Macedonian Ecological Society Institute of Biology, Faculty of Natural Sciences and Mathematics 1000 ,

Study on the Threats to Vultures (Aegypiinae) in Macedonia

Compiled by

Metodija Velevski

With contributions of: Prof. Dr. Ljupčo Melovski, Todor Ivanovski, Dimitar Rolevski Bratislav Grubač and Tome Lisičanec

The preparation of this study was supported by the grant of Frankfurt Zoological Society and the help of Black Vulture Conservation Foundation.

Skopje, May 2003 CONTENTS

Introduction ...... 3

1. Killing ...... 3 2. Poisoning ...... 8 3. Electrocution...... 10 4. Egg and chicks theft ...... 13 5. Habitat loss...... 14 5.1. Existing road network...... 14 5.2. Road construction...... 15 5.3. Dams...... 16 5.4. Aforestation ...... 16 5.5. Forest fires ...... 17 6. Lack of suitable breeding sites ...... 18 7. Disturbance ...... 19 7.1. Military exercises ...... 19 7.2. Alpine climbing ...... 19 7.3. Aircraft disturbance ...... 20 7.4. Quarries ...... 20 7.5. Hunting and shooting ...... 20 7.6. War conflicts ...... 21 8. Food shortage...... 21 9. Food competition ...... 22 10. Minimal population number ...... 22 11. Low breeding potential ...... 23 References ...... 25

2 INTRODUCTION

The trend of vulture populations decline in Europe in the last century resulted with the narrowing of the distribution range. Among the last strongholds were vulture populationson the Balkan Peninsula. Vulture populations in Macedonia were not extinct, but survived on the level of stabile populations or below the critical minimum. It is obvious that the decline is existing trend in nowadays. The reason for the vulture populations decline is mainly anthropogenic influence and non-existence of active system for their protection. During our research we have identified several negative factors that influenced the vulture populations. These threats are more or less the same for other regions in Europe. Slow industrial and traffic infrastructure development as well as maintaining traditional farming practices to some extent and extensive tourism were factors that resulted with preservation of wildlife in general and vulture populations at some sites. According to the recent estimations there are about 40-48 pairs of Griffon Vulture, 60-85 pairs of in Macedonia. The situation of Black and is far more critical and the existence of breeding pairs have not been confirmed recently. Factors that vultures faced and resulted with their number decline were especially intensive after the World War II. Most of them led to the total disappearance of vultures in some regions and significant number decline in other regions. In continuation we give overview of the identified threats as reasons for the decline with the known cases. Data on these cases were derived from literature sources and rarely by interviews with experts that could provide some data as well as local inhabitants (farmers, shepherds, hunters etc.). The threats were analyzed for each species separately and their importance was assessed. The assessment performed is based only on accessible data and thus can not provide complete coverage of the situation. However, the conclusions can be used as a suitable base for the preparation of conservation plans of vultures in Macedonia and will be helpful in the preparation of the National Action Plan of Recovery and Conservation of Vultures.

1. KILLING

In the period during the World War I (1914-1918), than between the two world wars and after the World War Two, killing of large birds of prey was common practice. According to Dr. T. Petkovski (pers. comm.), a reward was paid to every hunter that would bring a leg of - larger the leg - greater the reward. This high rate of killing is also officially documented - in 1953/1954, according to the Annual of the Republical Department for Statistics (1955), 452 "carcass-eating eagles" were killed (the Annual gives separately information of Falcons (232 killed), Hawks (690), Owls (119) and "carcass-eating eagles", without detailed information for eagles and vultures. It is to be assumed that larger portion of this number refers to eagles, as most of the birds (200) were killed in the region of , which is not a "hot-spot" for vultures. Second on the list is Region (89 birds) and third Skopje Region (74). There are no data for killing of Birds of Prey in the following volumes of the Statistical Annual). Sparse exact data for killing of vultures can mostly be found in specialized publications. Short overview for the killing of each species is given in Table 1 and Fig. 1 and 2.

3 Tab. 1 Overview of killed vultures in Macedonia

Number of Species No. Date Locality Region Author birds killed 1 1924-1936 region SW Macedonia 1 ad Matvejev 1955 2 23/04/1938 ? Macedonia 1 ad Ivanovski 2000 3 1939 Gevgelija S Macedonia 1 ad Ivanovski 2000 4 1950-1975 Crna Reka Gorge S Macedonia 2 ex Grubač 2002 atus b 5 1950-1975 Kozjak, C Macedonia 1 ex Grubač 2002

us bar 6 1950-1975 Treska Gorge ? 1 ex Grubač 2002 t e

a 7 1950-1975 Korab Mt. SW Macedonia 1 ex Grubač 2002

Gyp 1 ex (prob. men. 8 ? Mariovo S Macedonia Trpkov 1987 in Grubac 2002) 9 1989 river Buturica, Mariovo S Macedonia 1 imm Grubač 1991 Total birds killed 10-11 1 July-September 1917 ? Macedonia 1 Gengler 1920 2 1927 Dolno Lisiče near Skopje N Macedonia 1 Karaman 1928 3 1924 - 1941 Struga region SW Macedonia 2 (ad & juv) Matvejev 1955

chus 4 30/01/1940 Kočani region E Macedonia 1 Ivanovski 2000 a n

o 5 around 1953 near Radoviš E Macedonia 1 Grubač 1998 m 6 May 1977 Kriva Lakavica river E Macedonia 1 juv Grubač 1998 7 August 1978 Kožuf Mt S Macedonia 2 Grubač 1998

