study also shows that regional news is emphasized in the media of

all countries and behind the dominance of the media system's own region, news from North

America and Western Europe comes next. A study of foreign news by two U.S. wires, the

Associated Press (AP) and the United Press International (UPI), supported the claim that Western

news agencies tend to focus on conflicts and crises when reporting about the less developed or

Third World countries (Weaver & Wilhoit, 1981). This study also suggests that basic questions of news values among Western journalists may be more fundamental to understanding and, in the long run, more central to the NWICO debate.

Some scholars have also tried to determine the factors underlying the variation in origin and destination of international news flow. Kariel and Rosenvall (1984), in studying the factors influencing international news flow in the Canadian press, found that the eliteness of a nationas news source is the most important criterion for news selecting; some other factors are distance, cultural affinity, population, trade, and Gross National Product (GNP). Chang, Shoemaker and

Brendlinger (1987) used a new approach to study international news coverage in the United

States by going beyond the description of media content. They placed media coverage of world affairs in a broader theoretical framework by examining some determinants that have been considered important in previous research. Using stepwise discriminant analysis, they identified four variables that contribute significantly to distinguishing between events that are covered in the

35 Top 10 World News Events 7

U.S. media and those that are not: normative deviance of an event, relevance to the United States, potential for social change, and geographical distance.

A recent study, using network analysis to examine the structure of international news flow and its determinants, reveals that the inequality in news flow between the core - the Western industrialized countries, and the periphery - most African, Asian, Latin American, and Oceanian countries (Kim & Barnett, 1996). This study indicates that the structure of international news flow is influenced by a country's economic development, the language(s) its people speak, its physical location, political freedom, and population.

A closer look at the different approaches to defining news in a global context will perhaps contribute to understanding some of the conflicting concepts in international news flow. Two typical approaches that have dominated the global controversy are the Western the-exceptional- makes-the-news view and the Third World development news philosophy. The former can be best exemplified by the pioneering study by Galtung and Ruge (1965) of what Norwegian editors thought was newsworthy for four newspapers in Norway. This study identifies a set of criteria of news values: News should be recent, intense, or splashy, unambiguous of interpretation, directly related to national interests, predictable but slightly unexpected, involving elite persons or countries, individualized or personalized, and negative or conflictual. The generalizability of their structural model is limited by the number of countries (four newspapers in Norwey) and the cases

(three international crises: the Congo and Cuba crises in the summer of 1960 and the Cyprus crisis of 1964) examined. However, Galtung and Ruge argue that their general theory is also applicable to most nations in the world. Many later studies have found that similar criteria are followed by the U.S. media and other industrialized nations (e.g., Edelstein, 1982; Ogan & Fair, 1984).

36 Top 10 World News Events 8

In contrast, the majority of the Third World countries have long definednews as that

which-contributes to social development. Although it is difficult to findan all-inclusive definition

of development news which covers the entire spectrum of socio-economic and cultural

development, this genre of reporting puts a great emphasis on work goals,success stories, and

positive role models (Aggarwala, 1978; Ogan; 1982). Robert Stevenson (1988,pp. 145-149)

gives development news another name, "protocol news," in which mediaare legitimately

mobilized to support development in all of diverse components.

Although news is wedded to the everyday world we live in, it is necessarilya different

kind of reality than the actual world (c.f. framing and social construction of reality). Theprocess

of newsmaking has been the theoretical focus of gatekeeping studies. Ina recent review of

gatekeeping research, Shoemaker (1991) critically examines theprocess of gatekeeping at five

different levels of analysis: the individual communication worker (e.g., attitudes, values), the

routines of the profession (e.g., deadlines, standardized news values, inverted pyramid style of reporting), social/institutional level (e.g., audiences, markets, other media), social system level

(e.g., culture, ideology). The similar theme is echoed in Shoemaker and Reese's (1991) effortto develop a comprehensive theory of influences on mass media content.

