Microbiological Assessment of the Quality of Drinking Water in Households of Abonnema Community

International Journal of TROPICAL DISEASE & Health

41(3): 8-17, 2020; Article no.IJTDH.55148 ISSN: 2278–1005, NLM ID: 101632866

George Boma Orlando1*, Lawson Stephenson Danagogo2, Abiye Tamuno Opubo3 and Alabere Ibidabo4

1Department of Medical Biochemistry, College of Medical Science, Rivers State University, Nigeria. 2Department of Medical Microbiology, College of Medical Science, Rivers State University, Rivers State University Nkpolu, Port Harcourt, Nigeria. 3Department of Human Physiology. College of Medical Sciences, Rivers State University, Nigeria. 4Department of Community Medicine, University of Port Harcourt, Nigeria.

Authors’ contributions

This work was carried out in collaboration among all authors. Author GBO designed the study, performed the statistical analysis, wrote the protocol and wrote the first draft of the manuscript. Authors LSD and ATO managed the analyses of the study. Author AI managed the literature searches. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.

Article Information

DOI: 10.9734/IJTDH/2020/v41i330258 Editor(s): (1) Dr. Kamlesh Kumar Yadav, GBIT India Limited, India. (2) Dr. Shankar Srinivasan, School of Health Professions, USA. Reviewers: (1) Raúl Gutiérrez-Lucas, Universidad Autónoma Metropolitana ,México. (2) RD Mavunda, University of Johannesburg, South Africa. (3) Fatima Rezaye, Kabul Polytechnic University, Afghanistan. Complete Peer review History: http://www.sdiarticle4.com/review-history/55148

Received 10 January 2020 Original Research Article Accepted 16 March 2020 Published 04 April 2020

ABSTRACT

A descriptive cross-sectional study was carried out to identify the sources and assess the quality of drinking water in Abonnema Town of Rivers State, Nigeria. A semi-structured, interviewer- administered questionnaire and field observation were used to obtain information from 374 respondents on main sources of drinking water, time is taken to collect water from these sources per round trip, availability of main water source, water treatment methods and the sanitary conditions around water sources. A sample of water was collected from each of the six main water sources and analysed for bacteriological parameters. The most common source of drinking water ______

*Corresponding author: Email: [email protected];

Orlando et al.; IJTDH, 41(3): 8-17, 2020; Article no.IJTDH.55148

was well water (42.8%), followed by a borehole (33.7%). Packaged water (bottled and sachet) were the least utilized (8.6%). The majority (87.7%) of the respondents affirmed the constant availability of their main drinking water source and only a small proportion (8.6%) of the respondents spent more than 30 minutes in getting water per round trip. Only a small proportion (12.3%) of respondents practised water treatment. All the wells were in a poor sanitary state. All the samples had total coliform counts above the WHO standard of 0 MPN/100 ml, while 93% of the samples had E. coli counts above the WHO standard of 0 MPN/100 ml. The community had no problems with accessibility and availability of drinking water, but water quality was poor thereby considered unsafe for drinking. The community should be educated on cheap water purification methods.

Keywords: Water; bacteria; access; availability.

