MELAMMU SYMPOSIA III

IDEOLOGIES AS INTERCULTURAL PHENOMENA

Proceedings of the Third Annual Symposium of the Assyrian and Babylonian Intellectual Heritage Project Held in , USA, October 27-31, 2000

Edited by A. PANAINO G. PETTINATO

With the collaboration of G. P. BASELLO A. PIRAS

UNIVERSITÀ DI BOLOGNA & ISIAO MILANO 2002 PANAINO REFLECTIONS ON THE CULTURAL MEANING OF THE MELAMMU PROJECT

ANTONIO PANAINO

New Perspectives for an Intercultural Approach to the Sciences of Antiquity between East and West Some Reflections on the Cultural Meaning of the MELAMMU Project

ith the present symposium, the (), October 19981 was the aware- third of the MELAMMU Project, ness and concern of a kind of impending Wwe officially enter a new phase and progressive “fragmented” character of our work; MELAMMU is in fact a of our single disciplines and subjects. An scholarly reality within the current pano- influential trend – in my opinion only rama of Ancient Studies. Many col- ostensibly justified by the complex evo- leagues from different fields, various lution of any of our specialities – universities and countries join together strongly compels many scholars to re- not only around the organisation and the strict their own area of study and re- realisation of a database or, like today search into a narrow field, where every- here, around a table, but – as I believe – thing could be, of course, controlled and around a seminal idea, i.e., that today it managed, but with the patent risk of for- is necessary and possible to establish and getting or ignoring what is going on out- activate a cultural network which could side of the strict conspectus of some spe- strengthen the exchange of scholarly cific disciplinary limits. This very trend competencies and the development of in fact uses (or abuses) as an alibi the new research on the historical, religious, following reason, i.e. that the over- philosophical, political, linguistic and whelming number of publications and ideological patterns and concepts which activities produced in any field practi- distinguished the Mesopotamian world cally compels any modern scholar to and linked it with other ancient civilisa- avoid any broad view of the general tions without theoretical limits in time situation and the development of other and space. This is also the inner meaning fields. Although this is true, I suspect of the subtitle of the MELAMMU Project: that such a reason can also be used as a “The Intellectual Heritage of and good argument in order to avoid unwel- in East and West.” come intrusions and to circumscribe the The main problem which in fact lay in club, however, on the other hand I do not the background of our preliminary efforts believe that it is a convincing and com- during our first symposium in Tvärminne pelling scholarly reason. On the contrary,

1 See the volume The Heirs of Assyria, Melammu 2000. Symposia I, edited by S. Aro and R.M. Whiting, A. Panaino & G. Pettinato (eds.) MELAMMU SYMPOSIA III (Milano 2002) ISBN 88-8483-107-5 1 PANAINO REFLECTIONS ON THE CULTURAL MEANING OF THE MELAMMU PROJECT

the new discoveries in fields such as ar- specialists of ancient Oriental studies and chaeology, philology, linguistics, history, those of modern or contemporary sub- etc., which are changing and have chan- jects, who by forcing the general “poli- ged the current dimension of research, tical” and “economical” concerns would can be considered neither useful, nor like to relegate the past into the rooms of pertinent for our single subjects. The a museum with the contemporary exhibi- problem, I think, is different and is tion of scholars and archaeological re- mainly cultural or, if you prefer, ideo- mains. logical and probably also intercultural, The importance of the MELAMMU but in a very negative sense, because this Project, in my opinion, lies in the evident sort of limitation is commonly wide- opportunity we have, and we want to spread across the academic world in East strengthen, in establishing direct and and West. Unfortunately there are not so systematic links and contacts, focusing many scholars who are ready to accept on different but crucial problems, which the consequences of the idea that what need a strict exchange of competencies, we call the “Oriental World” is part of a not only synchronically between scholars greater continent we can define as of Western or Eastern fields, but also “Eurasia,” and who methodologically diachronically from the remote antiquity admit that a dialectic dynamic signifi- to modern studies. For us the past is not cantly links East and West. Or, if such a dead, but lives in the present. Thus it is consideration is obtorto collo accepted, it clear that the database we are preparing is often felt as a disturbing fact. Thus would be, like the “Proceedings” of our some of us can have had during their conferences, only one part of our work, a academic experience a lot of difficulties very important one of course, but which with colleagues who work, for instance, we would like to imagine as a stepping on typically Western subjects, such as stone to a different way of studying and Greek and Latin and , researching. or with specialists of Greek and Roman Candidly speaking it is difficult or im- history, who simply consider other disci- possible to work in a state of complete plines of the Ancient and Oriental World and blind independence; as Martin West2 as an exotic luxury and not as strategic and Walter Burkert3 have forcefully partners; but we can also find substantial shown, Greek was strongly influ- problems among the Orientalists, where enced by the East; such an impact is for the exchange of information and real instance visible in poetry, in the arts and collaboration generally work on personal architecture, in some aspects of the cults bases and not as a normal dimension in and of philosophy,4 but also in the devel- the method of studying, even without opment of the idea of the Greek identity, mentioning the inner difficulties between in particular during the Persian wars;5 a

