VOLUME 18, ISSUE 1, PAGES 88–105 (2017) Criminology, Criminal Justice, Law & Society

E-ISSN 2332-886X Available online at https://ccjls.scholasticahq.com/

What’s Trending? #SexualAssault: An Exploratory Study of Social Media Coverage of Teen Sexual Assaults

Ashley Wellman, Frances Reddington, and Karlie Clark University of Central Missouri

A B S T R A C T A N D A R T I C L E I N F O R M A T I O N

Social media play a significant role in the lives of many, particularly teenagers. For heavy users of social media, great significance is attributed to the messages posted in the virtual world. In the aftermath of sexual assault, victims, offenders, friends, family, the community, and virtual strangers have the ability to weigh in on the assault. Little research has explored these societal reactions on social media. The current exploratory, qualitative study examines social media responses to four highly publicized cases of teenage sexual assault: Daisy Coleman, Jane Doe, Audrie Pott, and Jada. Five major themes were identified via thematic analysis, including victim blaming/shaming, offender support, family/survivor utilization, victim support, and offender blaming. A thematic map, definitions, and examples of these themes are provided within. Consistent with commonly held rape myth beliefs, victim blaming/shaming appeared as the most common reaction on social media, with a large parallel response of offender support. Victim support emerged as a popular theme only after family members and the survivor spoke out, facts of the rape emerged, and media attention grew. The theme of offender blame was the most difficult to find amid the messages targeting the victim. The discussion highlights the significance of major trends, relationships among themes, and the potential repercussions of such social media presentations. Additional recommendations for education on the reality of sexual assault and awareness of healthy and responsible social media usage are disclosed.

Article History: Keywords: sexual assault, social media, victimization, teens, rape myths

Received 28 March 2016 Received in revised form 28 November 2016 © 2017 Criminology, Criminal Justice, Law & Society and The Western Society of Criminology Accepted 04 January 2017 Hosting by Scholastica. All rights reserved.

Although research demonstrates that sexual continued support of rape myths by survivors, their assault victimization can occur at any age (Kilpatrick, support systems, law enforcement officials, and the Edmunds, & Seymour, 1992; Tjaden & Thoennes, general public may be a major reason for this lack of 2000), younger individuals are at an increased risk. In disclosure. fact, 79% of sexual assaults are perpetrated against Social media have become a way for teenagers to victims younger than 24 years of age, while ages 12 to learn of and pass judgement about sexual assault, as 17 account for 32.8% of cases (Office for Victims of teens account for a large proportion of social media Crime, 2014). Rape continues to be the least reported consumers. Ninety percent of teens use social media of all crimes (Truman & Langton, 2015), and the daily, while 25% state they are using it constantly

Corresponding author: Ashley Wellman, Humphrey 300, University of Central Missouri, Warrensburg, MO 64093, United States. Email: [email protected]. SOCIAL MEDIA COVERAGE OF TEEN SEXUAL ASSAULTS 89 throughout the day (Lenhart, 2015). Moreover, for report that 25 to 35% of respondents support rape many teenagers, social media have become more than myths (Lonsway & Fitzgerald, 1994). These attitudes just a way to connect. It has become a tool to define that directly endorse victim blaming have a dramatic one’s self-worth and to fulfill an emotional need (Kim effect on the pervasiveness of rape myths (Suarez & & Lee, 2011; Rosen, Whaling, Carrier, & Cheever, Gaddalla, 2010). Although many people may be 2013; Sas, Dix, Hart, & Su, 2009). The purpose of this hesitant to blame the victim directly, it is common for exploratory, qualitative study is to identify and explore respondents to attribute blame to the victim’s actions major themes that are present within the context of such as drinking, flirtatious behavior, or clothing social media reactions to teenage sexual assault. The choice (McMahon, 2010). Among college students, research utilizes four highly publicized sexual assault Buddie and Miller (2001) found that the majority of cases: Daisy Coleman, Jane Doe, Audrie Pott, and their sample subscribed to at least some of these Jada. The literature review provides an overview of myths. rape myth acceptance, rape myths in the media, and Overwhelmingly, studies have found that men the impact of these myths on survivors. Literature support pro-rape attitudes and are quicker to adopt continues with teen social media usage, the impact on rape myth beliefs than women (Brady, Chrisler, wellbeing, and the coverage of sexual assault on such Hosdale, Osowiecki, & Veal, 1991; Check & platforms. The qualitative methodology, case Malamuth, 1983; Lonsway & Fitzgerald, 1994; summaries, and thematic development are described. Russell, 1990; Suarez & Gaddalla, 2010; Whatlet, The results provide an overview of social media 1996). Suarez and Gaddalla (2010), in a meta-analysis, responses to these cases by theme, each highlighted found that oppressive attitudes towards women, sexist with social media messages. A final reflection details beliefs, and approval of interpersonal violence were the reality of sexual assault, repercussions that can highly predictive of rape myth acceptance. Social develop when sexual assault becomes fodder for social position may also influence one’s understanding of media dissection, and the need for further education on these misinformed stances on sexual assault. safe social media behavior. Membership into an elite group, such as an athletic team, military branch, or fraternal organization, is Literature Review associated with a higher level of rape myth acceptance (Crosset, Ptackek, McDonald, & Benedict, 1996; Koss Rape Myth Acceptance & Cleveland, 1996; Suarez & Gaddalla, 2010). Burt (1980) was one of the pioneers of defining Effects of Rape Myths on Sexual Assault Survivors and measuring the impact of rape myths, which are Research recognizes that survivors are often stereotypical false beliefs about rape. These myths revictimized by the lack of social support they receive place responsibility with the victim, creating an postrape (Yamawaki, Darby, & Queiroz, 2007). One antagonistic environment for survivors of sexual of the most significant sources of judgment can come assault. Accountability for the perpetrator is often from the victim’s social network (Ullman, 1996). By minimized by rape myths that attribute the sexual displaying an adherence to rape myths, friends and assault to various factors, from an uncontrollable sex family demonstrate the cultural belief that the blame drive to alcohol use. Additionally, these myths often for sexual assault lies with the victim (Burt, 1980). imply that a “certain kind of woman” gets raped, that Victim-blaming tends to be even more common when women’s behavior and clothes contribute to their rape, the perpetrator is an acquaintance instead of a stranger and that many women lie about their victimization (Abrams, Viki, Masser, & Bohner, 2003; Monson, (Lonsway & Fitzgerald, 1994). Examples of such Langhinrichsen-Rohling, & Binderup, 2000) or when myths include “she is saying it was rape because she the victim is a member of a minority group (Tillman, wants to protect her reputation,” “she asked for it by Bryant-Davis, Smith, & Marks, 2010). wearing those clothes,” and “she had it coming Survivors often display these rape myth beliefs because she was drinking.” These myths help to through expressions of self-blame, guilt, and difficulty remove blame from the offender (Suarez & Gaddalla, defining their assault as rape, thus often choosing to 2010). As a result, these commonly held beliefs remain quiet in fear they will not be believed or contribute to a denial of injury and a lack of justice for supported (Finkelson & Oswalt, 1995; Heath, Lynch, those victimized, and they negate blaming the Fritch, McArthur, & Smith, 2011; Starzynsky, perpetrator. Ullman, Filipas, & Townsend, 2005). Scholars have Researchers have explored adherence to these found that those who are raped by an acquaintance and ideas and potential repercussions, often measuring possess a belief in rape myths are less likely to report attitudes via rape myth acceptance scales (Burt, 1980; their assault to law enforcement (Heath, Lynch, Fritch, Payne, Lonsway, & Fitzgerald, 1999). Researchers & Wong, 2013). Minority women are more likely to