Of all the mediating factors affecting mass media content, the editors/reportersare the immediate decision-makers in determining what becomesnews, both domestic and global. Since the rankings of the top 10 world news events under studyare results of survey of editors and reporters in different countries, this research may shed new light on gatekeeping studies. In addition to some other social, institutional, and cultural factors, editorsare the main gatekeepers and decision-makers as to what is printed (or broadcast) as news. Top 10 World News Events 9

This study follows the general path of many previous studies reviewed in thepaper but slightly differs in significant ways. The vast majority of past studies have concentratedon comparing what is actually covered among different media systems in terms of world news reporting, particularly within a certain chosen time frame. Those studies typically exclude home news of the source media from their analysis since they define international news as either foreign to the country of the source media or involving at least another party in addition to the home country. Instead, this study focuses on what is ranked as important in world news events. What is deemed important will certainly be covered by the media, but what is covered by the media may not be considered to be of equal importance across media systems. To achieve that goal, a theoretical framework is developed under the umbrella of past research (see Figure 1). The model includes what are the predicted determinants of the rankings of news events and what are the possible explanations of cross-national variations in media coverage of global events. In the model, every country is expected to rank high events which take place within that countryor in which the country plays a part (i.e., self-centerness or ethnocentrism). Other factors whichmay influence the rankings of the importance of events are: (cultural and geographic) proximity or distance, power and world influence (eliteness) of the country, and so on. Thus in this model every country will pay more attention to its neighbors so that news in China tends to be more important to Japan than to the United States and Hong Kong shares more with Britain than it does with Canada. Within this framework, a lot of comparisons can be made across the countries.

Because the United States is the sole world power now, every media system is expected to pay more attention to events involving the United States. On the other hand, media in the United

States are expected to feature much more events originated in that country because the United

States considers itself to be the center of world politics and world media focus.

38 Top 10 World News Events 10

(Figure 1 about here)

This model applies to different media systems, whether they are free or controlled, but the

mechanisms of the various determinants operate differently. In a controlled media system suchas

the Chinese, the state power structure is more determinant than that in a free media system such

as that of the United States, while market forces are playing a subdued role in shaping the ultimate

media products in China. In a free media system such as the United States, media selection and

presentation of world events are more likely to be limited by market forces, audience factors and

peer pressure. In all authoritarian societies, the media may be closer to the state than-the market.

In all media systems, some universal values are at work so that it is possible to find some

consensus to a varying degree between different media contexts. In the last two decades,

revolutions in modern communication and satellite technologies have made cross-border

information flow much easier than before on the one hand, and have increased the costs of first-

hand gathering and circulation of information to formidable highs to media for most developing

nations. All this has perhaps made it necessary for most media systems to depend on a few

Western powers for world news. Therefore, cross-cultural differences may have been narrowed

down by the increasing cultural and information diffusion primarily dominated by the U.S.-led

Western cultures.

The final stage in the model is audience perception of news presented by the media. This

in turn affects the selection and presentation of news events by the media. Audience is an important factor for the media primarily because they are the ultimate consumers of all media products and they define the commercial interests of the media through the sales of advertising time/space. How audience perceives and responds to media content is the focus of media

33 Top 10 World News Events 11 reception studies, which has been the topic of some recent cross-national comparative scholarship

in international media research (e.g., Cohen et al., 1995; Jensen, 1998). However, the present

study focuses on the editorial side of the news production process and their variations within

different national and cultural settings.

Hypotheses and Research Questions

As has been proved in past studies, although mass media differ from each other from country to

country in their news values, there are some shared core values in their selection of news items from the vast reservoir of world events. Therefore, with the data we have in the study,we would like to find out in this study:

Research Question 1: How much do the media from different countries agree with each other in their rankings of top 10 world news events?

Different media in a single country may share more than with each other than they do with media from any other country since there may be some news values within the national, cultural and social context. Since data is available for two media sources at the national level for three

countries in the study, we want to test the hypothesis that:

Hypothesis 1: Media sources in a single country (i.e. the US, China, Japan) share more with each other than they do with media from any other country in their rankings of top world events.

Also included in the data is the annual survey by the Associated Press of international editors and subscribers outside of the US from about 40 countries about their opinion of the biggest news Top 10 World News Events 12 events of the past year. This is perhaps so far the only data available which covers such a wide range of countries. Although the survey samples cannot be claimed to be truly internationally representative, the results are expected to be the most metropolitan of all the surveys covered in the study. Thus the hypothesis,

Hypothesis 2: The Associated Press international survey of editors agrees the most with other media sources than the other media agree with each other.

