The Life and Networks of Pamela Fitzgerald, 1773-1831 Laura Mather Department of History Mary Immaculate College, Limerick Supervisor: Dr Liam Chambers External Examiner: Dr Catriona Kennedy Internal Examiner: Dr Clodagh Tait Submitted to the University of Limerick in fulfilment of the thesis requirement for the degree of M.A. (by research and thesis) in History 2017 Abstract This thesis assesses the life of Pamela Fitzgerald. Crucially, it will attempt to tell the story of Pamela Fitzgerald from her own perspective, rather than the viewpoint of her husband, which has dominated for so long. The structure of the thesis follows the chronology of Pamela’s life from her birth, around 1773, to her death in 1831. Chapter one considers the period from 1773 to 1792. The main issue of this chapter is the debate about Pamela’s birth. Moreover, the chapter places Pamela’s early life within the networks of Madame de Genlis, the political backdrop of the early French Revolution and, particularly the Reign of Terror, the main factors in both Pamela’s departure from France and her marriage to Lord Edward Fitzgerald. The second chapter focuses on Pamela’s experiences in Ireland between 1793 and 1797. This chapter intertwines Pamela’s domestic and political lives, assessing her relationship with the Fitzgerald family network, her life as wife and mother, and her involvement in radical politics. The third chapter covers the pivotal year in Pamela’s life: 1798. This chapter analyses the build-up to the 1798 Rebellion, and Pamela’s and Edward’s involvement. It traces the manner in which Pamela coped with the Edward’s death and the circumstances in which she found herself. The fourth chapter encompasses the final thirty two years of Pamela’s life, covering her continuing relationship with the Fitzgeralds, her second marriage, to Joseph Pitcairn, her contacts with Madame de Genlis and, more generally, the challenges of her life in Hamburg, England, Austria and France in the early nineteenth century. Pamela died, in 1831, in the Hôtel Danube on the outskirts of Paris. i Declaration I hereby declare that this thesis represents my own work and has not been submitted, in whole or in part, by me or any other person, for the purpose of obtaining any other qualification. Signed: _______________________________ Date: _______________________________ ii Table of Contents ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS iv INTRODUCTION 1 CHAPTER 1: BIRTH AND EARLY LIFE, 1773-1792 11 CHAPTER 2: DOMESTICITY AND POLITICS IN IRELAND, 1793-1797 51 CHAPTER 3: REBELLION, 1798 103 CHAPTER 4: EXILE, FAMILY AND SURVIVAL, 1799-1831 159 CONCLUSION 214 BIBLIOGRPAHY 218 iii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I would like to express my deepest gratitude to my supervisor Dr Liam Chambers. Without his guidance, patience and encouragement this project would not have come about. To the history department in Mary Immaculate College, I would also like to thank for their support, guidance and advice throughout the thesis. I would like to thank the staff of the institutions and archives that assisted my research: National Library of Ireland, Trinity College Dublin, National Archives of Ireland Public Record Office Northern Ireland, British Library, Bodleian Library, Archive nationales France, Bibliothèque natioanel de France, Bibliothèque de l’Arsenal, OPW-Maynooth University Archive and Research Centre and the Russell Library of Maynooth University. The abundant amount of primary source material made this project possible, for which I am grateful. A sincerest thanks to my family who were a constant support for me. Especially my parents, MJ and Teresa; sisters, Ellener, Shelby, Jennifer and Amy and brothers Michael and John. Also the support of my friends Michelle Enright and Triona Waters. iv Introduction This thesis provides a comprehensive study of the life and networks of Pamela Fitzgerald, 1773-1831. 1 As the dissertation will explain, Pamela’s birth has been the subject of controversy and debate. This work will argue that the subject was born in England, around 1773. In 1779, Nathaniel Parker Forth, former secretary to the British embassy, was commissioned by Louis Philippe, the duke of Orléans, to find a young English girl to assist in the education of his children. As a result, Pamela moved to France and was raised in the care of Madame de Genlis, who was responsible for the education of the Orléans children. In 1792, the midst of the French Revolution Pamela married Lord Edward Fitzgerald, the fifth son of James Fitzgerald, the duke of Leinster and his wife, Emily. The couple moved to Ireland in 1793, where Edward became increasingly involved in radical politics, culminating in his arrest as a United Irish leader in May 1798. Edward subsequently died in prison as a result of wounds sustained during his arrest. Pamela found herself widowed with three young children and exiled from Ireland and Britain. She found refuge in Hamburg, where she remarried in 1800, to Joseph Pitcairn, an American consul. However, the marriage did not last and although they were not legally separated, they parted ways in 1813. Pamela lived the remainder of her life in challenging financial difficulties and died in Paris on 7 November 1831. Pamela’s eventful life provides the opportunity for a case study of the female experience of revolution and its aftermath in late eighteenth and early nineteenth century Europe. 