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Artificial Neural Networks for Pattern Recognition S~dhan& Vol. 19, Part 2, April 1994, pp. 189-238. © Printed in India. Artificial neural networks for pattern recognition B YEGNANARAYANA Department of Computer Science and Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology, Madras 600036, India E-mail: yegna @ iitm. ernet, in MS received 12 April 1993; revised 8 September 1993 Abstract. This tutorial article deals with the basics of artificial neural networks (ANN) and their applications in pattern recognition. ANN can be viewed as computing models inspired by the structure and function of the biological neural network. These models are expected to deal with problem solving in a manner different from conventional computing. A distinction is made between pattern and data to emphasize the need for developing pattern processing systems to address pattern recognition tasks. After introducing the basic principles of ANN, some fundamental networks are examined in detail for their ability to solve simple pattern recognition tasks. These fundamental networks together with the principles of ANN will lead to the development of architectures for complex pattern recognition tasks. A few popular architectures are described to illustrate the need to develop an architecture specific to a given pattern recognition problem. Finally several issues that still need to be addressed to solve practical problems using ANN approach are discussed. Keywords. Artificial neural network; pattern recognition; biological neural network. 1. Introduction Human problem solving is basically a pattern processing problem and not a data processing problem. In any pattern recognition task humans perceive patterns in the input data and manipulate the pattern directly. In this paper we discuss attempts at developing computing models based on artificial neural networks (ANN) to deal with various pattern recognition situations in real life. Search for new models of computing is motivated by our quest to solve natural (intelligent) tasks by exploiting the developments in computer technology (Marcus & van Dam 1991). The developments in artificial intelligence (AI) appeared promising till a few years ago. But when the AI methods were applied to natural tasks such as in speech, vision and natural language processing, the inadequacies of the methods 189 190 B Yegnanarayana showed up. Like conventional algorithms, AI methods also need a clear specification of the problem, and mapping of the problem into a form suitable for the methods to be applicable. For example, in order to apply heuristic search methods, one needs to map the problem as a search problem. Likewise, to solve a problem using a rule-based approach, it is necessary to explicitly state the rules governing it. Scientists are hoping that computing models inspired by biological neural networks may provide new directions to solving problems arising in natural tasks. In particular, it is hoped that neural networks would extract the relevant features from input data and perform the pattern recognition task by learning from examples, without explicitly stating the rules for performing the task. The objective of this tutorial paper is to present an overview of the current approaches based on artificial neural networks for solving various pattern recognition tasks. From the overview it will be evident that the current approaches still fall far short of our expectations, and there is scope for evolving better models inspired by the principles of operation of our biological neural network. This paper is organized as follows: In § 2 we discuss the nature of patterns and pattern recognition tasks that we encounter in our daily life. We make a distinction between pattern and data, and also between understanding and recognition. In this section we also briefly discuss methods available for dealing with pattern recognition tasks, and make a case for new models of computing based on artificial neural networks. The basics of artificial neural networks are presented in § 3, including a brief discussion on the operation of a biological neural network, models of neuron and the neuronal activation and synaptic dynamics. Section 4 deals with the subject matter of this paper, namely, the use of principles of artificial neural networks to solve simple pattern recognition tasks. This section introduces the fundamental neural networks that laid the foundation for developing new architectures. In § 5 we discuss a few architectures for complex pattern recognition tasks. In the final section we discuss several issues that need to be addressed to develop artificial neutral network models for solving practical problems. 2. Patterns and pattern recognition tasks 2.1 Notion of intelligence The current usage of the terms like AI systems, intelligent systems, knowledge-based systems, expert systems etc., are intended to show the urge to build machines that can demonstrate intelligence similar to human beings in performing some simple tasks. In these tasks we look at the performance of a machine and compare it with the performance of a person. We attribute intelligence to the machine if the perfor- mances match. But the way the tasks are performed by a machine and by a human being are basically different; the machine performing the task in a step-by-step sequential manner dictated by an algorithm, modified by some known heuristics. The algorithm and the heuristics have to be derived for a given task. Once derived, they generally remain fixed. Typically, implementation of these tasks requires large number of operations (arithmetic and logical) and also a large amount of memory. The trends in computing clearly demonstrate the machine's ability to handle a large number of operations (Marcus & van Dam 1991). Artificial neural networks for pattern recognition 191 2.2 Patterns and data However, the mere ability of a machine to perform a large amount of symbolic processing and logical inferencing (as is being done in AI) does not result in intelligent behaviour. The main difference between human and machine intelligence comes from the fact that humans perceive everything as a pattern, whereas for a machine all are data. Even in routine data consisting of integer numbers (like telephone numbers, bank account numbers, car numbers), humans tend to see a pattern. Recalling the data is also normally from a stored pattern. If there is no pattern, then it is very difficult for a human being to remember and reproduce the data later. Thus storage and recall operations in humans and machines are performed by different mechanisms. The pattern nature in storage and recall automatically gives robustness and fault tolerance for a human system. Moreover, typically far fewer patterns than the estimated capacity of human memory systems are stored. Functionally also humans and machines differ in the sense that humans understand patterns, whereas machines can be said to recognize patterns in data. In other words, humans can get the whole object in the data even though there may be no clear identification of subpatterns in the data. For example, consider the name of a person written in a handwritten cursive script. Even though individual patterns for each letter may not be evident, the name is understood due to the visual hints provided in the written script. Likewise, speech is understood even though the patterns corresponding to individual sounds may be distorted sometimes to unrecognizable extents. Another major characteristic of a human being is the ability to continuously learn from examples, which is not well understood at all in order to implement it in an algorithmic fashion in a machine. Human beings are capable of making mental patterns in their biological neural network from input data given in the form of numbers, text, pictures, sounds etc., using their sensory mechanisms of vision, sound, touch, smell and taste. These mental patterns are formed even when the data are noisy, or deformed due to variations such as translation, rotation and scaling. The patterns are also formed from a temporal sequence of data as in the case of speech and motion pictures. Humans have the ability to recall the stored patterns even when the input information is noisy or partial (incomplete) or mixed with information pertaining to other patterns. 2.3 Pattern recognition tasks The inherent differences in information handling by human beings and machines in the form of patterns and data, and in their functions in the form of understanding and recognition have led us to identify and discuss several pattern recognition tasks which human beings are able to perform very naturally and effortlessly, whereas we have no simple algorithms to implement these tasks on a machine. The identification of these tasks below is somewhat influenced by the organization of the artificial neural network models which we will be describing later in this paper. 2.3a Pattern association: Pattern association problem involves storing a set of patterns or a set of input-output pattern pairs in such a way that when test data are presented, the pattern or pattern pair corresponding to the data is recalled. This is purely a memory function to be performed for patterns and pattern pairs. Typically, 192 B Yegnanarayana it is desirable to recall the correct pattern even though the test data are noisy or incomplete. The problem of storage and recall of patterns is called autoassociation. Since this is a content addressable memory function, the system should display accretive behaviour, i.e., should recall the stored pattern closest to the given input. It is also necessary
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