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Entangling Gender Expression and Race in Antigay Discrimination: an Intersectional Approach City University of New York (CUNY) CUNY Academic Works All Dissertations, Theses, and Capstone Projects Dissertations, Theses, and Capstone Projects 6-2016 (Dis)entangling Gender Expression and Race in Antigay Discrimination: An Intersectional Approach Steph M. Anderson Graduate Center, City University of New York How does access to this work benefit ou?y Let us know! More information about this work at: https://academicworks.cuny.edu/gc_etds/1291 Discover additional works at: https://academicworks.cuny.edu This work is made publicly available by the City University of New York (CUNY). Contact: [email protected] (DIS)ENTANGLING GENDER EXPRESSION AND RACE IN ANTIGAY DISCRIMINATION: AN INTERSECTIONAL APPROACH by STEPH M. ANDERSON A dissertation submitted to the Graduate Faculty in Psychology in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy The City University of New York 2016 ii © 2016 STEPH M. ANDERSON All Rights Reserved iii (Dis)entangling Gender Expression and Race in Antigay Discrimination: An Intersectional Approach by Steph M. Anderson This manuscript has been read and accepted by the Graduate Faculty in Psychology in satisfaction of the dissertation requirement for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Date Michelle Fine, Ph.D. Chair of Examining Committee Date Maureen O’Conner, Ph.D. Executive Officer Supervisory Committee: Deborah L. Tolman, Ph.D. David M. Frost, Ph.D. Charlotte Tate, Ph.D. Kevin Nadal, Ph.D. THE CITY UNIVERSITY OF NEW YORK iv ABSTRACT (Dis)entangling Gender Expression and Race in Antigay Discrimination: An Intersectional Approach by Steph M. Anderson Advisor: Michelle Fine Current psychological definitions and operationalizations of antigay discrimination conceptualize negative treatment of lesbian, gay, bisexual and queer (LGBQ) individuals as a response to their same-gender sexual orientations and not other factors. Because an individual’s sexual orientation is always understood through racialized hegemonic gender ideologies, however, attention to gender expression – how one “does” gender – and dynamics of race within antigay encounters is essential. Comprised of two mixed-method studies, this dissertation examines the role of gender expression and race in antigay discriminatory encounters from two perspectives: those who are targets of discrimination (i.e., cisgender and transgender LGBQ individuals) and those who may discriminate (i.e., straight individuals). Quantitative and qualitative findings from Study 1 revealed that presenting in ways that varied from or adhered to traditional gender expectations in relation to one’s birth-assigned gender translated into qualitatively distinct experiences of discrimination for LGBQ participants, suggesting that sexual orientation can exist as both a visible and concealable social identity. The visibility of “race” relative to normative Whiteness also produced distinctions between LGBQ participants of color and White LGBQ individuals both within intra- and interracial contexts. Demonstrating the importance of attending to covert forms of discrimination, LGBQ individuals v experienced ambiguity both in regard to if discrimination occurred and if it did as a result of which of their social identities. Study 2 utilized an experimental design to examine the extent to which antigay discrimination as expressed among straight individuals is a function of target gender, gender expression, sexual orientation and race. Although no significant main effects or interactions were found in tests of the main hypotheses, straight participants who failed to pass one or multiple scenario manipulation checks did so disproportionately in scenarios where the target defied the gender inversion stereotype that gay men are effeminate and lesbian woman are masculine (e.g., a straight woman who was masculine in appearance). That no differences existed between eligible and non-eligible participants in terms contact with LGBQ individuals, social desirability, a priori antigay prejudice or endorsement of gender norm beliefs, points to the power of hegemonic gender ideologies above and beyond attitudinal beliefs and suggests that misrecognition constitutes an additional form of covert discrimination. Taken together, findings across both studies demonstrate the salience of hegemonic gender ideologies in the precipitation and interpretation of antigay discriminatory encounters. The extent to which one’s sexual orientation is perceivable is always tenuous, context-dependent, and an inter-relational experience that is informed by racialized gender stereotypes. These findings carry implications for psychological research and policy work in terms of the conceptualization of antigay discrimination and work