2 See, for instance, Early Greek Philosophy and the 4 See, for instance, the very wide conspectus dedi- Orient, Oxford 1971. cated to the intercultural interaction between the 3 See in particular The Orientalizing Revolution. Near Greek world and the Orient in the third volume of I Eastern Influence on Greek Culture in the Early Ar- Greci. Storia Cultura Arte Società. I Greci oltre la chaic Age, translated by M.E. Pinder and W. Burkert, Grecia, edited by S. Settis, Torino 2001. Cambridge (Massachusetts) 1992, or his freshly pub- 5 See A. Panaino, Greci e Iranici: confronto e con- lished cycle of lessons held at the University of Ven- flitti, in I Greci, vol. 3, pp. 78-136, in particular pp. ice, Ca’ Foscari, in 1996, Da Omero ai Magi. La 83-116 with literature. tradizione orientale nella cultura greca, Padova 1999.

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part from these evident facts, we should Greek geometrical vision, entered India not forget, however, the deep impact of and many other oriental countries,7 but, Oriental, mostly Mesopotamian, exact during and after Sasanian times, we note sciences on the evolution of Greek and an opposite wave, with the diffusion to- generally Western sciences, like early ward the West of new astrological tech- mathematics, astronomy and astrology.6 niques such as military8 and political as- The role of the Egyptian medical schools, trology, the doctrine of the Saturn-Ju- of Egyptian arithmetic has also to be re- piter conjunctions, etc.,9 not to mention, membered. But such a dialectic exchange with regard to the strictly astronomical with the East was not an isolated phe- sciences, the significant influence of Sa- nomenon in the early period of the Greek sanian literature about the Astronomical civilisation, as an ancient heritage that tables.10 All these doctrines with their soon was superseded and expired without scientific or pseudo-scientific contribu- other consequences. We may show pre- tions were diffused in the West and en- cisely many further mutual influences; tered the astronomical and astrological for instance, the diffusion of Greek literature of the European Middle Age astrology, based on some Babylonian through the Islamic intermediation.11 We ideas, but modified according to the may for instance offer a detailed example