A strong, persistent pattern has been found and reverberated by past studies in international news flow. The pattern is expected to be also true in the media's ranking of top world events. Many of the determinants of global news content are expected to exist in this study, too. However, the ranking of self, that is, the home country of the source media, has not been included in most of the past studies in international news flow because of the operational definition of international news discussed above. Self-centerness may be true with media in any national context. It is expected that all countries will be likely to consider news stories in relation to itself to be more important and newsworthy than others. So,

Hypothesis 3: Every media source tends to rank events which involves the source country as a participant more important than media from other countries rank the same events.

Although this can be true with media in every country, it is expected to be particularly so with the

Unites States. Now as the sole superpower in the post-cold war era, the United States will dominate world affairs and world politics. The United States has been considered to be self- centered and ethnocentric in its foreign policy and social research (e.g., Wiarda, 1985) and this is Top 10 World News Events 13 equally true with media and audience response to foreign news (Hoge, 1997). So it is hypothesized that:

Hypothesis 4: Media in the United States tend to rank considerably more U.S. originated or U.S. related news stories to be more important than any media from other nations will do with news about itself.

Because-of the dominant role the United States plays in world affairs, the United States will stand out among all countries in world news. So

Hypothesis 5: The United States stands out more than any other country in the rankings of world news as a participant country among all nations.

And we try to answer these research questions:

Research Question 2: What are the top 10 countries that are most frequently ranked by the media in world newsmaking?

Geographically speaking, all countries will pay more attention to its neighbors in reporting world news. In other words, geographical location is an important determinant in all media's rankings of top 10 world events. Therefore,

Hypothesis 6: All countries are more likely to rank events involving their region more important than others.

42 Top 10 World News Events 14

In addition to examining the rankings of news in terms of geographical location, mass media in

each country may pay more attention to events in certain countries in a region instead of others.

So it is also interesting to find out:

Research Question 3: What are the top 5 countries in the rankings of top world events by the different media?

News values are not only determined by the countries the media tend to pay attention to, but also by the types of stories they are more likely to report. Thus another question to be addressed is:

Research Question 4: What are the types of news stories that are ranked important by the different media?

Finally, mass media across all nations may display some persistent patterns and frames in reporting different regions and countries in the world. Killings in one region may have a different connotation to the media from the similar events in others.

Research Question 5: What are some of the persistent images that the countries in the world tend to be projected by the media in their rankings of top world events?

Method and Data Collection

What makes data collection difficult is the availability of data sources about media ranking of world events in the past 10 years. Most media in the majority of countries do not do the annual ranking of top 10 world news events and media in some countries do the ranking, but not on a regular basis. In the study, data is collected in 11 media sources representing eight countries in Top 10 World News Events 15 their ranking of top 10 world news stories from 1988 to 1998. Data is collected for 11 years for seven of the media sources and data is available for 5 to 10 years for the rest of the media. These media are the Associated Press (AP) (11 years) and United Press International (UPI) (8 years),

Xinhua News Agency (10 years) and China Daily in China, Jiji Press Limited (11 years) and

Kyodo News Service (11 years) in Japan, Asiaweek (11 years) in Hong Kong, Gemini News

Service (11 years) in the UK, Jeune Afrique (7 years) in France, La Nacion (11 years) in Costa

Rica, Newswatch (5 years) in Nigeria. Data for less than 5 years is available for some other countries but is excluded from comparisons. Data about the ranking of top 10 world news events from Asiaweek, Gemini, Jeune Afrique, La Nacion,Newswatch is collected from the annual survey of editors of those news media by World Press Review, a US-based monthly news

magazine published by The Stanley Foundation in New York.Also available in the data is the annual survey by the Associated Press of international editors in about 40 countries outside of the

US for 11 years.

Of the media included in the study, the Associated Press has gained its reputation for covering the world and the United Press International has been a valuable source of information about world news for many of its global subscribers. Xinhua News Agency is the official Chinese news organization and represents the mouthpiece of the Chinese government while China Daily is the semi-official national English-language newspaper with an orientation to non-Chinese readers.