Aegypius 8 Aug.-Sept. 1988 Šar Planina Mt NW Macedonia 1 juv Grubač 1998 9 March 1982 Crna Reka gorge S Macedonia 1 female Grubač 1998 Total birds killed 11 1 1914-1918 and after Matka Gorge N Macedonia many Karaman 1928, 1949 2 1927 v. Dolno Lisice, Skopje N Macedonia 5 Karaman 1928 3 23/12/1954 v. Dolno Sonje, Skopje N Macedonia 1 Ivanovski 2000 4 1962 Trubarevo, Skopje N Macedonia 1 Trpkov 1987

fulvus 5 23/01/1973 Veles C Macedonia 1 Ivanovski 2000 6 21/02/1988 Region C Macedonia 1 Ivanovski 2000 Gyps 7 15/03/1993 Veles region C Macedonia 1 Ivanovski 2000 8 10/10/2001 Konce, Serta Mt. S Macedonia 1 Rolevski, pers. comm Total birds killed unknown, > 20 1 before 1928 Skopje region N Macedonia many Karaman 1928 2 04/07/1939 Skopje region N Macedonia 1 ad & 1 juv Ivanovski 2000 erus t 3 10/07/1939 Skopje region N Macedonia 1 ad Ivanovski 2000 nop

c 4 12/03/1969 Matka N Macedonia 1 juv Ivanovski 2000 without exact 5 1970-1985 ? Macedonia Trpkov 1987 number on per 6 before 1989 ? S Macedonia 4 ex Grubač 1989 7 10/08/1996 Negotino region C Macedonia 1 ad Ivanovski 2000 Neophr Total birds killed unknown

4

Bearded Vulture Gypäetus barbatus Karaman (1928, 1949) states that Bearded vultures were killed in large numbers by the German soldiers during the World War I in the Matka canyon and many skins were exported for collections. Makatcsh (1950) reports that 1 adult female was killed near , on 17.05.1916. According to Matvejev (1955) in the Natural History Museum in Struga one specimen of the Bearded vulture exist, probably killed in the wider region of Lake (most likely Jablanica Mt, where the dot is placed, but also might be Galičica Mt., between Ohrid and Prespa Lake) between 1924-1936. In the Natural History Museum of Macedonia in Skopje one adult bearded Vulture killed in the region of Gevgelija during 1939 is exposed. Another bird, dated 23.04.1938, is without data for the locality (Ivanovski, 2000 in litt.). According to the inquiery of Grubač (Grubač, 2002), in the period from 1950 to 1975 five Bearded Vultures have been killed: 2 ex. in the gorge of Crna Reka, 1 at Kozjak near Prilep, 1 in the gorge of Treska and 1 at Korab Mt. Trpkov (1987) states that one bird was killed in Mariovo and was kept in the collection of the local hunting organization. It is possible that this bird is one of the birds already mentioned by Grubač (2002) for Crna Reka gorge. Grubač (1990) reports that one bird (the female) of the pair breeding in Northwestern Macedonia was probably killed in 1980/1981. One immature Bearded Vulture was killed in 1989 in the gorge of river Buturica (tributary of Crna Reka, Mariovo Region) (Grubač 1991). Probably there were other not registered cases of killing of the Bearded Vulture. Due to small present number of birds, the killing rate is very low at present times. Importance: potentially critical

Black Vulture Aegypius monachus The killing is considered as second most important factor for disappearance of the species in Macedonia (Grubač 1998). During the World War I German soldiers among other vulture species were also killing the Black vultures (one bird in July-September 1917, Gengler 1920 in Grubač 1998). One bird was killed in 1927 at v. Dolno Lisiče near Skopje (Karaman 1928). In the Natural History Museum in Struga two specimens are kept (adult and juvenile bird), killed in the period between 1924 and 1941, in the adjacent region (Matvejev 1955). Specimen (probably killed bird) is kept in the Natural History Museum of Macedonia, dating 30.01.1940 (Kočani region) (Ivanovski, 2000). One bird was killed near Radoviš (v. Dedino) around 1953 (Grubač 1998). Another five birds are reported killed between 1977 and 1988 (Grubač 1998): one bird was killed in the nest in the valley of Kriva Lakavica river (v. Suvo Grlo) in May 1977; Two birds were killed at Kožuf Mt. in August 1978; A young bird was killed in the nest at Šar Planina Mt. in August-September 1988; One bird (female) was killed at Crna Reka gorge in Mariovo in March 1982.

5 Many other cases probably remain unknown, but mentioned ones show that the killing of this species was common phenomenon and equally widespread across the Country. Today the Black Vulture is so scarce that the possibility of killing is very low. But, poaching takes place in Tikveš Strict Nature Reserve and the one (two?) birds regularly occurring there are in permanent danger. Importance: potentially critical

Fig.1 Locations and dates of killed vultures in Macedonia (light green - Egyptian Vulture; violet - Black Vulture)

Griffon Vulture Gyps fulvus Karaman (1928, 1949) states that many birds were killed during the World War I at gorge Matka, but also afterwards by unconscientiously hunters, who killed them for trophies. He also reports that five birds were killed at carcass near Dolno Lisiče (Skopje region), in 1927. They were also killed for fun, from non-hunters at Matka canyon, where visitors were also taking eggs and chicks from the nests (Karaman, 1928). One bird was killed at hunting grounds at Skopje (Trubarevo) in 1962. It is kept in the collection of the Faculty of Forestry (Trpkov 1987). Two birds were killed on 10.10.2001 on the slopes of Serta Mt., in the vicinity of village Konče. They were brought in the Natural History Museum of Macedonia. There are 10 more individuals stuffed in the Natural History Museum of Macedonia. Three of them were got from the Skopje Zoo after their death (it is