Criminology, Criminal Justice, Law & Society – Volume 18, Issue 1 90 WELLMAN, REDDINGTON, & ROSE subscribe to rape myths and to internalize their assault, online daily; half of these teenagers go online several keeping the rape to themselves (Tillman et al., 2010; times a day, and almost one out of four teens rate their Heath et al., 2013). Survivors who report a lack of online usage as constant. Much of this online activity support are also likely to avoid seeking prosecution of comes in the form of social media. Seventy-one the rapist (Anders & Christopher, 2011). percent of teens say they are on Facebook, over half use Instagram, 41% use Snapchat, and 33% use Presentation of Rape Myths in the Media Twitter (Lenhart, 2015). The media have reinforced rape myth beliefs. When exploring personality, popularity, and self- Research notes that the media have a significant esteem of Facebook users, Zywica and Danowski influence on consumers’ attitudes (Bryant & Oliver, (2008) found powerful trends of social enhancement 2009). Cultivation theory argues that the way media and social compensation. Introverts with low self- portray a particular event or topic can greatly influence esteem were likely to use social media as a venue to their audiences’ beliefs (Gerbner & Gross, 1976). appear more popular and involved, appearing to be Specifically, higher rates of media consumption have more comfortable sharing private information and been linked to higher rates of rape myth acceptance expressing themselves online (Amichai-Hamburger, (Kahlor & Morrison, 2007). Wainapel, & Fox, 2002). These introverted individuals Primetime depictions of sexual assault have will often reach out to social media for an alternative consistently perpetuated rape myths (Cuklanz, 1999). social group (Barker, 2009). Extroverts with higher In a content analysis of primetime television dramas, self-esteem used Facebook to enhance their Brinson (1992) found that among portrayals of sexual popularity, appearing to be popular in both realms assault, 46% of the time women were depicted as (Zywica & Danowski, 2008). These highly confident “asking for it,” 42% of the incidents alluded that the extroverts express communicating with their peer woman “wanted” to be raped, and 38% portrayed a group as the main reason they engage in social victim who was lying about the assault. In soap operas, networking sites (Barker, 2009). rape references increased 10 times over 10 years, Self-presentation becomes a very important perhaps due to popular media coverage of rape trials element of social media, as users want to be viewed as (Greenberg & Hofschire, 2000). socially desirable. Self-affirmation and a desire to be In the print media, headlines and article contents viewed as worthy may guide many users’ behaviors can impact readers (Galeste, Fradella, & Vogel, 2012). and decisions on social media. People want to be liked, For example, when examining coverage of the Kobe and for many, something as simple as one’s number of Bryant sexual assault case, 10% of online headlines virtual “friends” is positively related to the user's self- endorsed a rape myth, while 65.4% of the stories esteem, happiness, and perceived social value (Kim & contained at least one rape myth. One article included Lee, 2011; Rosen et al., 2013). Users develop profiles 15 myth endorsing statements. Only 14% of the that are typically positive in nature, thus eliciting articles included a negative comment about the positive responses from those in their network (Sas et accused’s character (Franiuk, Seefelt, Cepress, & al., 2009). When comments are unflattering or Vadello, 2008). Scholars also exposed college unsupportive, many platforms allow users to delete students to myth-endorsing and non-myth headlines. messages and friends from their online social network Male students exposed to the myth-endorsing (Toma & Hancock, 2013). Mehdizadeh’s (2010) headlines were more likely to hold these rape- results suggest that individuals who are more supportive attitudes than female students (Franiuk, narcissistic and have lower self-esteem were more Seefelt, & Vadello, 2008). Students who were exposed likely to frequently use Facebook and provide self- to an article endorsing rape myths were likely to promotional content. However, this desire to manage believe the defendant was innocent, while those who one’s virtual impression may be linked to an increased were exposed to a myth-challenging article were more risk for major depression (Romer, Bagdasarov, & likely to support the victim’s allegation (Franiuk, More, 2013; Rosen et al., 2013; Wilcox & Stephen, Seefelt, Cepress, & Vadello, 2008). Research gives 2013; Ybarra, Alexander, & Mitchell, 2005). credence that messages related to sexual assault that There has been a growing trend of rape appear in the media, including social media, will disclosures online, documentation of the assault being greatly impact the beliefs and understanding of those shared by others on social media, and societal virtual who absorb these messages. expressions of victim blaming and shaming. There also have been a number of reported teen suicides after Teens and Social Media the use of social media following their sexual assaults Social media play an important part in teenage (Campbell, 2013). Rape is motivated by power and communication. According to the Pew Research dominance, and thus, when perpetrators share images Center, over nine out of 10 teens (ages 13 – 17) go of the assault on social media, power and dominance

Criminology, Criminal Justice, Law & Society – Volume 18, Issue 1 SOCIAL MEDIA COVERAGE OF TEEN SEXUAL ASSAULTS 91 over the victim occurs repeatedly (Fuchs, Kelley, & Twitter, and similar terms were entered into Facebook Lubin, 2013). Additionally, the problem of victim to search additional social media messages. blaming is intensified via social media networks that To allow for a manageable review of materials, reinforce one another’s blaming techniques; thus, as search parameters were established. Posts on both the assault is shared repeatedly through social media Twitter and Facebook were reviewed from the date of avenues, the shame can become worse than the the assault to two years following the assault. The original assault (Fuchs et al., 2013). review focused on one comment and/or message from each individual user in this timeframe, with the focus Methodology being on the first message from a particular username. With each of the four cases, the researchers reviewed This qualitative study seeks to understand how the approximately 500 posts. In accordance with thematic public responds via social media to highly publicized analysis, the goal of the research was not to develop cases of teen sexual assault. quantifiable results, but instead was designed to identify and report common trends amongst the data in Case Selection the form of theme development (Braun & Clark, The current study focuses on Maryville’s Daisy 2006). After individual familiarization with the social Coleman, Steubenville’s Jane Doe, Saratoga’s Audrie media responses, each researcher coded messages, Pott, and Houston’s Jada. These cases were selected condensed their codes into themes, and developed based on similarity of case details and the parallel level individual thematic maps. Upon a review of the of media attention each received. Each of these cases thematic maps, the three researchers collectively involved teen victims with juvenile offenders who revised, defined, and operationalized each theme were acquaintances; alcohol was a factor in each case; (Braun & Clark, 2006) and were able to develop a all originated in a small town; each included holistic thematic map to organize the data (see Figure documentation and/or videos of the assault as evidence 1, which demonstrates thematic coding and the rapes did occur; and all offenders were popular relationships within the data). This inductive approach athletes. These cases acquired rapid, local attention resulted in five broad themes including victim before they reached the national level, thus spurring blaming/shaming, offender support, family/survivor popularity and controversy via news outlets and social utilization, victim support, and offender blaming. The media. analysis of these themes includes overall theme presentation, the function of each theme and the Data Collection & Analysis overall effects of such trends (Braun & Clarke, 2006; Researchers will now detail four cases which Clarke & Kitzinger, 2004). were analyzed using a thematic analysis. The goal was Case summaries, major themes, examples of to explore the content of social media messages social media messages, and the larger relationships following a teenage sexual assault. This approach amongst the themes and case facts are detailed within. allowed the researchers to make comparisons, extract Due to the controversial and potentially offensive commonalities, and look for unique occurrences (Yin, nature of the posts, all names and identifiers have been 2003). After an extensive review of news stories excluded to promote anonymity of the original 1 surrounding each individual case, the researchers source. None of the messages were corrected for turned to popular social media sites to explore social grammar or dialect. reactions to the incidents. Twitter and Facebook emerged as the most popular and publicly viewed Case Summaries networking sites and, therefore, were the main sources Daisy Coleman: As Diaz and Effron (2014) of information and examples for this study. reported on ABC News, 14-year-old Daisy Coleman of To begin, each researcher used general search Maryville, Missouri was the victim of a rape by 17- terms including the victims’ names and/or case name. year-old Matthew Barnett. A freshman cheerleader For example, in the Steubenville case, the victim’s and senior football player at Maryville High School, name was not made public, so “Steubenville rape” was the two teens were acquaintances. Coleman and a used as an initial search term; yet, in the case of Audrie friend were drinking and texted Barnett, who then Pott, the researchers began with “Audrie Pott” as the picked the girls up at her home. At a party hosted by search term because her name was made public. As the Barnett, Coleman consumed a drink provided by him original search progressed, additional terms emerged, and had no subsequent memory. An incoherent thus expanding the search to include more case related Coleman was raped by Barnett while a friend recorded data. #JadaPose, #JusticeForDaisy, and the assault (Kemp, 2013). The boys left Daisy in her #SteubenvilleRape were common hashtags used on front yard in below freezing temperatures in little