In Japan, Jiji and Kyodo are the two biggest and most influential news services. Asiaweek is a

Hong Kong-based news magazine with a heavy focus on Asia. Although Gemini News Service and Jeune Afrique are located in London and Paris respectively, they have a strong orientation toward Third World countries, particularly in Africa. In fact, Jeune Afrique literally means African youth. Therefore, Gemini and Jeune Afrique do not belong to the mainstream media in Britain and 44 Top 10 World News Events 16

France and should not be interpreted as such. However, this may have an added advantage since

they provide the opportunity to see whether these marginal media sources display similarpatterns

as mainstream media in other countries, to which all the rest belong in the list. Both Newswatch

and La Nacion constitute reputable media sources in Nigeria and Costa Rica.

Data Coding Procedures and Findings

The news items are coded by the author in multiple ways for inter-media comparison. Table 1

provides answers to Research Question 1 and to test Hypothesis 1. In coding news items for

Table 1, the ranking of 10 news items each year by one news source is compared with that of the

other news source for all the 11 media. When one news event is both included in the two media

under comparison, the agreement is coded as one. Thus agreement in their rankings of the top ten

events range theoretically from 0 (the lowest) to 10 (the highest) out of ten news items. The

actual numbers range from 0 between Asicrweek and Gemini News Service in 1996 to 8.5 between

Jiji and the AP poll of international editors in 1994. In some instances, two related eventsare treated as one item by one news source but receive separate mentions by another. For example, the North Korea nuclear crisis and the death of Kim II Sung are mentioned as one story by the AP international poll but are listed as two events by Jiji Press in 1994. Whenever this happens, the agreement between the two media on those items are calculated as (1+2)/2=1.5. Therefore half points exist in some comparisons. Each value of agreement in each of the years comparedare added to arrive at a total, which is then divided by the number of years available for comparison.

This mean is listed as the general between-media agreement in Table 1. Standard deviationsare in parentheses. Cross-year examination of the between-year agreements indicates no highly skewed longitudinal patterns. Since data are available only for one year for comparison between China

4a Top 10 World News Events 17

Daily and Newswatch, the cell is not treated as a reliable result and is thus excluded for succeeding calculations. As Table 1 shows, the agreement varies from 2.90 between Xinhua and

AP to 7.36 between Jiji and Kyodo. Thus Table 1 provides answers to Research Question 1- how much each news source agree with the other in terms of its means over the years under study.

(Insert Table 1 about here)

Hypothesis 1 finds support in the findings in Table 1: agreement between AP and UPI from the

United States is a mean of 7.13 out of ten stories; Xinhua and China Daily from China share a mean of 6.13 while the consensus between Jiji Press Limited and Kyodo News Service from Japan reaches a mean of 7.36 among 10 items. All three numbers exceed any of the means between the six media and any other listed news source. This indicates that in all three nations media from the same national setting indeed share more than they do with any medium from another national context. This finding suggests that media within a single nation share more core values than they do with media from other nations.

The first research question, how much the media agree with each other, if at all, also finds clearer answers in Table 2, which shows the mean of consensus among 10 items between the listed news source and other media in the study.

(Insert Table 2 about here)

In calculating Table 2, the unweighted mean, instead the weighted one, is used since the latter may skew the result toward the direction of the media whose data are available for all of the

11 years than those media for which data are included only for a limited number of years. The

46 Top 10 World News Events 18

standard procedure for the calculation of the unweighted mean of agreement between any single

news source and the other media in the list is the sum of all the means of agreement between the

specific media and the seven other media representing seven other nations listed in Table 1, then

divided by seven. Since data included in the analysis represent eight nations among 11 media

sources, only one news source is chosen out of each of the three countries where two media are

listed - the United States, China and Japan. The Associated Press, Xinhua News Agency, and

Kyodo News Service are used in the calculation instead of the other three since the former three

all have more subscribers both nationally and internationally and are perceived to be more

influential in the three countries respectively. The Associated Press annual international poll is

excluded for the reason that this does not represent any single nation. However, the overall mean

is also calculated for the AP international poll to show how much the poll of international editors

generally agrees with the media from the various nations.

To sum up, the mean of means of between-media agreement is calculated by adding up the

means of agreement between the calculated news source and the rest in the group of AP, Xinhua,

Kyodo, Asiaweek, Gemini, Jenne Afrique, La Nacion, and Newswatch, then divided by seven.