6 unknown where they have been captured), three are from Matka, but with unknown cause of death, and the other four are probably killed (Ivanovski, 2000): 23.12.1954, village Dolno Sonje, Vodno Mt, Skopje Region 23.01.1973, Veles 21.02.1988, Negotino region, and 15.03.1993, Veles region Importance: medium

Fig.2 Locations and dates of killed vultures in Macedonia (red - Bearded Vulture; brown - Griffon Vulture)

Egyptian Vulture Neophron percnopterus Karaman (1928) states that this species was killed in great numbers from hunters, and predicts that it will soon disappear from Skopje area. Trpkov (1987) states that it was easy target for the hunters, as it was common in the vicinity of the settlements. Grubač (1989) noted 4 cases of killing in Macedonia. Five specimens exist in the Natural History Museum of Macedonia (Ivanovski, 2000): 04.07.1939 - Near Skopje (probably Matka), 1 ad. and 1 juv. 10.07.1939 - Near Skopje 12.03.1969, Matka, juv.

7 10.08.1996, Near Negotino, ad. There are not many recent cases of killing of Egyptian Vulture in Macedonia. Importance: low

2. POISONING

Most serious reason for vultures decline in Macedonia. Beside the danger of poisoning with wolf and other carnivore baits, potential risk of secondary poisoning exist, from pesticides applied in agriculture and passed through the food chain. However, the use of pesticides in Macedonia is declining during the last years. According to the data of Department of Statistics, in the period 1983- 1999, the use of pesticides is lowered six times (from 2706 tones to 462 tones). The amount of fungicides used in 1999 is 234 tones, herbicides - 107 tones and insecticides 84 tones. Known cases of vultures poisoning are presented on Tab. 2 and Fig. 3.

Tab. 2 Overview of known cases of poisoning of vultures in Macedonia

No. Date Locality Region Number of Author Species birds killed 1 March 1985 Tikves Lake S Macedonia 1 female Grubač 1990 G. barbatus Total birds poisoned 1 no recorded case probably Ae. monachus several 1 1955 Babuna Mt. C Macedonia 30-40 Micholitsch (1957) ? 1982 Matka N Macedonia 15-20? Rolevski pers. comm ? 1982 Tikves S Macedonia ? Rolevski pers. comm 3 1992 Matka N Macedonia 2-? Ivanovski pers. com ? Matka N Macedonia Ivanovski 2000 lvus 1995? 3-? u f 5 August 1984 Babuna Mt. C Macedonia 10-15 Grubač (1991)

Gyps 6 1985 near Prilep C Macedonia many Grubac 1997 7 January 2002 Plackovica Mt. E Macedonia 3 own data 8 Erdzelija, Sveti C Macedonia 10 Rolevski, pers. comm February 2003 Nikole Total birds poisoned >150 1 March 1982 ? S Macedonia 3-4 Grubač (1989) N. percnopterus 2 September 1992 Negotino C Macedonia 60-70 Grubac 1997 Total birds poisoned 63-74, probably much more

8

Fig.3 Locations and dates of poisoned vultures in Macedonia (red - Bearded Vulture; brown - Griffon Vulture; black - Egyptian Vulture)

Bearded Vulture Gypäetus barbatus There is only one known case of poisoning of Bearded Vulture in Macedonia: the female of the last known breeding pair at Crna Reka was poisoned in March 1985 (Grubač 1990, Grubac 1997), and now it is stuffed specimen in the Natural History Museum of Macedonia. It is very likely that during the poisoning action more birds were poisoned, but there are not registered cases. Importance: potentially critical

Black Vulture Aegypius monachus There is not known case of poisoning of Black Vulture in Macedonia, although it is very likely that more individuals have been poisoned in the period 1947-1985. Importance: potentially critical

Griffon Vulture Gyps fulvus Micholitsch (1957) states that Karaman provided him with an information obtained from a villager that about 30-40 vultures, most probably Griffons, were poisoned at a wolf bait on Babuna Mt, Central Macedonia, around 1955. Large decline of the population took place in the colony of Matka in 1983. With the census in 1982, undertaken by the Republical Department for Protection of Nature,

9 8 breeding pairs and 4 juvenile birds were registered. In the next year only one breeding pair was confirmed (Rolevski, pers. comm.). Another poisoning took place in 1992. Two dead birds were brought in the Natural History Museum of Macedonia, but the exact number of poisoned birds is unknown (some information say that there were 5-6 birds poisoned). Veterinary analysis showed use of strychnine. It is speculated that the management authorities of the Hunting Reserve "Jasen" had set up baits for wolves that entered the hunting ground, but this speculation has never been proved. Three specimens of Griffon Vulture dating 10.04.1995 from Matka are kept in the Natural History Museum in Macedonia. There is no record on the cause of the death, but if the dates on the labels are correct (it is possible that the birds were actually stuffed on those dates), it is reasonable to assume that they were poisoned. Another major poisoning incident took place in wider Tikveš region in 1982. According to the estimation, the losses at were 6-8 pairs (birds have not be found). It is estimated that colonies at Tikveš reservoir and especially at Mariovo were more heavily affected (Rolevski, pers. comm.). Grubač (1991) reports poisoning at Babuna colony, in August 1984. Before the event colony numbered 5-6 pairs (20 individuals); in March 1986 he found only 8 birds at that locality. Large number of Griffon Vultures (the exact number is unknown) were poisoned near Prilep in 1985 (Grubac 1997). Three birds were found poisoned at Plačkovica Mt. (E Macedonia) in January 2002. Two of them were already dead, and the third one, dieing, was shot by the hunter who found them (inquiry of M. Velevski in August, after information of D. Dinova). Ten birds were found poisoned at carcasses of two dead dogs at village Erdželija near town (central Macedonia) in the end of February 2003. Four of them were juveniles. It is suspected that Lannate had been used, but autopsy results did not provide exact confirmation. Importance: very high