1. INTRODUCTION children under the age of five die every day from diarrhoeal diseases and 1,800 of these deaths Domestic water supply is one of the necessities are linked to water, sanitation and hygiene [6]. In for human life; in the absence of water, human 2015, about 68.5% of the total Nigerian existence cannot be guaranteed. It plays a vital population had access to an improved water role in almost all body functions, protects the supply. This was 80.8% of the urban population immune system, and helps remove waste matter and 57.3% of the rural residents however, 57.8 [1]. Although most of the earth's surface is million people lacked access to improved water covered by water, only a little portion is [7]. In recent times there have been repeated obtainable as surface and groundwater for outbreaks of cholera in Andoni Local human use as most of it is located in oceans, Government Area of Rivers State, Nigeria. These trapped in glaciers and ice caps which are not outbreaks have been associated with huge accessible for domestic use [2]. The basic mortalities. The source of these outbreaks has physiological requirement for drinking water has been traced to poor quality of drinking water in been estimated at 2 litres per capita per day the Local Government area [8]. This study is to which is just enough for survival [3]. The World determine the various sources of drinking water, Health Organization (WHO) states that domestic accessibility and availability of these sources and water consumption of 30-35 litres per capita per the microbiological quality of drinking water day is the minimum domestic water supply is one available to residents of Abonema, Rivers state. of the necessities for human life; in the absence of water, human existence cannot be 2. METHODOLOGY guaranteed. It plays a vital role in almost all body functions, protects the immune system, and 2.1 Study Area helps remove waste matter [4]. The microbial and assessment of drinking water may be the The study was carried out in Abonnema, the only criteria used in resource-poor settings. The largest town in Akuku-Toru Local Government commonest source of microbial contamination is Area of Rivers State. Abonnema lies in the through faecal pollution and WHO advocates that mangrove rain forest region of Rivers state, all drinking water should at least be tested for between latitude 4.7111 N and longitude 6.7911 Escherichia coli, the presence which indicates E. It occupies a land space of 1443 km square definite faecal pollution [1]. (557 sq. mi). It is surrounded by the Sombrero River which empties into the Atlantic Ocean. The Contaminated water can transmit diseases such common sources of drinking water available to diarrhoea, cholera, dysentery, typhoid, hepatitis residents of Abonnema town are wells, borehole A etc. Diarrhoea, is the commonest waterborne and sachet water commonly called “pure water”. disease with an estimated annual incidence of Municipal water supply and treatment plant were 4.6 billion episodes, and causes 2.2 million constructed by the Government to serve the deaths annually [5]. Ingesting unsafe water is inhabitants of Abonnema. Presently this system said to be responsible for 361,000 diarrhoeal is no longer functional. deaths in under-five children [6]. In Nigeria, around 45,000 children under five years of age 2.2 Sample Size Determination die every year from diarrhoea caused by unsafe water and poor sanitation [6]. According to The sample size for determining the number of UNICEF Water and Sanitation Monitoring households was determined using the following Platform reports, globally an estimated 2,000 formula:

Orlando et al.; IJTDH, 41(3): 8-17, 2020; Article no.IJTDH.55148

n= z² p¹q1 4 wards each, while the third interviewer covered d2 5 wards.

Where; 2.4 Study Instrument

n = Sample size Semi-structured questionnaires were Z = Probability distribution (1.96) administered to household heads or their p¹ = National prevalence of households with representatives (interviewer-administered) using improved water supply = 67% [5]. SRS the first household to visit was determined using the days date and applying the left-hand q¹ =1- p¹ rule, the dwelling structure corresponding to the days date or the sum of digits of the date was 1-67=33% (0.33% considered first to start with, then every other house to the left was selected. d = Precision at 5% (0.05) 2.5 Study Procedure Therefore, Six water samples were collected for analysis (1.96)² x 0.67¹ x 0.33¹ ÷ (0.05)² from two public boreholes, two public wells, a mono tap, and a brand of sachet water. About 1 Thus, the minimum sample size was 340 L of each sample was put in sterile bottles households. Ten per cent of the calculated (Pyrex®). Samples for chemical parameter minimum sample size added to take care of non- analysis were stored in cuvettes. The nozzles of response: the taps were disinfected with ethanol and candle flame before sample collection. Well, water 0.1x 340= 34 samples were collected using sterile containers. The bottles were be properly labelled before 34+340=374 collection of the sample. All samples were stored in coolers containing ice packs and transported To determine the sources and availability of to the laboratory for immediate analysis. For drinking water to residents of Abonnema, the microbiological parameters, 10 ml of each sampling frame was 13 political wards in sample was cultured in MacConkey broth for 48 Abonnema, hours. Colonies were then identified and counted using the colony counter as previously described [9]. 374÷13= 29 2.6 Data Analysis 2.3 Sampling Method Data were entered into Microsoft Excel and For analysis of water, the sample frame exported to the Statistical Package for Social consisted of all the different public sources of Sciences (SPSS) version 20 for statistical drinking water within the Abonnema community. analysis. Data presentation involved tables and All the drinking water sources in each compound charts as appropriate. Qualitative variables were were identified and counted, the available pure expressed as proportions while quantitative water brands were also identified and counted. variables were summarized using means and The most popularly consumed pure water brand standard deviation. Differences in proportions was selected for the study, while the most were compared using a Fisher's exact test when frequently utilized public boreholes, wells and the expected cell value was below five in at least mono tap were identified out of which two twenty per cent of the cells. The differences in boreholes, two wells and one public mono tap mean values across the sources of drinking were randomly selected using ballot method. water were compared using one-way Analysis of Thus, a total of six water sources were selected Variance (ANOVA/F-test). A p-value of less than for the study. Using the proportionate stratified 0.05 was considered statistically significant. sampling method, the calculated sample size of 374 households were split into 29 households 3. RESULTS per ward. The 29 households were selected from each political ward by simple random sampling, 3 A total of 32 public sources of drinking water interviewers where used, 2 interviewers covered were identified in the study community. Public

