SEX AND INFLUENCE: THE GENDERED NATURE OF CANADIAN POLITICAL CULTURE DURING THE ABERDEEN YEARS, 1893- 1898 By Arlis Barclay A thesis submitted in conformity with the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Graduate Department of Social Justice Education Ontario Institute for Studies in Education University of Toronto © Copyright by Arlis Barclay 2015 Arlis Barclay Doctor of Philosophy Department of Social Justice Education Ontario Institute for Studies in Education/University of Toronto 2015 Abstract This dissertation investigates the links between social and political life in Canada at the close of the nineteenth century through an exploration of the lived experience of four very different political wives. Building upon the important work of historians such as Leonore Davidoff and Catherine Hall, who successfully argued that women played key, if informal, roles in the world of nineteenth century politics and society, it generates new perspectives on the role of women and their influence on Canadian political culture. Drawing on personal letters, journals, newspaper articles and columns, as well as on memoirs, reminiscences, autobiographies, biographies and popular histories, this micro- historical study adds to our understanding of the subtle, varied and idiosyncratic ways that patriarchy and liberalism made an impact on the gendered experience of their everyday lives. If these political wives played an important role in the political life of late nineteenth century Canada, politics also played an important role in the creation of the synergistic friendships that developed among these women, friendships that in turn encouraged and directed their political activity. As this dissertation will argue, the ideology of separate spheres both enhanced and constrained the ability of these women to influence political culture, not by breaking down the boundaries of gender hierarchy but by working within them, reverencing separate spheres ideology and by sometimes astutely maneuvering accepted gender paradigms to achieve a measure of political influence The dissertation begins with an overview of the emblematic ceremonial representation of gender and politics, and provides a detailed examination of the micro-politics of social ii and married life to argue that women played a significant part in the construction and the consolidation of political culture in late nineteenth century Canada. iii Acknowledgements As anyone who has written a doctoral dissertation can testify, it is a lonely struggle to turn the research data into an articulate and comprehensible work. Fortunately, I never felt completely alone knowing that I enjoyed the support of so many people. I am most grateful to my supervisor, Ruth Sandwell, whose endless patience, constant support and encouragement carried me through to the end of this project. I owe an enormous debt of gratitude to Cecilia Morgan who supervised my M.A., helped me to begin my Ph.D. and started me on my way by suggesting a topic that would dominate my life for many years. Thanks also to Ruth and Cecilia for reading my often unintelligible rough drafts and helping me to dig deeper in understanding the meaning behind my sources. I extend my sincere thanks to my Committee members: Jan Noel, Elizabeth Smyth, Sara Burke and David Levine. It has been my privilege to receive their learned counsel. I offer additional thanks to David Levine, whose phone call to inform me that I had been accepted into the doctoral program at OISE/UT and his continued mentorship throughout the years proved to be a life changing experience for me. I offer my sincere good wishes to Franca Iacovetta for taking the initiative to introduce me to Cecilia Morgan while I was an undergraduate student in Franca’s class, and for her sage advice as I moved forward toward my defense date. I admire both her scholarship and her warmth. To Robert L. Fraser, Executive Director of the Dictionary of Canadian Biography, I cannot begin to express fully my gratitude for consistently being available to direct and encourage me when I most required it. iv I am thankful to the many archivists at the National Archives of Canada and the Provincial Archives of Ontario. Without exception, each one gave their courteous and knowledgeable assistance in accessing the materials that supported my research. I owe much to the administrative staff at OISE/UT who supported me when I wondered if I would ever finish this project. Thanks go to Karen Kaufman, Vesna Bajic, Sezen Atacan, Marion Morgan and Sylvia McCrae for office space, a friendly ear and a kind smile when most needed. I am grateful to Margaret Brennan and Mary Macdonell for helping me to acquire funding when I feared that I would have to quit and get a job in the “real world”. Many thanks go to Karolina Szymanski, Academic Liaison Officer who guided me through the details for the Final Oral Exam. My gratitude extends in no small