toward its eradication. If one of the primary functions of antigay discrimination is to maintain gender ideologies, violence and discrimination against LGQB individuals will continue to exist as long as White hegemonic gender norms remain intact. vi Acknowledgments This dissertation would not have been possible without the support from an exorbitant number of people in my life. First, my greatest appreciation goes to my primary mentor and advisor, Michelle Fine. Throughout my nine years of graduate school, Michelle has been an unwavering source of insight and inspiration. She encouraged me early on in my graduate school career to explore the depth and breadth of my research interests, including a foray in film school. I attribute my multi-faceted growth as a scholar to her untiring support and willingness to journey with me “outside the box.” My work will forever be a product of this relationship. I must also express my heartfelt gratitude to Deb Tolman, whose mentorship and invitations to collaborate have proven invaluable to my professional and academic development. Deb has lovingly demanded intentionality in my writing and speech (always define the “it”!) and taught me that feeling “stuck” is part of the painful joy of doing research. Working as a part of SexGenLab has allowed me to plant firm roots within the psychology of gender and sexuality. David Frost has also been integral to my completion of this dissertation. Early on, his mixed-methods expertise was foundational to the design of the dissertation and his statistical support throughout allowed me to deepen my methodological and analytical toolbox. David is also responsible for fostering my professional connection with Charlotte Tate. Although Charlotte is “only” an external reader, her feedback over the last year has profoundly shaped my thinking and approach to researching queer experience. This dissertation was further shaped by Kevin Nadal, whose approach to the academy as a scholar, activist and colleague is one I deeply admire. I am honored to have Kevin as an external reader. vii I would also like to acknowledge Judith Kubran – aka “Jude,” whose couch, candy jar, personal wisdom and love of cats have been invaluable sources of sustenance throughout my graduate career. I am also tremendously grateful to the intellectual and emotional support from a number of my friends and colleagues: Carolina Muñoz Proto, Erica Friedman, Amanda Matles, Brian Davis, Allison Cabana, Kimberly Belmonte, Jenn Chmielewski, as well as the rest of the “Little Debbies.” Their intellectual curiosity, candor and camaraderie have made these final years not only possible, but also enjoyable. I would like to especially thank Christin Bowman for her reassurance and insight throughout graduate school and especially during the process of writing this dissertation. “CBo” has been a professional and personal pillar of support to me. This dissertation and completion of graduate school would not have been possible without the love and encouragement from my parents, Kevin and Linda. Throughout all of my (perfectionist) pursuits, Dad has been constant in reminding me to “not work too hard” and “be reasonable” with myself when challenges feel insurmountable. His generosity, humility, and ability to grow are inspirations to me in their own right. From the beginning and up until the end of graduate school, Mom has been my companion on this journey from afar. Her perseverance and wisdom as she moves through and over inevitable obstacles in her own life continue to leave indelible impressions. I would not have survived this last push without her, and no one knows the periods, commas and sentence structure of this dissertation better than she. She has importantly taught me that sometimes going straight to “therapy three” is the perfect choice. Finally, the completion of this dissertation would not have been possible without the love and support of my partner, Molly O’Connell, who continuously reminds me of the joys of laughter and beauty of a closed Macbook. I am forever grateful. viii Table of Contents Abstract…………………………………………………………………………………………iv Acknowledgements……………………………………………………………………………..vi List of Tables……………………………………………………………………………………ix List of Figures…………………………………………………………………………………...xi Chapter 1: Introduction and Aims………………………………………………………………..1 Chapter 2: Study 1 – Disrupting Gender Binaries: An Intersectional Analysis of Antigay Discriminatory Encounters………………………………………………………………26 Chapter 3: Study 2 – Antigay Discrimination as a Function of Target Gender, Gender Expression, Sexual Orientation and Race..………………………………………………87 Chapter 4: Assessment of Gender Expression: Considering Concepts, Methods and Analysis…………………………………………………………………….……....120 Chapter 5: General Discussion and Conclusion………………………………………………...140 Appendices
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