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wells were the most available (46.9%), followed trip of collecting drinking water (access), only by boreholes (34.4%), mono-taps were the least 8.3% (31??) of the respondents spent more than available (18.6%) as shown in Table 2. 30 minutes in getting drinking water.

The table shows that a greater proportion Mean value for total coliforms for both well water (42.8%) of respondents utilizes well water, samples is 1360 ± 622.3, for both borehole followed by a borehole (33.7%), packaged water samples 355 ± 106.1, no significant difference (sachet and bottle) had the lowest utilization was found in mean for total coliform amongst the (8.6%) as shown in Table 3. water samples (p=0.2141). Mean value for E. coli Table 4 shows that the majority (87.7%) 328 of for both well water samples is 123± 151.3, for the respondents affirmed to the constant both borehole samples 15± 1.41, no significant availability of their source of drinking water, while difference was found in mean for E. coli amongst only 12.3% (46??) of them stated otherwise. In the water samples (p=0.2141) as shown in determining the time taken to complete a round Table 5.

Table 1. Socio-demographic characteristics of respondents

Variables Frequency (n = 374) Percentage (%) Age category ˂20 years 6 1.6 20 - 29 years 76 20.3 30 - 39 years 103 27.5 40 - 49 years 90 24.1 50 - 59 years 67 17.9 ≥ 60 years 32 8.6 Sex Male 170 45.5 Female 204 54.5 Educational level completed None 22 5.9 Primary 35 9.4 Secondary 234 62.6 Tertiary 83 22.2 Occupation Petty trading 149 39.8 Fishing 80 21.4 Farming 9 2.4 Civil servant 89 23.8 Others* 47 12.6 Mean age ± S.D: 40.6±13.3 years

Table 2. Total number of drinking water sources identified within Abonnema community

Sources Frequency Percentage (%) Well 15 46.9 Boreholes 11 34.4 mono tap 6 18.6 Total 32 100.0

Table 3. Main sources of drinking water utilized by households

Sources of water Frequency (n) Percentage (%) Well 160 42.8 Borehole 126 33.7 Mono tap 56 15.0 Sachet 31 8.3 Bottled 1 0.3 Total 374 100

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Table 4. Availability and accessibility of drinking water amongst respondents

Variables n % Availability Yes 328 87.7 No 46 12.3 Access ≤ 30 mins 343 91.7 > 30 mins 31 8.3

Table 5. Mean statistics of the microbiological quality of drinking water from selected sources

Variables Sources of drinking water ANOVA P-value Well Borehole Mono-tap Sachet Mean ± S.D Mean ± S.D Mean ± S.D Mean ±S.D Total coliform 1360±622.3 355 ± 106.1 1600 ± 0.0 4 ± 0.0 3.8271 0.2141 (MPN/100 ml) Escherichia 123 ± 151.3 15 ± 1.41 170 ± 0.0 0 ± 0.0 0.4559 0.7412 coli(MPN/100 ml) S.D - Standard deviation