Criminology, Criminal Justice, Law & Society – Volume 18, Issue 1 92 WELLMAN, REDDINGTON, & ROSE clothing. Her mother found her and took her to the allegations against Matthew Barnett. Charges against emergency room. A rape kit revealed that she had been him were eventually dropped (Diaz & Effron, 2014), assaulted. and a special prosecutor was appointed to the case. Barnett was initially charged with sexual assault Barnett pled guilty to a misdemeanor charge of child and child endangerment (Diaz & Effron, 2014). Once endangerment. Daisy’s mother lost her job, and her charges were made public, Coleman and her family brother was severely bullied. Daisy admitted that she began to endure intense harassment. In addition to attempted to take her life on at least two occasions. being a popular football star, Barnett’s grandfather Shortly after the Coleman’s left Maryville, their house was a former state representative and state trooper was “mysteriously” burned to the ground (Caulfield, (Associated Press, 2014). Many refused to believe the 2013).

Figure 1. Thematic Map

Jane Doe: On August 11, 2012 a 16-year-old girl & Schweber, 2012). Mays, Richmond, the victim, and became the victim in a highly publicized rape case the witness were in his car when he recorded Mays known as “the Steubenville, Ohio Rape.” Trent Mays assaulting the incoherent victim, stating she would not and Ma’lik Richmond, popular football players at be able to remember it. He admits to sharing the video Steubenville High, were identified as the two teen with a friend (Macur & Schweber, 2012). offenders. At a party that evening, witnesses report the At the third party, witnesses described the victim victim became highly intoxicated early; she needed as unable to stand or walk and “sleeping” (Macur & help walking and had a hard time making conversation Schweber, 2012). Mays exposed himself to initiate (Macur & Schweber, 2012). A baseball player dared oral sex. At the same time, Richmond stood behind the others to urinate on the incapacitated victim. Along unresponsive victim as he penetrated her with his with other football players, Mays and Richmond fingers. A friend of Mays’s captured and shared photos carried the victim to a second party, held by a football of these events with several others. The friend claimed player who later served as a testifying witness (Macur he told Mays to stop in fear that Mays would face

Criminology, Criminal Justice, Law & Society – Volume 18, Issue 1 SOCIAL MEDIA COVERAGE OF TEEN SEXUAL ASSAULTS 93 consequences. Mays replied, “It’s all right. Don’t Jada passed out in minimal clothing surfaced on social worry,” and continued (Macur & Schweber, 2012, media with the hashtag #JadaPose. Quickly others para. 50). started mimicking the pose and posting their photos After disclosing incomplete memories with her online, prompting Jada and her mother to file a police parents, numerous pictures, videos, and comments report. circulating on social media and text messages told a Months later, a 16-year-old male classmate more complete story (Macur & Schweber, 2012). was arrested and charged with sexual assault (Dahl, Evidence was handed over to police. It was too late to 2014). Four days later after the first arrest, 19-year-old perform a rape kit. Mays and Richmond were arrested Clinton Onyeahialam, turned himself into authorities several days later (Macur & Schweber, 2012). Police regarding Jada’s rape. Onyeahialam was charged with struggled to build a case as witnesses reported being two counts of sexual assault of a child, as authorities afraid, and many rallied around the offenders. Police stated there is evidence Jada was not his only victim recovered two photographs of the naked, passed out that night (Dahl, 2014). Despite requests for her name victim on Mays’ cell phone. Both Mays and Richmond to be withheld from the media, Jada decided to speak were charged as juveniles with rape and kidnapping. out after her identity was shared online (Stewart, The victim has struggled with socializing and 2014). Jada stated that she did not want to hide and depression, refusing to attend school. The victim and wanted to address rape culture in our society to prevent family were threatened, friends stopped other teens from experiencing the same humiliation communicating, and parents forbid their children to that she has endured. associate with the victim (Macur & Schweber, 2012). Audrie Pott: On September 2, 2012, 15-year-old Results Audrie Pott from Saratoga, California, was raped. Audrie and a friend began drinking while waiting for Victim blaming/shaming, offender support, friends. Witnesses say Audrie was already drunk when family/survivor utilization, victim support and peers arrived, including three 16-year-old males offender blaming emerged as predominant themes in (Burleigh, 2013). The boys took an unresponsive these cases. The messages that originated shortly after Audrie to a room, where they removed her clothes, the rapes were overwhelmingly in support of the drew on her skin with markers, digitally penetrated accused and blamed or shamed the victim. This trend her, and photographed each other violating her body continued to be the most pervasive even as national (Burleigh, 2013). media attention grew and global social media The following morning, Audrie woke up with no responses were made. The themes are not mutually clothes on and no recollection of what happened. exclusive, as some posts had multiple themes present. Audrie later communicated with the three boys on For example, in the Steubenville case of Jane Doe, one Facebook. She learned that they took nude tweet encompassed concepts consistent with a victim photographs of her, which they claimed were deleted blaming and an offender support theme. The tweet (Burleigh, 2013). Two days later, the photos circulated read, “Be responsible for your actions ladies before around school. Audrie’s friends noticed that she had your drunken decisions ruin innocent lives. #rape cuts on her arms and was skipping classes. Audrie #Steubenville” (Respondent 1, March 17, 2013, stated to peers that her life and reputation were ruined. [Twitter]). On September 10, 2012, just a few days after her assault, Audrie hanged herself. Victim Blaming/Shaming Audrie’s friend took information about the events Victim blaming/shaming was the most prominent preceding Audrie’s suicide to the school board theme observed in these cases. This theme included (Burleigh, 2013). On April 11, 2013, all three boys any subscription to the rape myth that the victims’ were arrested on suspicion of committing two felonies actions led to the assault; thus, they should be held and one misdemeanor and charged as juveniles (Sulek, accountable. Blaming the assault on the victim’s Salonga, & Gomez, 2013). Two of the boys received behavior, their drinking or promiscuity, would be 30-day sentences to be served on the weekend, and the included in this thematic definition. Also included are third boy was sentenced to 45 consecutive days (Sulek any posts that were demeaning, punishing, or et al., 2013). aggressive towards the survivor. This theme was Jada: On July 1, 2014, Jada, a 16-year-old, was present in all four cases. invited to a house party in Houston, Texas. A male Daisy. Much of the response in Daisy’s case was host offered her punch that rendered Jada incoherent outrage at the victim. Many social media users stated and unconscious. Jada recalls being taken upstairs, but that Daisy’s actions were to blame for the assault: “No woke up nude the next morning with no memory of the one ever got this much attention for being raped… I’m evening (Stewart, 2014). As weeks passed, pictures of smart enough not to not myself in those situations”