Although they are not chosen to represent their countries of origin, UPI, China Daily, and Jiji

Press are also calculated by following the above formula. The difference with these three is that in

their calculations, the media from their countries are excluded because otherwise the means would

be significantly increased for these three because of the inclusion of the news source from their

countries, as these media are expected to agree more with the media source in the same national

setting, as shown by Table 1. Others may argue that the choice of UPI instead of AP and China

Daily instead of Xinhua may generate different findings and therefore make the results of Table 2

controversial to interpret. As a matter of fact, the choice of the other news media to replace AP, Top 10 World News Events 19

Xinhua or Kyodo will produce a different mean, but only slightly, and the alternative does notat all change the patterns of findings in Table 2. For example, were UPI, China Daily and Jiji put in the place of AP, Xinhua and Kyodo in the above calculation, the results would be a mean of 3.73 and standard deviation of 0.64 for Asiaweek, and a mean of 4A3 and standard deviation of 0.50 for Gemini News Service. The same test has been done with all the other media and no significant deviation from the listed findings in Table 2 has been determined.

From Table 2, we can see more obviously to what extent each of the media generally

agrees with the others. The Associated Press agrees the least with its international counterparts

and thus can be said to be the most provincial one in its evaluation of world events if

provincialism is defined as how much one sees eye in eye with others. Next on the list are

Asiaweek in Hong Kong and La NaciOn in Costa Rica. Indeed, the AP annual survey of international editors in about 40 countries outside of the United States is more international than any of the media in a single country context. Thus Hypothesis 2 is supported. We can conclude that the AP international poll represents a more global view on world events, since the number of responding international editors range from 84 to 139 editors outside of the US in about 40

countries. No specific mention is made by AP of the regional locations of these countries.

However, it could hardly be said that this view unbiasedly represents world editors. It would bea daunting task, if not impossible, to find a truly representative view of editors worldwide.

Hypothesis 3 posits that media from all countries tend to pay more attention to self-related events, which are defined as news events which either take place within the national boundary of the media origin or directly involve the countries of the source media. This is true with the two

US media - AP and UPI, but not with the other media. However, analyzed in the other way round to see what are the likely media to mention events related to a particular country, the data show

48 Top 10 World News Events 20

that events that involve a particular country are most likely to be mentioned, if at all, by the media

from that particular country with the exception of the Japanese news sources and the Costa Rican

press. As mentioned just before, the US media are the most self-centered in their ranking of the

top 10. This is also true with Xinhua, China Daily, Gemini, Jeune Afrique, and Newswatch - if

self-centerness is defined as attention to oneself. Where events are mentioned in relation to the

countries from which the above media come from, they are more likely to-appear in the media of

the country origin. Proportionally, Xinhua devotes 19.0% and China Daily 14.0% to China,

Asiaweek 3.6% to Hong Kong, and Newswatch 4.0% to Nigeria whereas Hong Kong and Nigeria

are seldom mentioned by others. These percentages rank higher than those of the same countries

by any other media. Noticeably, Gemini and Jeune Afrique, both marginalized media in countries

of their physical location, also display the same pattern - 8.2% of Gemini and 3.8% of Jeune

Afrique stories originate from their origin countries (UK and France) while those same two

countries only infrequently hit the top 10 list of media from other countries. As Table 3 indicates,

Gemini's attention to the UK is the highest of all media. In the case of France, the next highest

mention is by Japan's Kyoto (1.8%). Therefore, even non-mainstream media can find stories

relevant to their interest in the mainstream society. In contrast, La Nacion makes no direct

mention of Costa Rica at all while Jiji and Kyodo's attention to Japan-related stories is exceeded

by that of Hong Kong's Asiaweek and the two media from China. Thus Hypothesis 3 is only true

with media from six of the eight countries.

As expected in Hypothesis 4, the AP stories are predominantly US or US-related. 73.6%

of all the stories that are ranked top 10 in the 11 years involve events that take place within the

US boundary or in which the United States is a major player (See Table 3). This is also true,

although to a lesser degree, with the UPI, which devotes 56.3% of its top 10 to US-related

43 Top 10 World News Events 21 stories. It seems that world events hardly interest the American press unless the U.S. is directly involved. Although the same is also observed with media from some other countries, such as

China's Xinhua Agency which ranks 19.0% of China-related events in the world top 10, they all pale before the U.S. media in this pattern.