Table 6 shows that microbiological analysis of all utilized well water, followed by a borehole, the water samples revealed that all samples had least utilized source of drinking water was bottled total coliform count ranging from 4 to 1,800 water as only 1(0.3%) respondent affirmed to MPN/100 ml. From the table, well water sample using it. This finding is in keeping with various A hard the highest total coliform contamination works done in Ondo state, south-west Nigeria (1,800 MPN/100 ml), followed by mono tap water where hand-dug wells were found to be the (1,600 MPN/100 ml), pure water was the least commonest source of drinking water, followed by contaminated (4 MPN/100 ml). The same borehole water [12], it also corresponds with pattern was observed for Escherichia coli research done in Bangladesh by WHO and (E. coli), Values obtained range from 0-230 UNICEF, were the majority of the rural population MPN/100 ml, sachet water had no E. coli, while depend on groundwater sources (well, borehole) well water sample A had the highest level of E. for drinking [5]. Also, research is done in, Nigeria coli contamination (230 MPN/100 ml), followed by WHO/UNICEF show similar findings across by mono tap water (170 MPN/100 ml) borehole Northern Nigeria [8]. However, the result differs sample B and well water sample B both had from RADQW report on drinking water sources in values of 16 MPN/100 ml, while borehole sample Rivers State were the majority of respondents B had a value 14 MPN /100 ml. depended on rain and surface water, followed by boreholes, well water was the least source [8]. It The bar chart above shows that none of the also differs from similar research done across water samples met the WHO criteria for total several Niger Delta rural communities where coliform while only 1.7% met the WHO criteria for surface water was observed to be the Escherichia coli. commonest source of drinking water [1,13]. Studies are done across some northern states of 4. DISCUSSION Nigeria also contradicts the above findings as surface water (ponds, streams, rivers) are mostly The most common drinking water sources utilized for drinking (Tasi’u et al, 2016). Also, a identified were public wells, followed by public similar study was done in Jama’a LGA of Kaduna boreholes. This finding agrees with work done in state and Osogbo, Osun state show municipal Niger State [10] but disagrees with studies done pipe-borne water supply as the commonest in Kano state and the Niger Delta region, where source of drinking water [14,15]. Well, water and surface water constituted the commonest source public borehole are the commonest sources of of drinking [11]. Abonnema is surrounded by the drinking water in Abonnema community because Sombreiro River which empties into the Atlantic there is presently no municipal water supply Ocean, the high saline content of the seawater system in the community, a water project was deters it from being utilized for drinking and other commenced in 2010 but abandoned by the domestic purposes. Majority of the respondent's contractors, residents hardly ever utilize surface

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Table 6. WHO standard on bacteriological quality against findings on the bacteriological parameters of drinking water from the sampled sources

Parameters Sources of drinking water WHO Well water Well water Borehole Borehole Mono-tap Sachet standard sample A sample B sample A sample B Total coliform 0 1,800 920 430 280 1600 4 (MPN/100 ml) E. coli (MPN/100 ml) 0 230 16 14 16 170 0

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Fig 1. Proportion of drinking water sources that met the WHO standard for microbiological quality of drinking water water because of the high saline content. Most similar study carried out in Simada, Ethiopia [9] residents prefer well water as against borehole and Kpankungu, Niger State [17]. WHO water because they believe it is a more reliable stipulates that the time taken to collect drinking source as it is always available, unlike the water per round trip should not exceed 30 borehole that depends on electricity. minutes (WHO, 2004), from our findings, there is no problem with accessibility and availability of The findings of this study also revealed more drinking water in the community, this can be wells than boreholes, thus the wells may be a explained by the presence of several boreholes, more available and accessible source of drinking wells and mono tap spread around the water when compared to other sources. community, our findings showed that each Packaged water (Bottled, sachet water) were compound had at least 2 public wells and seen as the least utilized because of the cost of boreholes and a mono tap. getting them. From the findings above, it can be concluded that most residents of the study Total coliform count in all the tested water community do not utilize improved water sources samples ranged from 4 MPN/100 ml -1, 800 because boreholes and pipe-borne water are MPN/100 ml. WHO guideline states that there classified by WHO/UNICEF as the improved should be no coliform in drinking water, this water sources that are more hygienic and safer shows that all the water samples tested were for consumption as compared to wells [5]. unfit for drinking as they were all Majority of the respondents affirmed to the microbiologically contaminated and would require availability of their source of drinking water, while treatment to render them safe for consumption. only 12.3% of them stated otherwise, this shows The presence of coliforms in water indicates that there is no problem with availability of there is a source of contamination, according to drinking water in the community and is in keeping Garba et al. [10] wells and boreholes located with research work done in Bosso town, Niger close to pit latrines and septic soak away tanks state [10], however, findings differ from works are usually laden with microbial contamination. done in Bangladesh, India was the majority of the Breakage or leakage of the pipes along the residents complained about the availability of distribution system can also lead to drinking water [5]. contamination of the water. Poor sanitary conditions of well also encourage microbial In determining accessibility, only 8.3% of the contamination [10]. respondents spent more than 30 minutes in getting drinking water. This finding is in support From our assessment, although no sources of of what was observed by Ordinoha [1] and contamination could be identified, the wells were surveys done by the national population in poor sanitary condition (unprotected). Well, commission [16]. The result differs from the water sample A had the highest coliform count