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(Respondent 2, January 7, 2014, [Twitter]). Another prizes… don’t play adult games if you can’t face adult poster noted, “Well she went with him she should have consequences, and keep your fucking clothes on” not” (Respondent 3, October 18, 2013, [Facebook]). (Respondent 13, n.d., [Twitter]). Another example The shaming aspect emerged in the messages that read, included name calling and negative labels. An example was in a Twitter post that read, “Fuck yea. It was her fault, she never should have been That is what you get for being a skank :) there. It’s like guys who get killed in bar #jordanandmattarefree.” (Respondent 4, March 14, fights, stay out of those bars and it never 2012, [Twitter]). Others proceeded with messages that would have happened. Go to places with included sentiments that Daisy lied about her assault dirtbags and you deal with the repercussions and deserved the ridicule that followed: “Hope she of that. (Respondent 14, n.d., [Facebook]) realizes this just made her look stupid and not get sympathy. Except the dumbass people believed her When social media starting calling for charges of #jordanandmattarefree” (Respondent 5, March 13, sexual assault and murder, a new and even crueler 2013, [Twitter]). form of victim blaming emerged. Messages included Jane Doe. Comments blaming the victim were reasons not only for her rape, but for her death. common in this case. Examples include, “Remember Comments such as “It’s called PERSONAL kids, if you're drunk/slutty at a party, and embarrassed RESPONSIBILITY and SELF RESPECT and if this later just say you got raped” (Respondent 6, March 17, girl HAD EITHER she’s be alive today” (Respondent 2013, [Twitter]). The reaction to the case of Jane Doe 15, n.d., [Twitter]) and “... if the girl had any common was heavily influenced by case facts that detailed the sense she’d be alive. Everyone knows this stuff presence of alcohol. Immediately following the attack happens when alcohol gets involved, and look what and continuing months later, social media respondents happened when she went out drinking” (Respondent were referencing the victim’s consumption of alcohol. 16, n.d., [Facebook]) illustrate this concept. Posts such as “passed out? at 16??? what from?? Jada. “Maybe they shouldn’t drink alcohol at alcohol? You play with fire you are going to get parties and they won’t do a #Jadapose” (Respondent burnt…” (Respondent 7, March 20, 2013, [Facebook]) 17, July 19, 2014, [Twitter]). In Jada’s case the war of and “well dont pass out” (Respondent 8, March, 18, words was strengthened with imagery to shame her. 2013 [Facebook]) excuse the actions of the perpetrator Her assailants had photographed her on the floor, nude and states that the victim deserved to be assaulted. and clearly incapacitated. The photograph spread Comments such as “not just at the 3rd house. I’m not across social media and soon people began to mock saying what they did isn’t wrong but it’s not rape… the picture, creating a nationwide trending hashtag: It’s the girls fault #dontdrink” (Respondent 9, March #JadaPose. Broderick (2014) noted that in one 17, 2013, [Twitter]) and “Maybe if you don’t want to weekend, the #JadaPose mockery pictures had been get raped, don’t get blackout drunk. Just a thought referenced on Twitter more than 1,000 times. Figure 2 #Steubenville” (Respondent 10, March 19, 2013, provides a visual example of a young man lying on the [Twitter]) actually acknowledge the rape and fail to ground and mocking the young victim with #Jadapose attribute blame to the offender. Alcohol was not the as a reference. only victim blaming factor noted. The classic myth of clothing choice was found in statements such as Figure 2. A Tweet Mocking Jada “Sorry ladies, skimpy clothing is pretty much implied consent. Don’t dress like a whore if you don’t want to be treated like one. Simple” (Respondent 11, March 17, 2013, [Twitter]). This quote, along with basic statements like “I have no sympathy for whores” (Respondent 12, May 10, 2012, [Twitter]), uses name calling to shame the victim. Audrie. Audrie’s case is unique in that when exploring social media for messages about her assault, little was found prior to her suicide. One major trend found in posts about Audrie’s assault was sharing a bingo board that detailed common rape myths and behaviors that provided a multitude of victim blaming terms and scenarios, indicating that her actions led to her rape. A Twitter post exemplified this victim blaming trend reading “play stupid games win stupid

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Other comments included the tagline #Jadapose Maryville. Just do it” (Respondent 23, March 14, 2012 and accused Jada of falsifying the rape and ruining the Twitter); and “Schools back to normal cause boys’ lives. Examples of such comments include #jordanandmattarefree” (Respondent 24, March 13, “Like #Jadapose. She got drunk at a party, then made 2012, [Twitter]) demonstrate the types of social media up a false rape claim” (Respondent 18, July 11, 2014, feedback that the perpetrators in the case received. [Twitter]) and “I will #jadapose all fucking day... Jane Doe. The Steubenville perpetrators received Lying about rape is not cool u can seriously ruin immediate messages of perceived innocence posted to somebodies life” (Respondent 19, September 30, social media. One tweet read “Those kids from 2015, [Twitter]). These comments serve as another Stuebenville are completely innocent” (Respondent form of shaming, alleging that the victim lied and 25, March 17, 2013, [Twitter]). Another message should feel guilt for the pain they have caused the stated that the media exaggerated the case and was accused. blaming the perpetrators for a rape they did not commit: “I really wish people would STFU, {XXX} Offender Support did not rape this girl. The media hyped the story up” Offender support was also one of the strongest (Respondent 26, July 10, 2014, [Twitter]). In addition themes in all but one of these cases. The support is to denying the assault occurred, some users not only strongest immediately following the assault and after claimed that the perpetrators were innocent, but they any court rulings or decisions that are in favor of the also claimed that the victim was embarrassed or accused. Messages that included explicit regretted sex and therefore turned on the boys: “I’m encouragement for the perpetrator, excused, or denied defending him cause he didn’t raper her, she only went their behaviors, or celebrated their legal triumphs were to the police cause she got exposed her” (Respondent classified in this category. 27, July 10, 2014, [Twitter]) Daisy. In Daisy’s case, the presentation of One post seemed to minimize the significance of offender support was overwhelming. Local classmates the assault due to the defendant’s ages: “Cause come took to Twitter and Facebook in an effort to protect, on, they’re not even 18 and their lives are seriously praise, and celebrate the young perpetrators. One of screwed up now because of that. It’s uncalled for” the young perpetrators utilized social media to brag (Respondent 28, March 18, 2013, [Twitter]). Another about his sexual appeal. Others immediately embraced message followed suit, minimizing the injury to the his arrogant manner, following with statements such victim and focusing on the charges facing the two as “In the words of famous Matthew Barnett ‘if her teens who perpetrated the assault: “ya way to go now name starts with abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz she these 2 guys lives are ruined… her vag would have wants the D’” (Respondent 20, October 13, 2013 been fine #Steubenville” (Respondent 29, March 17, [Twitter]). 2013, [Twitter]). One poster did not disregard the act of rape, but Audrie. While it is possible that messages of instead minimized the damage it caused the victim and offender support exist, researchers were unable to maximized the costs to the perpetrator: establish a presence of offender support in the case of Audrie Pott. Instead, much of the traditional media You gonna throw a boys life away cos he got attention was protective of the young men. The a little pussy? The girl wasn’t hurt. No defense attorney for one of the offenders released a permanent damage. No death, no public statement “urging the public to reserve dismemberment, no scars. She woke up a judgment and said the boys should be ‘regarded as little swore, it went away in a few days, so innocent’” (Mather, 2013, para. 1). It is important to what. (Respondent 21, October 21, 2013, recognize that while offender support was not [Facebook]) abundantly present, the overwhelming victim blaming and shaming in this case directly shifts the blame from Much support for the two charged in this case the offenders to Audrie, thus inadvertently supporting came after the verdict was announced and charges for the boys. sexual assault were dropped. The hashtag Jada. One of the offenders noted on his Twitter #jordanandmattarefree was quickly adopted, account that Jada was a “hoe” and a “snitch.” Twitter increasing the support for the boys. Many of the followers followed suit: “Tell me how tf you can statements on social media appear to be from local snitch on ya brother? #jada” (Respondent 30, March classmates. Messages such as “Can’t sleep because 13, 2014, [Twitter]). More common was the denial of I’m too excited #jordanandmattarefree” (Respondent an assault: “that Jada hoe wasn't raped though 22, March 13, 2012, [Twitter]); “I’m going to be up all #jadapose #CirocThot” (Respondent 31, July 10, night with these #jordanandmattarefree hashtags. 2014, [Twitter]) and “I already told y'all that Jada girl EVERYONE use it!!!! Even if you aren’t from was not raped” (Respondent 32, July 15, 2014,