Egyptian Vulture Neophron percnopterus Grubač (1989), according to inquiry, reports that 3-4 birds were poisoned in South Macedonia at the end of March 1982, with poison used against wolves. Ca. 60-70 individuals were poisoned at dumpsite near Negotino, in September 1992 (Grubac 1997). Probably lot of other cases remain unknown. Importance: very high

3. ELECTROCUTION

No recorded case for any vulture species exists; There are 372,2 km of 400 kV power lines, 166,5 km of 200 kV and 22,5 km of 150 kV power lines and total of 1562,4 km of 110 kV power lines in Macedonia. Power lines from several hydro-electric plants pass trough vulture breeding sites: Matka, Demir Kapija, and Tikveš.

10 This risk is expected to increase in the forthcoming years, due to installation of new hydro-power plants: Kozjak and Matka II in Treska Canyon, and Galište and Čebren at Crna Reka river. Their lines and types are presented at Figs 4, 5 and 6.

Fig. 4 Position of dams Matka 1, Matka 2 and Kozjak and power line route in the Treska river canyon.

The construction of power line Dubrovo-R. Bulgaria (400 kV), will begin at TEPP "Negotino" (v. Dubrovo, Negotino region) and it will pass over the ridge of Konečka Mt., Štip valley, Probištip, and along Kriva Reka river will reach the Macedonian-Bulgarian border (Fig. 5). The area of the power line passes in the territory with largest density of pairs of Imperial Eagle on the (and probably Europe), and from where numerous reports of vultures exists. Besides, the region is among most important winter grazing area for sheep, and is visited by Griffon vultures from Demir Kapija, Bregalnica, Osogovo and probably Babuna (if small colony exists). Approximately 5 pairs of Egyptian vulture might breed along the power line. The EIA

11 of the Project diminishes the risk of electrocution, although we believe that the faunistic part of the study was prepared by incompetent person.

Fig. 5 Position of dams ^ebren and Gali{te and the planned power line route in the Crna river canyon.

Bearded Vulture Gypäetus barbatus Importance: low Black Vulture Aegypius monachus Importance: low Griffon Vulture Gyps fulvus Importance: medium Egyptian Vulture Neophron percnopterus Importance: medium

12

Fig. 6 High-tension power line network in Macedonia and colonies of Griffon Vultures (red - existing and blue - planned power lines; yellow circles - Griffon Vulture's colonies)

4. EGG AND CHICKS THEFT

Bearded Vulture Gypäetus barbatus There is no recorded case of nest robbery for this species. Importance: low

Black Vulture Aegypius monachus Karaman (1949) reports that he took two eggs for the Natural History Museum in Skopje from one nest at Erdželija (Štip region). A fledgling was taken from the nest around August 1973 from Kajmakčalan Mt. (Grubač 1998). Illegal taking of fledgling bird from the nest, without exact data is also reported (Grubač 1998). Importance: low, potentially medium

Griffon Vulture Gyps fulvus This species suffered most serious consequences from egg theft. Karaman (1928) reports that visitors at Matka canyon were taking eggs and chicks from the easily accessible nests.

13 Vasić et al. (1985) report that during two years (probably 1983 and 1984) at least 30 nests were robbed by organized groups of foreigners. Some foreign groups with eggs of Griffon Vultures were imprisoned on the Austrian-German border in the period between 1978 and 1982 (Grubac, 1997). Active participation of local inhabitants in robbing is almost a rule (personal questionnaire of Grubač and Velevski). Local inhabitants also had an unusual custom: taking Griffons' eggs for Eastern and coloring them red (registered at small satellite colony near Dubrovo (north of Demir Kapija, according to inquiry of M. Velevski, used to take place before 30-40 years). Presently there are no confirmation of such activities, but the potential risk remains, as people that were robbing eggs can still be found, easily. Importance: low to medium.

Egyptian Vulture Neophron percnopterus Karaman (1931) reports an unusual case of breeding of this vulture on Salakova Mt (Jakupica Massif), at 1900 m asl; A shepherd took the fledglings from the nest. Vasić et al. (1985) report that nests of Egyptian vultures were robbed every year (1981, 1982) at Veles and Demir Kapija, by foreign organized groups. Grubač (1989) reports that 4 young birds were brought to Skopje Zoo between 1980 and 1983. The custom of taking eggs from local inhabitants also exists; in one Egyptian vulture's nest the egg was replaced and chicken egg was found (Lisičanec, pers. comm.). Importance: low

5. HABITAT LOSS

5.1. Existing road network The total length of categorized road network in Macedonia in 1995 was 9573 km, 909 km of which are motorways (138 km highways), 3058 km are regional roads and the rest 5606 km are local roads. Road network is presented on Fig. 7. Most significant for the vulture disturbance is E5 motorway (Negotino-Gevgelija), that passes under the Demir Kapija cliffs, but it seem that the birds are used to the disturbance.

Also of significant interest for the vultures are the forest roads, which are in expansion: non-solid: 4870 km in 1995, 5863 km in 1999. There are no precise data on their distribution throughout the country. There is no significant rate of disturbance for the vultures, but forest fragmentation and making the mountains more accessible for people can not be diminished.

