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Amniotic Fluid Embolism AMNIOTIC FLUID EMBOLISM A TRUE OBSTETRICAL EMERGENCY PRESENTERS: KAREN HARDIMON, BSN, RNC-OB BONITA BRANCH, MSN, RNC-OB PURPOSE The purpose of this education activity is to enhance the knowledge of the Birthing Center Registered Nurse in the area of early recognition of amniotic fluid embolism by addressing the hallmark signs and symptoms in an effort to improve patient outcomes as evidenced by decreased mortality rate. OBJECTIVES Upon completion of this activity, attendees will be able to: 1. Identify the hallmark signs and symptoms of amniotic fluid embolism (AFE) 2. Understand the disease process of AFE 3. List the causes of AFE 4. Recall the incidence, occurrence, morbidity, and mortality rates related to AFE 5. Describe the nursing responsibilities in the care of a patient diagnosed with AFE 6. Explain the treatment involved in treating a patient with AFE AMNIOTIC FLUID EMBOLISM (AFE) Is a rare obstetric emergency in which it is postulated that amniotic fluid, fetal cells, hair, or other debris enter the maternal circulation, causing cardiorespiratory collapse In 1941, Steiner and Luschbaugh described AFE for the first time after they found fetal debris in the pulmonary circulation of women who died during labor. PATHOPHYSIOLOGY Current data from the National Amniotic Fluid Embolus Registry suggest that the process is more similar to anaphylaxis than to embolism, and the term ANAPHYLACTOID SYNDROME OF PREGNANCY has been suggested because fetal tissue or amniotic fluid components are not universally found in women who present with signs and symptoms attributable to AFE.[1] PATHOPHYSIOLOGY (cont’d.) The pathophysiology of AFE is poorly understood. Based on the original description, it was theorized that amniotic fluid and fetal cells enter the maternal circulation, possibly triggering an anaphylactic reaction to fetal antigens. However, fetal material is not always found in the maternal circulation in patients with AFE, and material of fetal origin is often found in women who do not develop AFE. PATHOPHYSIOLOGY (cont’d.) In any case usually during labor or other procedure, amniotic fluid and debris, or some as yet unidentified substance, enters the maternal circulation; this may trigger a massive anaphylactic reaction, activation of the complement cascade, or both. PATHOPHYSIOLOGY (cont’d.) Progression usually occurs in 2 phases. In phase I, pulmonary artery vasospasm with pulmonary hypertension and elevated right ventricular pressure cause hypoxia. Hypoxia causes myocardial capillary damage and pulmonary capillary damage, left heart failure, and acute respiratory distress syndrome. Women who survive these events may enter phase II. This is a hemorrhagic phase characterized by massive hemorrhage with uterine atony and DIC; however, fatal consumptive coagulopathy may be the initial presentation. INCIDENCE In the United States of AFE is estimated at 1 case per 8,000-30,000 pregnancies. The true incidence is unknown because of inaccurate diagnoses and inconsistent reporting of nonfatal cases. MORTALITY/MORBIDITY Maternal mortality approaches 80%. However, it was 61% in the US national registry, which listed 46 cases. AFE is the cause of 5-10% of maternal mortality in the United States. Of patients with AFE, 50% die within the first hour of onset of symptoms. Of survivors of the initial cardiorespiratory phase, 50% develop a coagulopathy MORTALITY/MORBIDITY Survival is uncommon, although the prognosis is improved with early recognition and prompt resuscitation. Most women who survive have permanent neurologic impairment. Neonatal survival was 79% in the US registry and 78% in the UK registry. The intact infant survival rate is 70%. Neurologic status of the infant is directly related to the time elapsed between maternal arrest and delivery. OCCURRENCE Amniotic fluid embolism (AFE) usually occurs during labor but has occurred during abortion, after abdominal trauma, and during amnioinfusion. A woman in the late stages of labor becomes acutely dyspneic with hypotension. She may experience seizures quickly followed by cardiac arrest. Massive DIC-associated hemorrhage follows and then death. Most patients die within an hour of onset. DIAGNOSIS OF AFE Currently no definitive diagnostic test exists. The United States and United Kingdom AFE registries recommend the following 4 criteria, all of which must be present to make the diagnosis of AFE[1, 9, 10] : 1. Acute hypotension or cardiac arrest 2. Acute hypoxia 3. Coagulopathy or severe hemorrhage in the absence of other explanations 4. All of these occurring during labor, cesarean delivery, dilation and evacuation, or within 30 minutes postpartum with no other explanation of findings SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS In case reports, patients