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[Twitter]) are two examples of social media users during her assault. She sent messages and made posts denying the assault ever occurred. Others believed that pleading with her attackers to remove and destroy the consensual sex occurred, but that Jada then claimed images. Audrie took to social media prior to her rape when the pictures were released: “I knew dat girl suicide writing “My life is over.” For the Pott family, jada was not raped she was just mad she got exposed” social media became a platform for awareness and (Respondent 33, July 14, 2014, [Twitter]). These reform after her death. The family’s specific actions messages offer support of the boys’ innocence by are exemplified under the theme victim support. denying the assault occurred. Jada. Acknowledging that everyone knew who she was due to the overwhelming number of images Family/Survivor Utilization and comments shared via Twitter, Jada refused to hide Family/survivor utilization was not a major her identity (Broderick, 2014). Her image seen in theme, but it seemed to pose a critical turning point in Figure 3 depicts the way Jada reclaimed her name and the social media coverage in Jada’s case specifically, developed a message of empowerment. With her fist and messages from Audrie and Daisy’s family were raised as a sign of strength, Jada holds a sign that said influential in their cases as well. When the survivors #IAMJADA, a trend that gained widespread or their family became outspoken or put a face to the popularity around the world. case, a larger national presence of support or demand to hold the offenders accountable developed. Often Figure 3. Jada’s Response these messages were a cry for the case to be reexamined, to pressure politicians and law enforcement, and to take action against the offenders. Other times it was the victim herself expressing power or feelings of defeat. Any message of outrage, support, or outreach made by the survivor or family was recorded under this theme. Daisy. In Daisy’s case, mainstream social media was utilized by her mother, demanding for the public to pay attention to her daughter’s case. She called upon Anonymous, an internet hacking group, to help shed light in a case she felt was forgotten:

With the combination of family/survivor pressure Where is anonymous now? My daughter has and increased national attention, two additional been terrorized to the point she tried to kill themes became more apparent as time lapsed. With the herself last night. She may never be ok. emergence of more information in the cases, there Where are you and your super hacking skills were calls for offender accountability/offender and internet help now…...we really need blaming and a surge in victim support. These messages them. (Respondent 34, January 6, 2014, were often expressed by a larger, external community [Facebook]). who was advocating for a widespread change to

reshape how we view sexual assault. Daisy created her own blog that was often referenced in social media posts. Her Xojane.com Victim Support account documented the turmoil she experienced. Her statements ranged from a dark disposition, “I sat alone Victim support increased as the cases gained in my room, most days, pondering the worth of my notoriety. As the messages of hate enraged the nation, life. I quit praying because if God were real, why social media presence in support of the victim began to grow into one of the more popular themes. would he do this?,” to messages of hope in a statement that noted “I not only survived, I didn’t give up. I’ve However, it is important to note that despite the growth been told that a special prosecutor is going to reopen of victim support, messages of victim blaming/shaming and offender support also increased. the case now. This is a victory, not just for me, but for every girl.” Any messages of innocence or empowerment of the Jane Doe. In Jane Doe’s case, she and her family survivor were included in the theme of victim support. Daisy. The level of inactivity in the case of Daisy fought to protect her identity and shield her from public scrutiny. As a result, the family and victim did Coleman incited supporters to call for justice. One not utilize social media as a tool. Twitter user was horrified by the presence of evidence Audrie. Audrie attempted to use social media to in the case and the lack of action on the part of the legal manage the distribution of the photographs taken system, tweeting “How many recorded videos of

Criminology, Criminal Justice, Law & Society – Volume 18, Issue 1 SOCIAL MEDIA COVERAGE OF TEEN SEXUAL ASSAULTS 97 underage rape does it take to convict a football player? an effort to end cyberbullying and provide #Justice4daisy” (Respondent 35, November 12, 2014, scholarships and grants to educational programs. The [Twitter]). Daisy’s case caught the attention of the foundation’s hashtag #audriepottfoundation also online hacking group Anonymous. With messages garnered great attention from social media users: including “Justice4Daisy: Anonymous threatens to go after alleged rapists” (Respondent 36, October 15, These last few years have been a 2013, [Twitter]), users spread the news about this BLESSING! I thank you all for you constant underground group. A Facebook group titled ‘Justice love and support. These past few weeks have for Daisy Coleman’ organized supportive events such been crazy but amazing. [...] Thank you to the as a rally and posted praise and support for the teen. Bulldog Project for also having me allowing Commonly associated with these messages were the me to be apart of your movement. And last hashtags #Justice4Daisy, #JusticeForDaisy, and but not least thee Audrie Pott Foundation #OpMaryville. what a great honor it is to be such a big part Jane Doe. Despite Jane Doe’s identity being of this amazing cause. The Pott family I have carefully protected, her name was briefly shared by the so much love and respect for you. I greatly media. Along with frustrations related to a failure to appreciate all of What you have done and will protect her identify, users criticized the media for the do in the near future!!!!” (Respondent 42, sympathetic approach they took towards the offenders October 17, 2015, [Facebook]) in her case. One user noted “@CNN #janedoe was the #victim & will live with lifelong #rape trauma & you Figure 4 shows an image that the Audrie Pott grieve for the #rapists?? #Steubenville” (Respondent Foundation asked people to share, which immediately 37, March 17, 2013, [Twitter]). A message containing spread with the hashtags #StopSuicide and a Jane Doe tribute video #AudriePottFoundation. Audrie’s family and the (https://youtu.be/0jAWaZmK2Lg) was popularly foundation pushed for legislation to end the delicate retweeted. Others applauded the survivor with treatment of juvenile sex offenders, thus prompting comments such as “#janedoe I am a survivor of #rape significant support for #audrieslaw. just one of millions who stand by your side you are loved we believe in you please know that Figure 4. Audrie Pott Foundation’s Suicide #steubenville” (Respondent 38, March 14, 2013, Prevention Awareness Campaign [Twitter]). Social media support served to show Jane Doe and her supporters they were not alone, illustrated by the tweet “Courageous of the men and women of #Steubenville and their supporters speaking out against #Rape #JaneDoe Is Not Alone” (Respondent 39, February 2, 2013, [Twitter]). Audrie. In the case of Audrie Pott, public support flooded social media only after she took her own life. Messages in support of her family, in memoriam of the teen, and in advocacy of ending cyberbullying and preventing teen suicide quickly developed. Individual projects, social initiatives, and calls to action were made following her death. #RIPAudriePott and other messages of support such as “Tragic story about Audrie Pott! Cyber Bullying is Not OKAY. #AudriePott #CyberBullying #StopCyberBullying” (Respondent 40, April 8, 2014, [Twitter]) and “Never