Bearded Vulture Gypäetus barbatus Importance: low Black Vulture Aegypius monachus Importance: low Griffon Vulture Gyps fulvus Importance: low Egyptian Vulture Neophron percnopterus Importance: low

14

Fig. 7 Existing road network in Macedonia

5.2. Road construction Four major problems might occur: 1. Access road to Matka II Power Plant: Status: in progress. The road goes from the v. Sveta Petka and passes trough the canyon of Treska river, where will end at approximately 6 km from the present dam Matka I. The road passes very close to the small caves (directly above) that were used for breeding by few pairs of Griffon Vultures some 10 years ago; these caves will probably no longer be suitable for breeding. Fortunately, Matka canyon holds many other favorable locations. Dynamite loads are used in the road construction, so significant disturbance to the last breeding pair at Matka exists. No EIA study is known to the authors of this report. 2. Highway E5 - Demir Kapija - Gevgelija; Status: planned. The planned upgrade of the road E5 will pass parallel to the existing one, directly under the Demir Kapija gorge, appearing in the canyon of Čelevečka (Iberliska) River. Recommendations from the EIA study suggest that the new road should pass near the existing one, to avoid more damage to the environment. Prohibition of construction activities in the Gorge in winter and spring period is also suggested. 3. Access road to Hydroelectric Power Plants Galište and Čebren (Crna Reka river); Status: planned. Although the exact routes for the power plants are unknown, they will certainly enter the gorge of Crna Reka, resulting with habitat

15 loss and disturbance during the construction. There is potential risk that the road might jeopardize the colony of Griffon Vultures at v. Manastir (Crna Reka gorge). 4. Access roads to the ski-resorts of Kožuf Mt. Status: planned. The road will penetrate trough the forests and part of the alpine pastures, resulting with their fragmentation. Potential lost of nest sites for Black Vulture, disturbance to potential breeding site of Bearded Vulture and foraging site of Griffon vultures breeding at Crna Reka are foreseen. Additional danger is that this road will make the mountain more easily accessible, which will increase the risk of killing and poisoning. The ski-resort itself will additionally jeopardize the birds with its overhead cables. There is no EIA for this facility; the work is presently stopped and it is likely that the idea for construction is going to be abandoned (political reasons lay in the background of the initiative for the ski-resort at Kožuf Mt.).

Bearded Vulture Gypäetus barbatus medium to high Black Vulture Aegypius monachus medium to high Griffon Vulture Gyps fulvus high Egyptian Vulture Neophron percnopterus low

5.3. Dams Present situation with dams have no proven negative effect on vultures (Matka and Tikveš reservoirs), although habitat loss is evident. Dam construction will lead to lost of potential breeding sites (Kozjak, Matka II, Čebren) and will increase the possibility of drowning of young birds during their first flights. Most significant threat will appear if realization of the " Valley" project takes place; the project proposes construction of 12-15 dams along Vardar River, making it appropriate for river traffic. It will lead to destruction of large feeding areas along the migration route of the vultures and the water will probably reach Babuna gorge and definitely the cliffs of Demir Kapija. Following importance reflects current situation, future risks are one level higher on the scale. Bearded Vulture Gypäetus barbatus Importance: Low Black Vulture Aegypius monachus Importance: Low Griffon Vulture Gyps fulvus Importance: Low to medium Egyptian Vulture Neophron percnopterus Importance: Low

5.4. Aforestation In the period 1960-1995 more than 150.000 ha have been afforested, from which in the north-eastern parts of the country (, and Kratovo) more than 25.000 ha, region of Veles - 6.000 ha, region of Skopje - 8.000 ha, region of Štip - 6.000 ha, etc. Afforestation with alochtonous species (Cupressus sp.) and pines at low altitude is serious threat to the habitats used by vultures for foraging, rarely nesting (Egyptian Vulture). Most affected are steppe-like terrains and hill pastures, which are primary food source for livestock in the winter period. Also, where new plantations are established, grazing is forbidden. Overview of surface afforested is given in Table 3.

16 Tab. 3. Artificial aforestation by tree species (in hectares)

Species 1996 1997 1998 1999 Spruce 36 78 52 38 Fir 495 671 575 783 Black pine 1117 1383 720 1176 Scots pine 389 342 155 526 Other 457 391 306 376 Total conifers 2494 2868 1808 2899 Oaks (all) 82 15 29 0 Black Locust 255 116 180 170 Other hardwoods 5 21 4 3 Poplar 72 5 0 0 Total broadleaved 414 157 213 173 TOTAL 2908 3025 2021 3072

Poplar plantations are spread along rivers, and are commercially harvested for timber, Black Locust (Robinia pseudoacacia) is mostly planted along roads to prevent erosion and Black pines in the pastures and steppe-like areas, where Cupressus is also planted, and from which greatest threat for habitats comes.

Bearded Vulture Gypäetus barbatus Importance: low Black Vulture Aegypius monachus Importance: low Griffon Vulture Gyps fulvus Importance: low, potentially medium Egyptian Vulture Neophron percnopterus Importance: low, potentially medium

5.5. Forest fires

Due to the warm climate conditions during the last two-three decades, many fires destroyed significant percentage of the forests. (Tab. 4). As a result of long dry period the damage caused by forest fires has recently being greater, especially in 1993 and 2000. In the period 1978-1997 the average annual fired forest land, caused by 111 outbreaks of fire, amounted to 3271 ha. According to carried out researches, it is concluded that the most threatened tree species are oaks (Quercus spp.). Also, 35 % of oak trees had a dead top.

Tab. 4. Forest fires (in cubic meters)

1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 636 4084 4214 3856 2048

Bearded Vulture Gypäetus barbatus Bearded vulture is not directly affected by forest fires. Anyway, its most important food source, the tortoises Testudo hermanni/graeca suffer greatly from these fires.