are described as developing acute shortness of breath, sometimes with a cough, followed by severe hypotension. The following signs and symptoms are indicative of possible AFE: Hypotension: Blood pressure may drop significantly with loss of diastolic measurement Dyspnea: Labored breathing and tachypnea may occur. Seizure: Tonic clonic seizures are seen in 50% of patients. Cough: This is usually a manifestation of dyspnea. Cyanosis: As hypoxia/hypoxemia progresses, circumoral and peripheral cyanosis Fetal bradycardia: In response to the hypoxic insult, fetal heart rate may drop to less than 110 beats per minute (bpm). If this drop lasts for 10 minutes or more, it is a bradycardia. A rate of 60 bpm or less over 3-5 minutes may indicate a terminal bradycardia. SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS Pulmonary edema: This is usually identified on chest radiograph. Cardiac arrest Uterine atony: Uterine atony usually results in excessive bleeding after delivery. Failure of the uterus to become firm with bimanual massage is diagnostic. Coagulopathy or severe hemorrhage in absence of other explanation (DIC occurs in 83% of patients.) [10] Altered mental status/confusion/agitation CAUSES AFE is considered an unpredictable and unpreventable event with an unknown cause. In the national registry, 41% of patients had a history of allergies. Reported risk factors for development of AFE include multiparity, advanced maternal age, male fetus, and trauma. In a retrospective review of a 12-year period encompassing 180 cases of AFE, of which 24 were fatal, medical induction of labor increased the risk of AFE In the same study, AFE was positively associated with multiparity, cesarean section or operative vaginal delivery, abruption, placenta previa, and cervical laceration or uterine rupture. ANESTHETIC CONSIDERATIONS FOR AMNIOTIC FLUID EMBOLISM COMMUNICATION IS KEY! Communication is Key! What is the patient’s history? Physical exam Vitals- BP,HR,RR, Sp02 Appearance, color, mental status Estimated Blood loss Labs IV access What has been done? Estimated Blood loss Percent Blood Loss Physical Exam < 20% No changes 20-25% Tachycardia Narrow pulse pressure Orthostatic hypotension 30-35% Hypotension Oliguria Tachypnea >40% Shock Altered mental status Anuria Yao et al. Yao and Artusio’s Anesthesiology: Problem–oriented Patient Management. Philadelphia: Wolters Kluwer Health/Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 2012. When to get Anesthesiology involved? ASAP How can we help? Airway management IV sedation Analgesia Supportive measures, IV access, Monitoring What type of Anesthesia is appropriate? Depends on: Timing – STAT? Location - Patient’s room vs. OR Volume status Rate of blood loss Airway/Mental status Labs Preparation for the OR Call for help! Administer an oral or intravenous antacid You must obtain at least 2 large bore IVs Continue resuscitation with colloid/crystalloids until blood products become available Type and crossmatch PRBCs, 2-4 units Someone must call the blood bank FFP and Cryoprecipitate take 30-45 minutes to thaw Don’t forget rFactor VIIa and Kcentra Set up the OR Y tubing, fluid warmer, aline/central line, bair hugger, drugs Don’t forget ECMO!!!! Intraoperative Management Call for Help! RSI with cricoid pressure Hemodynamic monitoring (A-line, CVP, Foley) Keep the patient warm Send repeat labs Communication!!!! Decision to extubate depends on hemodynamic stability DO NOT REMOVE Epidural until coagulation profile has been normalized. Patient should be monitored in the ICU/IMU post operatively AFE: NURSING RESPONSIBILITIES QUICK RESPONSE IS THE KEY NURSING RESPONSIBILITIES Both Clark et al in the United States and Tuffnell2 in the United Kingdom have established national registries for suspected clinical occurrences of biphasic AFE. They agree on four hallmark signs of AFE: • acute hypotension or cardiac arrest • acute hypoxia • coagulopathy or severe clinical hemorrhage in the absence of other explanations • all of these events must occur during labor, cesarean birth, or dilatation and evacuation within 30 minutes postpartum. Clark et al have added one additional qualifier: absence of any other significant confounding condition or potential explanation of the hallmark signs and symptoms. NURSING RESPONSIBILITIES (cont’d.) In addition to the previously identified hallmark signs, the nurse should be alert for rapid decreases in blood pressure, sudden difficulty breathing, or any unexplained hemorrhage. TREATMENT Prompt preparation for delivery increases the likelihood of survival for both mother and baby. Usually emergency Cesarean section. Prompt delivery of the fetus removes the obstruction the gravid uterus presents to maternal resuscitation. MATERNAL OXYGENATION AND MONITORING Basic and advanced
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