Forget <3 #audriepott” (Respondent 41, September 12, 2013, [Twitter]) were posted to raise awareness. Jada. The case of Jada, as mentioned previously, A Facebook Group called Bulldog Project, which was unique in the unprecedented level of public seeks to put an end to bullying, quickly began posting support. A statement from Twitter noted “Anyone who information about bullying, suicide, and support for finds humor in this #Jadapose has lost all sense of Audrie’s family and friends. The hashtag Humanity and Compassion Rape is NOT FUNNY #bulldogproject was commonly associated with AND NOT A JOKE. SHE’S A HUMAN BEING” messages on Facebook and Twitter in regards to the (Respondent 43, December 25, 2015, [Twitter]). This case. The organization partnered with the Audrie Pott comment exemplifies the public disgust associated Foundation, which was started by Audrie’s parents, in with the visual mocking of Jada. By publicly

Criminology, Criminal Justice, Law & Society – Volume 18, Issue 1 98 WELLMAN, REDDINGTON, & ROSE confronting her accusers and her shamers, Jada was It was difficult for many people to understand the able to reclaim the hashtag #jadapose that was minimal charges brought against the offender: originally used to abuse her. Additionally, her famous “#Maryville total BS plea bargain 4 Barnette to NOT #IamJada image inspired others to follow suit with be charged w/RAPE. Must blame & destroy victim b/c similar images of support, including from many #RAPE not enuf” (Respondent 48, January 9, 2014, celebrities. Other commonly observed supportive [Twitter]) and “Since when did #rape qualify as a taglines included #Justiceforjada, #Justice4Jada, and misdemeanor? Disgusting and NOT good enough. #IStandWithJada. #maryville #Justice4Daisy #justice #anonymous” (Respondent 49, January 9, 2014, [Twitter]) exemplify Offender Blaming this. Finally, users responded to the rape myths Offender blaming was a theme less present, when commonly displayed, attributing full blame to Barnett: compared to victim blaming/shaming and offender support. Even in messages of support for the victim, A 17 year old boy who will be technically a the fault of the offender was rarely noted. In some man at 18 and able to go to war should know cases, social media posts would say that the better then to take advantage of a 14 year old perpetrators needed to be held legally responsible, thus girl. Tell me something if he has a sister blaming them indirectly. Posts that assign fault to or would he want some creep to do what he did. hold the perpetrator accountable for the assault were (Respondent 50, n.d., [Facebook]) defined as offender blaming messages. Daisy. Daisy’s family called for the hacking This message and others like it attacked excuses group Anonymous, the media, and community Barnett and others could use to justify his behavior. members to pressure prosecutors to acknowledge her Jane Doe. The backlash against the offenders in assault, thus shifting social media trends from pro- the Jane Doe case grew as the boys were welcomed offender to pro-Daisy. When this shift occurred, back to the football field: “Re: rape culture in America, outrage extended to the offender, his family, and the don't forget about #steubenville, where convicted community that seemed to stand by, condone, and rapist is back playing HS football” (Respondent 51, excuse the boy’s behavior. One way posters responded December 5, 2014, [Twitter]). Additional frustration was by identifying Barnett and interfering with his was expressed as the offenders were publicly ability to move past the accusations. For example, proceeding in life as if nothing happened. Many felt many disclosed where he went to college and called the boys were being protected due to their popular the school and its students out for supporting him. This status: “Shout out to #Steubenville for showing the approach is seen in comments such as “Is Matt world it's okay to rape someone as long as you're a attending rape awareness classes here” (Respondent football player #stayclassy” (Respondent 52, 44, October 22, 2013, [Facebook]) and “If you go to September 24, 2014, [Twitter]). Finally, users XXX and know Matthew Barnett is and don’t beat his articulated that the boys’ behaviors made them rapists, fucking ass you’re officially a pussy. And advocate deserving of punishment. One tweet stated, “when you rape. Congrats” (Respondent 45, October 13, 2013, put your body parts in a womans body who is blacked [Twitter]). Other users criticized the powerful family out drunk, it is called RAPE. You earned your members who protected Matthew by saying sentences boys. #Steubenville” (Respondent 53, “#jordanandmattarefree because Matt's granddaddy is September 21, 2014, [Twitter]). a crooked politician that no one in his cowardly town Audrie. In Audrie’s case, the offender blaming wants to anger.” (Respondent 46, October 15, 2013, was intensified due to her suicide and the light [Twitter]). Another stated his grandfather was equally sentences the young men received. Several comments to blame: expressed general frustration with the young men saying they should have left her alone. In response to the boys allegedly raped her and left her a victim blaming comment, one person tweeted “Why outside in the below-freezing elements. They would you take advantage of a girl who is PASSED are lucky she didn't die! To top it off, it OUT? Just leave her alone. Would you want someone appears that a relative with political influence to rape YOU while drunk? #AudriePott” (Respondent had no problem peddling influence on local 54, April 12, 2013, [Twitter]). Another user expressed law enforcement and/or local prosecutors! a growing trend against shamers stating “Too many That person should be removed from office beautiful girls are killing themselves. Boys it's very and put in the adjoining jail cell, along with simple, don't rape. #Audrie #Rehtaeh” (Respondent the teen perps. (Respondent 47, October n.d, 55, April 12, 2013, [Twitter]). 2013, [Facebook]) Other social media messages were more specific calling for punishments for the young men at the heart