17 Importance: low

Black Vulture Aegypius monachus Forest fires directly jeopardize the Black Vulture trough destruction of potential breeding sites. However, there is no record of destroyed nest of the species. Importance: low, potentially medium Griffon Vulture Gyps fulvus Importance: low Egyptian Vulture Neophron percnopterus Importance: low

6. LACK OF SUITABLE BREEDING SITES

Bearded Vulture Gypäetus barbatus Potential habitats for breeding exist at almost all of the mountains in the western parts of the country (Šar Planina Mt, Korab, Dešat, Krčin, Stogovo, Bistra, Jablanica, Galičica and Pelister), central part (Jakupica Massif, Babuna Mt.) and southern parts (Kožuf, Kozjak and Nidže), but also in the regions at lower altitudes (gorges of river Vardar, Crna, Treska and other). Importance: low

Black Vulture Aegypius monachus Formerly the species was breeding both in lowlands and in mountain forests. At present times, the coverage of mature oak forests (Quercus sp.) in Macedonia is insignificant, and even more, all elm trees (Ulmus sp.) die after reaching ca. 20 years of age, due to infection with introduced north-American fungi Ophiostoma ulmi. Forest management also have negative influence - there is almost none not-managed forest in Macedonia, especially in the mountains. Currently, most exploited are oak and beech forests (Tab. 5), followed by pines.

Tab. 5. Timber harvested by species (in '000 m3)

Broadleaved Conifers Total Other Other year gross Fir and oak beech hard- soft- Total Pine other Total volume spruce woods woods 1995 960 488 374 33 1 896 43 15 6 64 1996 1118 482 487 67 9 1045 35 21 17 73 1997 1000 393 496 56 1 946 33 7 14 54 1998 897 363 447 15 15 840 27 12 18 57 1999 953 340 535 22 8 905 19 7 22 48

Some 5 millions m3 timber is also illegally cut every year, with average fluctuation from 4,4 to 7,8 millions m3. Formerly, fir trees were more heavily exploited by the local inhabitants. Small spruce forests exist on Šar Planina Mt., and the protected Molika pine forests in National Park "Pelister" and at Nidže Mt. are also in good natural condition. Black pine and Scottish Pine forests in Southern and Eastern Macedonia are the most suitable breeding habitats, but are selectively cut, and the amount of disturbance is also significant.

18 Importance: Medium

Griffon Vulture Gyps fulvus Suitable sites for breeding exists at number of localities: three sites along river Vardar, two sites along river Pčinja, two sites along river Babuna, lower sections of rivers Bregalnica and Topolka, one (if not two) sites along river Raec, the entire gorges of rivers Treska and Crna, few sites along river Crni Drim etc. True preconditions for Griffon vultures in Macedonia are very favorable for sustaining large population. Importance: low

Egyptian Vulture Neophron percnopterus Besides all localities mentioned for the Griffon Vulture, the Egyptian Vulture might additionally use all smaller cliffs and sand cuts all over the southern, central, east and northern parts of the country, and to lesser extend in the western parts. Importance: low

7. DISTURBANCE (should include some components of road construction threat)

7.1. Military exercises (Used to) take place at Demir Kapija, where governmental forces train(ed) cliff climbing. Also, not active shooting ground (for hand weapon) exists in the border of proposed Strict Nature Reserve "Demir Kapija" (relocation of this shooting ground is suggested), but on the other side of the hill. "Krivolak" military base occupies the central part of Macedonia (steppic and semi-desert habitats), where significant military exercises take place (tank practice, bombing practice). Region (habitat) is suitable for breeding not only for Black and Egyptian vulture, but also for Imperial eagle (Aquila heliaca).

Bearded Vulture Gypäetus barbatus Importance: Low Black Vulture Aegypius monachus Importance: Low Griffon Vulture Gyps fulvus Importance: Medium to high Egyptian Vulture Neophron percnopterus Importance: Medium

7.2. Alpine climbing Presently occurring only at Matka, where several climbing routes are established and regularly used opposite the last known nest of Griffon Vulture. It seems that it had no negative effect (disturbance) on the breeding pair in the last four years.

Bearded Vulture Gypäetus barbatus Importance: Low Black Vulture Aegypius monachus Importance: Low Griffon Vulture Gyps fulvus Importance: Low Egyptian Vulture Neophron percnopterus Importance: Low

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7.3. Aircraft disturbance Low flights of military aircrafts (NATO helicopters) were noted in Demir Kapija and regularly (probably every day) in Matka Gorge, having negative impact on the local pairs of Griffon and Egyptian vultures. The frequency of these flights is unknown, but probably was higher during the Yugoslavia/Kosovo crisis. Also, it might take place in Tikveš Reserve and over mountains (especially Kožuf, Jakupica and Šar Planina Mt.).

Bearded Vulture Gypäetus barbatus Importance: Low Black Vulture Aegypius monachus Importance: Low Griffon Vulture Gyps fulvus Importance: Medium (potentially very high at Matka and Demir Kapija) Egyptian Vulture Neophron percnopterus Importance: Low to medium

7.4. Quarries

The only quarry operating in vulture region was that at Demir Kapija gorge. It had clear negative impact, as most of the breeding pairs from the Gorge moved at Krastavec ridge (Lisičanec, pers. comm.). It probably had negative impact on the Egyptian Vulture, also. The quarry is presently not operating, as it work was prohibited by the Ministry of Environment. The Ministry also rejected the proposal for restarting the quarry.