1 The subject of this dissertation is best known to historians as Pamela Fitzgerald. According to one account, discussed below, her birth name was either Stephanie Caroline Anne Sims or Nancy Sims 1 The most significant primary sources for this study are the manuscript collections pertaining to the wider Fitzgerald family. The extensive Lennox/Fitzgerald/Campbell papers, held in the National Library of Ireland, provide a crucial basis for the dissertation. This collection includes significant material written by Pamela, as well as correspondence concerning Pamela between family members. These provide first-hand insights into Pamela’s life and experiences. While these papers have only recently been made available to the public, they were utilised and referenced in two significant pieces of historical work relating to Pamela: Gerard Campbell, Edward and Pamela Fitzgerald: being some account of their lives compiled from the letters of those who knew them (London, 1904) and Lucy Ellis and Joseph Turquan, La belle Paméla, 1773-1831. D'après des correspondances et mémoires inédits, des traditions et documents de famille (New York, 1925). These authors were descendants of Edward and Pamela Fitzgerald, a connection which coloured their interpretations. Moreover, they are marked by early twentieth century approaches to the past, notably on the history of women. The focus of these studies was mainly the political activities of Edward Fitzgerald, with Pamela relegated to a secondary role. The original correspondence covers the pivotal moments in Pamela’s life such as her arrival in Ireland in 1793, her pregnancies and her situation following Edward’s death in 1798. The Lennox/Fitzgerald portion of the papers also contain extensive correspondence which details the development of Pamela’s relationship with her wider family, her involvement in Edward’s politics, her domestic life and the early part of her life following her husband’s death. The Campbell portion of the papers, relating mainly to the family of Pamela Campbell (Pamela Fitzgerald’s eldest daughter) contained very little material directly relating to her mother. The National Library of Ireland also holds the important Conolly-Napier papers and Leinster papers. The Conolly-Napier papers include some material relating to Pamela, particularly in relation to the events of 1798. The Leinster 2 papers contained material relating to the attainder against Edward Fitzgerald and the impact of this on Pamela. The dissertation also draws on manuscript collections held in a range of other repositories. The Rebellion papers, held in the National Archives of Ireland, contain important sources concerning the extent of Pamela’s involvement in the United Irishmen. In the Trinity College, Dublin, the Sirr and Madden papers were examined. While the Sirr papers contained sparse material relating to Pamela, they did hold extensive material on Edward and his political activities in the weeks preceding the 1798 Rebellion. The Madden papers contain the manuscripts compiled by R. R Madden as he composed his influential The United Irishmen: their lives and times. 2 Madden made one of the most comprehensive analyses of Pamela’s parentage and early life. His papers contain accounts prepared by a number of French correspondents in the 1850s. The Public Record Office of Northern Ireland also contains important material on Pamela and her networks. The most predominant collections are the Strutt papers and Leinster papers. The Strutt papers contain letters exchanged between Emily Fitzgerald, the duchess of Leinster (Edward’s mother) and her daughter Lucy (Edward’s sister), who developed a close relationship with Pamela in the mid-1790s. These letters, the majority written after 1800, reveal the often complex relationship that Pamela maintained with her husband’s family after his death in 1798. Significantly, these letters were not drawn upon in the works of either Campbell, or Ellis and Turquan. The Leinster papers contain a range of material relating to Pamela, documenting her involvement in Edward’s affairs, her parentage and her agreement with the Fitzgerald family in relation to financial aid after Edward’s death. The A.P.W. Malcomson (depositor) papers include letters written between Pamela and 2 Richard R. Madden, The United Irishmen: their lives and times, second series (2nd ser., 2nd ed., 7 vols, Dublin, 1857-1860), vol. 2, pp 475-551. 3 General George Harcourt, her fiancée momentarily in 1798, which have not been used by previous historians. The dissertation also draws on collections in P.R.O.N.I. with more modest documentation relating to Pamela: the Bunbury papers, the DeRos papers, the Granard papers, the McPeake (depositor) papers, the Normanton papers and the correspondence between Lady Louis Conolly and her sisters, Lady Sarah Napier and Emily, duchess of Leinster.