Criminology, Criminal Justice, Law & Society – Volume 18, Issue 1 SOCIAL MEDIA COVERAGE OF TEEN SEXUAL ASSAULTS 99 of this case. Many felt the young men were being constantly comment on the material. Social media protected due to their age and posted comments such sites allow an opportunity for any user to issue as “Don't care how old someone is... If a disgusting act comments, criticisms, and, in some cases, abusive is committed, they MUST pay for it... #AudriePott” responses to stories they know little about. (Respondent 56, July 24, 2014, [Twitter]) and “The The current study explored how social media rapists should have their names and faces plastered all users disseminate information regarding specific cases over the Internet” (Respondent 57, July 5, 2013, of teenage sexual assault. Consistent with previous [Facebook]). research (Burt, 1980; McMahon, 2010), the most Due to her suicide, many believed sexual assault prominent themes were victim blaming/shaming and was not the only charge that these boys should face, offender support. Most common among the themes writing “file first degree murder on them seek the were assignment of victim responsibility, claims of death penalty” (Respondent 58, n.d., [Facebook]) and false reports, and regretted consensual sexual activity “Prosecute those worthless punks to the fullest extent due to alcohol consumption. Statements like these are of the law” (Respondent 59, n.d., [Facebook]). Several problematic as they further perpetuate and strengthen posts recognized that due to the rape and bullying that the social media consumers’ personal subscriptions to led to Audrie’s suicide, these young men should be rape myths (Suarez & Gaddalla, 2010). tried as adults: “Try them as adults! Trio held in In each of these cases, the teenage victims knew connection w/ sexual #assault in wake of teen girl’s their offenders. This relationship likely contributed to #suicide” (Respondent 60, April 12, 2013, [Twitter]). the significant level of victim blaming and failure to Jada. Following the offensive copycat photos and acknowledge the offenders’ wrongdoing (Abrams et Jada’s brave stance to speak out, Jada’s attackers al., 2003; Monson et al., 2000). Additionally, alcohol became targets on social media. Many users called for was present in each of the cases, thus increasing the the messages of victim blaming to shift to blaming the blame attributed to the victim and reducing the offenders. Twitter users tweeted “When will people culpability of the offender (Romero-Sanchez & stop blaming victims of rape rather than condemning Megias, 2010; Untied, Orchowski, Mastroleo, & their rapists? #everdaysexism #jadapose” (Respondent Gidycz, 2012). Perhaps more important than the case 61, July 19, 2014, [Twitter]) and “The blame & details, people may be motivated to promote a moral ridicule of rape victims must end. The shame lies with difference between themselves and the victim. By the rapists. #jadapose #IamJada” (Respondent 62, July attributing blame for the rape to the victim, it allows 17, 2014, [Twitter]). Others took to the social media one to form feelings of self-protection and security. site to directly shame and even threaten the young This type of “that would not happen to me” attitude is men, writing “Drugging, raping a girl is an act of strengthened as individuals note specific behaviors of cowards, do it to my daughter & I will search you to the victim that they would not mirror, thus creating a hell and I cut you into small pieces ok? #jadapose” perception that they are safe from victimization. (Respondent 63, June 21, 2015, [Twitter]) and “If you Parallel to the victim blaming and shaming, have sex w/ a person who is under the influence of offender support was a predominate theme. In these drugs/alcohol, it was not consensual & YOU ARE A cases, the offenders each held an elite status in their RAPIST #jadapose #JusticeforJada” (Respondent 64, community, whether it be the result of being a high July 11, 2014, [Twitter]). Many messages, including performing football player or of their families’ wealth, “I am relieved that TWO charged in alleged gang rape name, or political standing. Posts that supported the after #Jadapose” (Respondent 65, December 19, 2014, offenders often focused on the idea that these young [Twitter]) and “This rapists drugged girls and raped men were too valuable, too young, too pure, too them then they mocked the girls” (Respondent 66, normal, and had too valuable of a future to rape these December 19, 2014, [Twitter]), celebrated the criminal victims. These correspond with society’s struggle to prosecution of the young men. recognize that approximately 75% of sexual assaults are at the hands of an acquaintance, family member, or Discussion significant other (Truman & Langton, 2015) and that ordinary men, not monsters and villains, rape (Oregon Unlike stories shared via traditional news sources Department of Human Services, 2016; Penny, 2012). such as television news and newspapers, the content of One journalist noted this reluctance when stating, “We social media is not held to ethical standards, is not refuse to accept that nice guys rape, and they do it checked for accuracy, and has immediate presence often” (Penny, 2012). The social media posts that with an international audience. Although a news story protected the perpetrators in these cases lessened or may contain less than flattering content, it is rarely re- completely removed the offenders’ accountability and aired or reprinted, is not easily retrieved, and does not either directly or indirectly placed the blame back on present a platform for viewers to readily and the victims.

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With victim blame and offender support Previous research recognizes that sexual assault dominating social media messages, victim support was survivors often experience a secondary victimization not immediately evident in these cases. Following the due to the absence of or negative nature of social assaults, light victim support was seen locally but was support postrape (Yamawaki et al., 2007). In an effort overshadowed by negative messages. Over time, these to find support, survivors may turn to social media cases garnered national attention. This presented an platforms. Despite the overwhelming negative opportunity for those educated on sexual assault messages demonstrated in this study, social media victimization to come forward with messages of hope have the power to be a positive tool for sexual assault and support. With a broader audience the impact of the survivors. These cases illustrate that, in time, a offenders’ elite statuses is lessened. A national community emerges to offer support and to counter audience does not value local athletics, small town message of hate that further perpetuate rape myths. political ties, and family wealth in the same way While sharing many similarities, social media had members of the victims’ and offenders’ communities different impacts on these four young victims. Jada do nor does it have a personal connection to the used social media to reclaim her name, her image, and offenders. Therefore, as messages of victim support her confidence. Daisy Coleman attempted to manage increased, so did the level of offender blaming. media messages, and she and her family turned to As Figure 1 demonstrates, the five identified social media for support with mixed response. Audrie themes have a strong reactive pattern to one another. Pott found the social media response to her assault so When a social media user is presented with a message overwhelming that she took her own life shortly after of victim blaming and shaming, his or her own photos and messages about her victimization emerged personal beliefs will guide their response. Consider a online. While Audrie was victimized directly, it is user who strongly subscribes to rape myths, thus important to recognize that messages may also have an attributing blame to the victim and removing indirect, harmful effect on other survivors who responsibility from the offender. If that user views a identify with the victim. post containing messages of victim blaming and shaming and wants to contribute to the discussion, he Conclusion or she will likely respond with a similar message or a message of offender support. Similarly, if that same Noting the reliance society, and specifically user is to view messages of offender blame and/or teenagers, has on social media, dealing with the issue victim support, he or she is likely to counter those of teenage sexual assault and social media is statements with messages of victim blaming/shaming paramount. To combat this epidemic, the solution and/or offender support, and so on. Unlike the other must be both proactive and reactive. According to themes, family/survivor utilization acts in a lateral Fairbain, Bivens, and Dawson (2013), there are three manner, attempting to mitigate victim blaming and categories of prevention of sexual assault associated shaming by promoting victim support. with social media: primary prevention – stopping it The results of the current study are important as before it takes place, secondary prevention – the traditional social network may no longer be a preventing further harm once the sexual violence takes teenager’s strongest source of socialization. Instead, it place, and tertiary prevention – dealing with the long is possible that messages received on social media term effects of sexual violence. To combat abuse on sites outweigh the personal reactions and social social media, Fairbain and colleagues (2013) propose support they receive offline (Ullman, 1996). These “strengthening of individual knowledge and skills, social media sites are being used to enhance promotion of community education of providers, socialization and to maximize social value (Kim & fostering of coalitions and networks, changing Lee, 2011; Rosen et al., 2013),by displaying one’s best organizational practices and influencing policy and self and attempting to solicit positive feedback from legislation” (p. 21). We concur that education about others (Sas et al. 2009). Attempting to control the sexual assault, related myths, victims, and perpetrators messages about one’s self on social media, particularly still remains one of our best weapons. when faced with mass responses and widespread Little programming exists that targets sexual coverage, as seen in these cases, has been documented violence and social media specifically (Fairbain et al., to cause increased depression (Romer et al., 2013; 2013), yet several campaigns have emerged to Rosen et al., 2013; Wilcox & Stephen, 2013; Ybarra et promote healthy online behaviors. One such program al., 2005). The words and images posted in response engaging teenagers in healthy social media usage is to these women are still present years after their “That’s Not Cool.” This organization is designed to assaults, and at the time of this article, social media reduce teen dating violence through online mediums. reactions and references to these four cases are still “That’s Not Cool” offers opportunities for teens to be being shared. responsible agents of change through “missions” each