Bearded Vulture Gypäetus barbatus Importance: Low Black Vulture Aegypius monachus Importance: Low Griffon Vulture Gyps fulvus Importance: Low (potentially very high at Demir Kapija) Egyptian Vulture Neophron percnopterus Importance: Low

7.5. Hunting and shooting

Hunting is common practice in Macedonia. There are 25000 registered hunters, but the number of individuals possessing hunting weapon is at least twice higher. The Act on Hunting used to be generally respected, but poaching takes place more frequently in the last years. Vulture breeding regions are outside the popular hunting grounds, but foraging regions, especially at Kožuf and Nidže, are regularly visited by hunters. There are no large and noise hunting parties (with use of vehicles) for hunt of boars, so disturbance level is not as high as described by Heredia & Heredia (2001).

20 Bearded Vulture Gypäetus barbatus Importance: Low Black Vulture Aegypius monachus Importance: Low Griffon Vulture Gyps fulvus Importance: Low Egyptian Vulture Neophron percnopterus Importance: Low

7.6. War conflicts The impact of the war conflicts on the vultures in Macedonia has not been proven, but it can not be diminished. The crisis in Kosovo, the war in Yugoslavia and the conflict in Macedonia certainly had negative effect, above all in the disturbance of the non-breeding colonies of Griffon Vultures at Šar Planina Mt. Low aircraft flights all over the country probably jeopardized not only the birds at Šar Planina Mt. Additionally, now when the conflicts are finished, large territories in the north-western part of the country are without proper governmental control, and it is absurd to think on the enforcement of laws for nature conservation in near future. Also, large number of unregistered weapon (ca. 30000 pieces, significant part of which long-range rifles) is out of any control, making the owners capable for killing wildlife otherwise beyond the reach of a hunting gun.

Bearded Vulture Gypäetus barbatus Importance: Low Black Vulture Aegypius monachus Importance: Low Griffon Vulture Gyps fulvus Importance: Potentially high Egyptian Vulture Neophron percnopterus Importance: Low

8. FOOD SHORTAGE (see the detailed study on food availability)

Livestock decline and population decrease of wildlife undoubtedly had negative effect of all vulture species. Presently, it seems that that only the single bird of Bearded Vulture at Tikveš reserve is not experiencing difficulties in finding food, as it have not been registered at the feeding place (Stoynov, pers. comm). Fortunately, existing veterinary law is not practiced by most of the slaughter houses, which deposit their offal at open waste yards, thus providing additional food supply for the vultures and other large birds of prey (especially this refers for slaughter houses at Veles (Babuna), Sveti Nikole and Štip). Also, relatively high number of wolves is still serious danger for sheep, and some livestock is killed every year - shepherds lieve the remains in the nature, which afterwards might be used from vultures.

Bearded Vulture Gypäetus barbatus Importance: low Black Vulture Aegypius monachus Importance: low Griffon Vulture Gyps fulvus Importance: low to medium Egyptian Vulture Neophron percnopterus Importance: low to medium

21 9. FOOD COMPETITION

We do not consider food competition for serious threat - most competitive are the dogs, especially at slaughter houses' dumps. Also, men are regularly present at the dumps, not allowing birds to visit them constantly.

Bearded Vulture Gypäetus barbatus Importance: low Black Vulture Aegypius monachus Importance: low Griffon Vulture Gyps fulvus Importance: low Egyptian Vulture Neophron percnopterus Importance: low

10. MINIMAL POPULATION NUMBER The threat that arises from the critically low number of birds is most serious for the Bearded and Black Vulture; there is a high need of restocking/reintroduction.

Bearded Vulture Gypäetus barbatus There is not known couple of Bearded Vulture in Macedonia, although there are some possibilities that few pairs wait their discovery (up to two, according to Grubac 1997). Importance: Critical

Black Vulture Aegypius monachus Currently, there is not known pair of Black Vultures in Macedonia, although a possibility for few unknown pairs exists. The map of distribution presented by Grubač (1998) shows that there is possibility to locate pairs of this species at significant part of the territory of Macedonia, but the recent search has always been negative (Grubač 1998, Stoynov, pers. comm.). The closest breeding population is at Dadia Forest Reserve (). Importance: Critical

Griffon Vulture Gyps fulvus The decline in number of individuals has certainly affected the species, but the rate is unknown. The situation at Demir Kapija, Tikveš and Mariovo is not alarming, and if other negative factors are eliminated, present number of birds is considered sufficient for natural growth of the colonies. Opposite, at Matka and Bregalnica, critically low number of breeding pairs remain (1 and 1-2 respectively), and they soon might disappear from the sites. Maintaining them with additional food supply in short- term and restocking in long-term are necessary measures. Importance: Medium to high.

Egyptian Vulture Neophron percnopterus The present population estimation (60-85 pairs, Grubac 1997) indicates that the population is self-sustainable and will increase if the human-caused negative factors are

22 removed. However, last cases of poisoning (in 1992) and accidental killing had leaded to decrease in the breeding population. Importance: low

11. LOW BREEDING POTENTIAL

Long period before reaching maturity of all species and the low breeding rate and success lowers the possibilities for fast natural increase in populations of all species. Having in mind the critically low number of Bearded and Black Vulture, it is obvious that they are most seriously affected.