way to Joe Fiorito of the Toronto Star who took an interest and published my story when I lost my thesis on the Toronto subway and had to begin again from scratch. It has indeed been a “long ride back”. My very special thanks go to my friends. Maureen Neil kindly shared her office space with me when I had none. To our mutual delight, we discovered that we share a profound sisterhood forged from extraordinary circumstances. Kamara Jeffrey proved to be the ideal person with whom to share a tiny windowless office that became my second home. I cannot imagine anyone else with whom I would prefer to share a space that was more a closet than an office. Additionally, it has been my good fortune to experience the kind- hearted friendship of Dorothy Goldin Rosenberg. I shall always hold the lovely memory of Dorothy waiting in the hall for me as I defended my thesis. Her presence was a most welcome sight as I waited anxiously to learn my fate. My eternal thanks go to my friend, Natalie Gold, who read each and every draft, of which there were many, and helped to edit out all of my superfluous commas. Natalie’s appreciation for my topic proved to be inexhaustible. I owe particular appreciation to my former classmate and dear friend, Danny Marks, who gave me inspirational words at my lowest point when I was struggling to recover from the loss of my thesis. Those kind words strengthened my v determination and enthusiasm to recover the project. Many thanks old friend. You were my muse. Lastly, I would like to thank my family. During my time at the National Archives in Ottawa, Peggy Peer gave me a warm bed, hot meals and a fascinated interest in my research. My beloved Uncle Bruce Barclay’s pride in my accomplishments has been a source of great joy for me. Sadly, neither Peggy nor Bruce lived to see me complete the task at hand. The remainders of these thanksgivings are for my son, Morgan and daughter, Lauren who rejoice in my accomplishment and for my husband, Francis, who frequently doubted the wisdom of my journey but nevertheless provided me with nutritious dinners and his unwavering love. In memory of my colleague Sean Coutts, 1966-2014. vi Table of Contents Introduction 1 Chapter One: Public Processions and Separate Spheres: The Symbolic Role of Women in Political Culture as Purveyors of National Identity and Imperial Civilization 28 Opening of Parliament: Pageantry, Allegory and Propaganda 30 The Political Role of Gender in National Identity 42 Political Wife: Signifier of Political Status 46 The Domestic Ideal and the Politics of Marriage 59 Chapter Two: Married to Political Culture: the Public Domestic Woman 67 Social Season in the Capital 91 Female Friendship and Female Power: Synergistic Exchange 96 Chapter Three: Learning by Example: Lady Aberdeen’s Legacy 114 The NCWC and the VON: Political Wife as Cultural Agent 136 Overcoming Opposition: The Politics of Maternal Feminism 142 Chapter Four: Woman’s Age: A New Gender Paradigm? 165 The Edgar Marriage 176 The Fetishization of Male Power 188 How Patriarchy Gave Meaning to Her Life 193 Synergistic Friendship Transforming Identity 198 Woman’s Age: A New Gender Paradigm? 201 vii Chapter Five: Patriarchal Bargains and Strategic Opportunities for Women 204 The Laurier Marriage 206 An Apolitical Woman 209 Sexual Double Standard: Divorce, Power and Structural Constraints 211 Structures of Power: Contested and Supported 218 Patriarchal Bargains 223 Synergistic Friendship, Transforming Identity and Social Capital 232 From Bonne Femme to Grand Dowager 234 Chapter Six: Separate Spheres Ideology and Political Influence 241 Lady Thompson: Architect of Thompson’s Political Career 242 Political Influence 264 Conclusion 280 Bibliography 292 viii Introduction There is a power in the land, which even the male legislators are forced to consider.1 The original purpose of this work was to investigate the links between Canadian political and social life in late nineteenth century Ottawa. What emerged from the archival research was a new and insightful recognition of the significance of the synergistic or mutually supportive friendship that developed among four political wives, Lady Aberdeen, Lady Thompson, Lady Laurier and Lady Edgar, who were close to the pinnacle of political power. This work examines the ways in which the nature of their friendship effectively helped to reposition their roles as cultural agents and increase their social and political influence. Ishbel Maria Marjoribanks Gordon, Lady Aberdeen, is the central figure of this work. She was the wife of John Hamilton Gordon, the seventh Earl (later, the 1st Marquis) of Aberdeen, and Canada’s sixth Governor General. Conspicuously different from any other consort to a Governor General of Canada, Ishbel Aberdeen is remembered for her social and political activism. Her extraordinary public role remains a topic for discussion by both political and social historians in Canada.