Criminology, Criminal Justice, Law & Society – Volume 18, Issue 1 SOCIAL MEDIA COVERAGE OF TEEN SEXUAL ASSAULTS 101 month. These missions require teenagers to spread Anders, M. C., & Christopher, F. S. (2011). A awareness and promote difficult conversations in their socioecological model of rape survivors’ decision families, groups of friends, campuses, and community. to aid in case prosecution. Psychology of Women For example, in October 2016, teens were challenged Quarterly, 35(1), 92–106. doi: to host a viewing of the documentary Audrie and 10.1177/0361684310394802 Daisy and to have subsequent discussions related to Associated Press. (2014, January 9). Maryville man the issues of abuse and social media (That’s Not Cool, accused of rape in Daisy Coleman case pleads 2016). Programs such as these need to be evaluated, guilty to child endangerment. New York Daily and those that are successful need to be funded and News. Retried from replicated. Campaigns specifically tailored to http://www.nydailynews.com/news/national/coll encourage healthy social media discourse following a ege-student-accused-maryville-rape-case- sexual assault could be beneficial in reducing the harm charged-child-endangerment-article-1.1571171 caused by social interactions on these networking sites. Barker, V. (2009). Older adolescents’ motivations for The current research explores social media social network site use: The influence of gender, responses in four highly publicized cases of teen group identity, and collective self-esteem. sexual assault. While these results are not CyberPsychology & Behavior, 12(2), 209–213. generalizable to all cases, the findings offer significant doi:10.1089/cpb.2008.0228 insight into social media reactions to these types of cases. The results indicate that social media are being Brady, E. C., Chrisler, J. C., Hosdale, D. C., used as a mechanism to revictimize teen sexual assault Osowiecki, D. M., & Veal, T. A. (1991). Date rape: Expectations, avoidance strategies, and survivors, minimize the actions of the offenders, and promote rape myths. Due to the power and universal attitudes toward victims. The Journal of Social reach of social media, its contents resonate globally. Psychology, 131(3), 427–429. doi: 10.1080/00224545.1991.9713868 When it comes to teenage sexual assault, social media messages are mostly counterproductive to the growing Braun, V., & Clarke, V. (2006). Using thematic social movement designed to empower survivors, analysis in psychology. Qualitative Research in educate society, and maximize offender responsibility. Psychology, 3(2), 977–101. doi: Current findings serve as a foundation for further 10.1191/1478088706qp063oa study into the content and power of social media messages following a teenage sexual assault and can Broderick, R. (2014, July 10). Houston teenagers be replicated via a quantitative approach. A better turned a photo of a 16-year-old girl’s alleged understanding of the current landscape of social media sexual assault into a "meme" They’re calling it following a sexual assault will promote dialog about #JadaPose. BuzzFeed News. Retrieved from the issues at hand. This needed discourse will guide http://www.buzzfeed.com/ryanhatesthis/houston- programming and education designed to promote teenagers-turned-a-photo-of-a-16-year-old-girls- healthy, responsible online behavior. No teenage alle#.idxDNknDB victim of sexual assault should be so traumatized by Brinson, S. L. (1992). TV rape: Television’s social media that suicide becomes his or her only communication of cultural attitudes toward rape. option. Women’s Studies in Communication, 12(2), 23– 36. doi:10.1080/07491409.1989.11089734 References Bryant, J., & Oliver, M. B. (2009). Media effects: Abrams, D., Viki, G. T., Masser, B., & Bohner, G. Advances in theory and research. New York, NY: (2003). Perceptions of stranger and acquaintance Taylor & Francis. rape: The role of benevolent and hostile sexism in victim blame and rape proclivity. Journal of Buddie, A. M., & Miller, A. G. (2001). Beyond rape Personality and Social Psychology, 84(1), 111– myths: A more complex view of perceptions of 125. doi: 10.1037/0022-3514.84.1.111 rape victims. Sex Roles, 45(3-4), 139–160. doi: 10.1023/A:1013575209803 Amichai-Hamburger, Y., Wainapel, G., & Fox, S. (2002). On the Internet no one knows I’m an Burleigh, N. (2013, September 17). Sexting, shame introvert: Extroversion, neuroticism, and Internet and suicide. Rolling Stone. Retrieved from interaction. CyberPsychology & Behavior, 5(2), http://www.rollingstone.com/culture/news/sextin 125–128. doi:10.1089/109493102753770507 g-shame-and-suicide-20130917

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Zywica, J., & Danowski, J. (2008). The faces of Frances P. Reddington, Ph.D. is a professor of Facebookers: Investigating social enhancement Criminal Justice at the University of Central Missouri. and social compensation hypotheses; predicting Dr. Reddington can be reached at her address: 300 Facebook™ and offline popularity from Humphreys-UCM, Warrensburg, MO 64093 or her sociability and self esteem, and mapping the email address, [email protected]. She earned her meanings of popularity with semantic networks. Ph.D. in Criminal Justice from Sam Houston State Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, University. Her main areas of research interest include 14(1), 1–34. doi: all aspects of juvenile justice. She has published in the 10.1111/j.1083-6101.2008.01429.x areas of: juvenile law, juveniles in adult jails, transfer of juveniles to the adult court, juveniles and the age of

criminal responsibility, training of juvenile probation officers, the use of charter schools, and the role of About the Authors Guardians ad Litem in abuse and neglect cases in juvenile court. She has served as consultant for the National Institute of Corrections and the Office of Ashley Peake Wellman, Ph.D. Ashley received Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention in the her Ph.D. from the University of Florida in area of juvenile justice staff training. She has also Criminology, Law and Society and is an Associate edited books and authored chapters on sexual assault, Professor at the University of Central Missouri. Dr. flawed criminal justice policy and criminal justice in Wellman can be reached at her address: 300 Missouri. Dr. Reddington is a past chair of the Humphreys-UCM, Warrensburg, MO 64093 or her Academy of Criminal Justice Sciences Juvenile email address, [email protected]. Her research Justice Section and of the Student Affairs Committee focuses on violent offending and violent victimization. of the American Correctional Association. She is a Her primary research focuses on the lived experiences past editor for Youth Violence and Juvenile Justice: of families left behind in an unsolved murder, often An Interdisciplinary Journal. She is on the Board of referred to as cold case homicide survivors. Additional Directors for both the Missouri Juvenile Justice work centers on the emotional, physical and Association and Missouri Corrections Association. psychological tolls of sexual assault on its survivors, Karlie Rose Clark received her B.S. in Criminal along with social reactions and interpretations of Justice from the University of Central Missouri. She sexual assault. Dr. Wellman is dedicated to advocating currently serves as a Victim Advocate Counselor for for awareness and resources for victims of violence. the Jackson County Prosecutor's Office SVU. Ms. Her work appears in several outlets including the Rose can be reached at her address: 300 Humphreys- Journal of Death and Dying, the Journal of Family UCM, Warrensburg, MO 64093 or her email address, Studies and the Journal of Loss and Trauma. Special [email protected]. Karlie has a strong interest in acknowledgements to Buddy and Reagan Wellman for the intersection of juvenile justice and victimology. your unfaltering love and support, and special thanks She has presented research on social responses to to the survivors of violence who trust me to be their sexual assault at local and national conferences, voice for change. including the 2015 American Society of Criminology Annual Conference in Washington, D.C.

Endnotes

1 APA format requires that social media posts include user names and links to online messages. These links include the user name of the source; therefore, even if given a pseudonym, the user’s identity would be known. Also, several posts were removed and accounts have been blocked, making the links unusable. Therefore, authors have included all social media messages as personal correspondences, citing them with a respondent number, date of post, and the platform where the message was found. In the case of Audrie Pott many messages were removed following her suicide. In the event a date is unavailable, n.d. is noted.

Criminology, Criminal Justice, Law & Society – Volume 18, Issue 1