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(1,800 MPN/100 ml), though the depth of the community are at risk of contracting several boreholes could not be ascertained, it has been water-borne diseases e.g. salmonellosis, reported that the greater the borehole depths the shigellosis, cholera, hepatitis etc. which could less likely it is to be contaminated [18]. Water lead to death. from the boreholes was stored in overhead tanks which appeared dirty, these tanks and dirty pipe 5. CONCLUSION connections could be sources of microbial contamination. Sachet water had the least The study shows that most residents of coliform count of 4 MPN/100 ml, going by Abonemma community rely mostly on Nigerian standard of drinking water was the cut- groundwater sources for drinking. These sources off mark is set at 10 MPN/100 ml [9]. It is are available and accessible but unsafe for considered safe for drinking, using WHO drinking, as they were all heavily contaminated standards it is unsafe for drinking. The presence with faecal bacteria. The inspected wells were of coliforms in packaged water could be unprotected and could be easily contaminated. attributed to poor water treatment, poor sanitary Water treatment practice was found to be very conditions of the packaging environ- poor in the community, and this presents a ment, inadequate sterilization of equipment used problem due to the poor water quality. To [19]. achieve the Sustainable development goal 6, all the stakeholders at the federal, state and local Results were similar to various studies done government levels, have to exhibit commitment across the country [19,20,21]. A similar study and political will in ensuring that potable water carried out in Bosso Town [10] contradicts our supply becomes accessible to all finding on sachet water as no coliform was seen residents of Abonemma community and the in analysed sachet water, the author attributed Nation at large. this to the regulatory activities of the National Agency for Food and Drug Administration Control DISCLAIMER

(NAFDAC). No significant difference was found The products used for this research are for total coliforms amongst all the water samples commonly and predominantly use products in our (p=0.2141). area of research and country. There is no conflict Findings show Escherichia coli count ranging of interest between the authors and producers of from 0- 230 MPN/100 ml in the water samples. the products because we do not intend to use As observed with the total coliforms, well water A these products as an avenue for any litigation but had the highest E. coli count (230 MPN/100 ml), the advancement of knowledge. Also, the while pure water had no E. coli. This shows that research was not funded by the producing well A had the most microbial contamination, well company rather it was funded by the personal A was shallower than well B, it was also located efforts of the authors. close to a school playground, thus contamination CONSENT AND ETHICAL APPROVAL form students faeces around the playground could be washed into the well because the well Before embarking on this research ethical had no cover. E. coli is a more specific indicator clearance was sought and obtained from the of faecal contamination because it is the only university ethical committee, also the nature of member of the total coliform group found in the the study was explained to compound heads (or intestines of mammals. The presence of E. coli representatives) before sample collection from indicates recent faecal contamination and may each point, permission was obtained from indicate the presence of other pathogens [22]. participants and the questionnaires were Several studies done in various states report administered on a one on one basis. similar results [21]. COMPETING INTERESTS Ordinoha reported higher E. coli count in surface water samples when compared to groundwater Authors have declared that no competing samples, this could be because water bodies interests exist. served as sites for defecation in some communities. Drinking contaminated water puts REFERENCES people at risk of several water-borne diseases which could lead to death, as was seen in 1. Ordinoha B. Principles and practice of Queens College, Lagos earlier this year. The environmental health in Nigeria. Rural report above shows that residents of the study Health Forum. 2010;30:36-39.

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