(Insert Table 3 about here)

Table 3 lists the top 10 individual countries which are mentioned most by the media in terms of

frequency: the U.S., Russia, China, Israel-Palestine, South Africa, the UK, Yugoslavia, Iraq,

Japan, and Iran. The mean for each nation is calculated by the total number of stories mentioning

of that nation divided by the overall number of stories from the Associated Press, Xinhua News

Agency, Kyodo News Service, Asicrweek, Gemini News Service, Jeune Afrique, La Nacion, and

Newswatch. The total number of stories in this analysis comes to 780 from the eight media. The

above procedure is adopted for the same rationale assumed in calculating for Table 2. As the

findings show, the United States catches the attention of all media in the study, with a mean of

23.8% (21.9% if unweighted) and significantly taking up a larger percentage of global focus than

any other single country in the list. The United States comes at the top in all single country

profiles with the AP, UPI, Kyodo and China Daily, Asicrweek, Gemini, Jeune Afrique, La Nacion,

while it comes the second place with Xinhua (second after China and tied with Russia) and

Newswatch (after South Africa). Therefore, Hypothesis 5 is proved to be true. This is even true

when AP is excluded from the calculation. As a comparison to the above findings, the top 10

most-mentioned countries by the AP international poll are the US, Russia, Israel-Palestine, the

UK, Yugoslavia, South Africa, Iraq, Iran, China, Germany and India (the actual result is 11

because the last three are tied). 50 Top 10 World News Events 22

Table 4 tabulates the percentage of stories devoted to geographical locations by eachnews

source. Hypothesis 6, which predicts that all media are likely to pay more attention to stories in

their regions, is true with all the media except Jeune Afrique and Gemini News Service. This

exception is no surprise in consideration of the fact that although both are located in Europe

(Paris and London respectively), they are primarily oriented toward Africa and do not belong to

the mainstream media in their location countries (which would be AFP and Reuters). Major

subscribers to Jeune Afrique and Gemini News Service are either in Africa or identified with

Africa. Therefore, the finding their main attention is shifted toward Africa cannot be said to be

deviating from the general pattern. Thus with these two media, psychological or cultural

identification is a more important factor than geographic location of the media. Even so, they are not isolated from Europe, which comes second in both media. With the other media, the general pattern seems to be obvious: 70.9% and 56.3% of the stories by AP and UPI respectively give prominence to North America (predominantly the US); Xinhua (39%), China Daily (34%),

Asiaweek (58.2%), Jiji Press Ltd. (40.9%) and Kyodo News Service (36.4%) pay the most attention to the Asia-Pacific area; Latin America, though downplayed by all other media, tops the list of news items with the Costa Rica-based La Nacion (20%) while Newswatch of Nigeria puts

Africa on top of its agenda (34%).

(Insert Table 4 about here)

The pattern is demonstrated in Table 5 in another way, which answers Research Question

3 - what are the top five mentions by each media source. There are some ties in the ranking and the pattern is obscured with Jeune Afrique, La Nacion, and Newswatch because of their diversified attention to a larger number of countries. Noticeably, the United States tops the

51 Top 10 World News Events 23

agenda of most media and occupies the second place of the rest. Russia gets the attention of all media, irrespective of their national origins with the exception of Asiaweek, which is dominated by

Asia-Pacific news.

A strikingly similarity can be observed in Tables 3, 4, and 5 between the two media in the

United States, China, and Japan - media from the same country demonstrate the same pattern in the amount of attention they pay to regions and countries in the world. The only slight difference between Xinhua and China Daily may be attributed to the small number of years of data from

China Daily (only 5 years). This points to some consistent and consensual pattern among media behavior within a single national context in responding to world events.

News values are not only determined by the focus on regions but by attention to specific types of news events as well. Table 6 provides answers to Research Question 4, what are the types of news each news source tends to pay attention to. From the table, it can be easily seen that

all media universally pay a significant amount of attention to internal politics of some major

countries (e.g., U.S. domestic politics, political transitions in Russia, move toward democracy in

South Africa), international diplomacy (e.g., the Middle East peace process, international

agreements, the Northern Ireland Peace negotiations), political campaigns and elections, wars,

conflicts and military affairs. This