Bearded Vulture Gypäetus barbatus Reproduction rate 2 (1) eggs Average number of chicks hatched annually 0,5 Maturity 7 or more years Survival rate until maturity unknown Importance: High, considering the present status

Black Vulture Aegypius monachus Reproduction rate 1 (2) eggs Average number of chicks hatched annually 1 Maturity 5-6 years Survival rate until maturity 20-30% Importance: High, considering the present status

Griffon Vulture Gyps fulvus Reproduction rate 1 egg Average number of chicks hatched annually 0,5-1 Maturity ? Survival rate until maturity unknown, ca. 10% in Croatia, probably higher in Macedonia Importance: Medium

Egyptian Vulture Neophron percnopterus Reproduction rate 1-2 Average number of chicks hatched annually 1 (2) Maturity ? Survival rate until maturity unknown Importance: low

23 Table 6 Summary of the threats to vultures in Macedonia - risk assessment

Threats Gypaetus barbatus Aegypius monachus Gyps fulvus Neophron percnopterus 1. Killing Potentially critical Potentially critical Medium Low 2. Poisoning Potentially critical Potentially critical Very high Very high 3. Electrocution Low Low Medium Medium 4. Egg and chick theft Low Low, potentially medium Low to medium Low 5. Habitat lost 5.1. Existing road network Low Low Low Low 5.2. Road construction Medium to high Medium to high High Low 5.3. Dams Low Low Low to medium Low 5.4. Afforestation Low Low Low, potentially medium Low, potentially medium 5.5. Forest fires Low Potentially medium Low Low 6. Lack of suitable breeding sites Low Medium Low Low 7. Disturbance 7.1. Military exercises Low Low Medium to high Medium 7.2. Alpine climbing Low Low Low Low 7.3. Aircraft disturbance Low Low Medium (potentially very Low to medium high at Matka and Demir Kapija) 7.4. Quarries Low Low Low (potentially very high Low at Demir Kapija) 7.5. Hunting and shooting Low Low Low Low 7.6. War conflicts Low Low Potentially high Low 8. Food shortage Low Low Low to medium Low to medium 9. Food competition Low Low Low Low 10. Minimal population number Critical Critical Medium to high Low 11. Low breeding potential High High Medium Low

24 REFERENCES

Gengler, J. 1920. Balkanvogel. Ein ornithologisches Tagebuch, Altenburg. Grubač, B. R., 1989. The Egyptian Vulture Neophron percnopterus in Macedonia. In: Mwyburg, B.U. & R.D. Chancellor (eds.) Raptors in Modern World: 331-333. WWGBP: Berlin, London & Paris. Grubač, B. 1990. [Bearded Vulture (Gypaetus barbatus L.)] - Edition Endangered animals of Yugoslavia. Svjetlost - Zavod za izdavanje udžbenika i nastavnih sredstava, Sarajevo-Beograd, pp.128. Grubač, B. R., 1991. Status & biology of the Bearded vulture Gypaetus barbatus aureus in Macedonia. Birds of Prey Bulletin, 4: 101-117. Grubac, B., 1997. The Present Status of Vultures Aegypiinae in Central Balkans. Actas del II Congreso International Sobre Aves Carroneras, 93-103, Canizares. Grubač, B. 1998. Population status and conservation problems of the Black Vulture in the Former Yugoslavian Republic of Macedonia. - International Symposium on the Black Vulture in South Eastern Europe and adjacent regions (Ed. Tewes E., J.J. Sanchez and B.Heredia), pp. 63-68, Dadia, Greece, 15-16. September 1993, Black Vulture Conservation Findation - Frankfurt Zoological Society. Grubač B. 2002. The status of the Bearded Vulture in Yugoslavia and Macedonia. Manuscript Heredia, R. & Heredia, B. 2001. European Union Species Action Plan for the Lammergier (Gypaetus barbatus). In: Schäffer, N. & Gallo-Orsi, U. (eds.). European union action plans for eight priority bird species: Bittern (Botaurus stellaris), Ferruginous Duck (Aythya nyroca), Steller's Eider (Polysticta stelleri), Lammergier (Gypaetus barbatus), Greater Spotted Eagle (Aquila clanga), Lesser Spotted Eagle (Aquila pomarina), Bonelli's Eagle (Hieraaetus fasciatus), Little Bustard (Tetrax tetrax). European Commision, Luxembourg: Office for Official Publications of the European Communities. 247 pp. Ivanovski, T., 2000. [Catalogue of the collection of birds and skins in the Natural History Museum of Macedonia]. Manuscript Karaman, S., 1928. [Birds of Skopje Area]. Glasnik Skopskog naučnog društva, VI, Odeljewe prirodnih nauka, 2, 177-211 Karaman, S., 1949. [Ornithofauna of the Skopska Kotlina Basin]. Larus III, 196-280 Makatsch, W., 1950. Die Vogelwelt Macedoniens. Akademische Verlagsgesellschaft, Geest & Portig K.-G., Leipzig, 452 pp. Matvejev, S. 1955. [Bird Collection from Struga Region at Ohrild Lake]. Institute of ecology and biogeography 1: 165-169, Belgrade. Micholitsch, A. 1957. Ornithologische Beobachtungen in Jugoslawien (Mazedonien). Larus, 11: 37-58. Zagreb Trpkov, B. 1987. [Rare and endangered bird species from the genera Gypaetus, Gyps, Aegypius and Neophron on the territory of Yugoslavia and Macedonia]. Forester's Review, 7-12, 55-66 Vasić,V., Grubač, B. Sušić, G.& Marinković, S.1985. The Status of Birds of Prey in Yugoslavia, with Particular Reference to Macedonia. - Conservation Studies on Raptors, pp. 45-53, ICBP, Technical Publication No 5, Cambridge (ed. Newton, I. & R.D. Chancellor).

25 Cover page photo: Poisoning incident at v. Erdzelija, Sveti Nikole (Central Macedonia) in February 2003. Photo: Dimitar Rolevski

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