6 I do not dare to venture myself in any attempt of sanian Persia, Dumbarton Oaks Papers, 43, 1989, pp. bibliographical fullness on this subject; I would sim- 227-250, in particular p. 237. ply like to refer to as methodologically basic and 9 See D. Pingree, Astronomy and Astrology in India seminal for the development of the history of ancient and Iran, ISIS, 54, part 2, No. 176, 1963, pp. 229- sciences only a few masterpieces of O. Neugebauer, 246; idem, s.v. Astronomy and Astrology in Iran, i. A History of Ancient Mathematical Astronomy. 3 History of Astronomy in Iran; iii. Astrology in Is- Vols. New York – Berlin 1975; The Exact Sciences lamic Times, pp. 868-871, in Encyclopædia Iranica. in Antiquity. Second Edition. Providence, Rhode Is- Ed by E. Yarshater, Vol. II, 9. London – New York land 1957; Astronomy and History. Selected Essays. 1987, pp. 858-862; idem, Classical and Byzantine New York – London 1981, and the Kleine Schriften Astrology in Sassanian Persia, Dumbarton Oaks Pa- of W. Hartner, Oriens – Occidens. Ausgewälte pers, 43, 1989, pp. 227-239; E.S. Kennedy, Ramifi- Schriften zur Wissenschaft- und Kulturgeschichte. cations of the World-Year Concept in Islamic As- Festschrift zum 60. Geburtstag, Hildesheim – Zürich tronomy, pp. 23-43, in Actes du dixième Congrès – New York 1968 and Oriens – Occidens. Aus- International d’Histoire des Sciences, Ithaca 26 VIII gewälte Schriften zur Wissenschaft- und Kultur- 1962 – 2 IX 1962 (1964), 1964; A. Panaino, geschichte, Band II. Herausgegeben von Y. Maeyama Saturn, the Lord of the Seventh Millennium (with a und mit einem Geleitwort von M. Schramm, Hilde- contribution of D. Pingree), East and West, 46, 3-4, sheim – Zürich – New York 1984. To these works we 1996, pp. 235-250. should add the contributions of scholar such as E.S. 10 See now A. Panaino, Tessere il cielo, Considerazi- Kennedy, D. Pingree, H. Hunger, P. Kunitzsch, F. oni sulle Tavole astronomiche, gli Oroscopi e la Dot- Halton, and many others who have given to this re- trina dei Legamenti tra Induismo, Manicheismo e search a significant impetus with great results. Mandeismo. S.O.R. LXXXIX, Roma 1998. See also 7 For a first introduction into the problem of the A. Panaino, La diffusione dell’astronomia e Babylonian, Graeco-Babylonian and then solely dell’astrologia mesopotamica in India attraverso la Greek influences on the evolution of Indian astral mediazione iranica, pp. 9-50, in L’Astrologia e la sua sciences see D. Pingree, (1978b) History of Mathe- influenza nella Filosofia, nella Letteratura e nell’Arte matical Astronomy in India, in Dictionary of Scien- dall’Età Classica al Rinascimento, Milano 1992; tific Biography. Vol. XV. Supplement I. Topical Es- E.G. Raffaelli, L’Oroscopo del mondo, Milano 2001. says. New York 1978, pp. 533-633; Jyotifsāstra. 11 Apart from texts like the Almagest (P. Kunitzsch, Astral and Mathematical Literature, Wiesbaden 1981; Der Almagest. Die Syntaxis Mathematica des From Astral Omens to Astrology. From Babylon to Claudius Ptolemäus in arabisch-lateinischer Über- Bīkāner. S.O.R. LXXVIII, Rome 1997. lieferung, Wiesbaden 1974) we can mention the dif- 8 D. Pingree, Indian Planetary Images and the Tradi- fusion of astronomico-astrological literature, which tion of Astral Magic, Journal of the Warburg and has been carefully catalogued by F. Sezgin, Courtauld Institutes, 52, 1989, pp. 1-13, in particular Geschichte der arabischen Schrifttums. Band VI. p. 4; idem, Classical and Byzantine Astrology in Sas- Astronomie bis ca. 430 H. Leiden 1978; Band VII.

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of this two-way exchange between East in the year 542, according to A. von and West throughout the centuries, by Gutschmid,14 because Tabari noted that mentioning the Παρανατέλλοντα τοῖς the book of Tinkalūšā (another form of δεκανοῖς of Teukros of Babylon (be- the name of Teukros) about the Decans tween the first century BC and the first was written 80 years before the Hijra, as AD) which were translated in Pahlavi for suggested also by Franz Boll in his fa- the first time about the third century or mous book Sphaera.15 This very transla- later.12 Unfortunately the Pahlavi trans- tion was used by Abū Maš‘ar together lation disappeared and only a number of with Indian sources about the iconogra- fragments in Arabic still survive, al- phy of the Decans deriving from the In- though some of them, ascribed to dian astronomer Varāhamihira (VIth Tīnkarūs or Tīnkalūs, seem to be a for- century A.D.), taken in its turn from the gery.13 In any case Teukros’ work was Yavanajātaka of Sphujidhvaja (IIIrd very important in the transmission of the century A.D.), a Sanskrit translation of a astrological system of the Decans, i.e. Greek-Alexandrian astrological text.16 the subdivision of the Zodiac into 36 De- Thus Boll assumed that some Pahlavi cans, each one of 10 degree, three per material from Teukros was embedded in constellation, and also of the so-called the Introductorium maius of Abū Ma- Paranatellonta (i.e. the constellations š‘ar,17 and via such a translation they re- rising on the horizon simultaneously with turned to Byzantium and the West. It was a certain Decan). A Middle Persian Aby Warburg,18 then followed by his pu- translation of Teukros was written or pil Fritz Saxl,19 who clearly showed that probably rearranged in the VIth century the Egyptian iconography of the Decans under Xusraw Anōširwān, more precisely intermingled with Indian and Sasanian

Astrologie – Meteorologie und Verwandtes bis ca. Leipzig 1903. 430 H. Leiden 1979. See also the fresh work of Ch. 16 D. Pingree, The Yavanajātaka of Sphujidhvaja, 2 Burnett and D. Pingree, The Liber Aristotilis of Hugo Voll. Cambridge (Mass.) 1978. of Sanctalla. The Warburg Institute Surveys and 17 For the Arabic text with a translation and the ex- Texts, 26, London 1997 and the various works of P. cerpta from Abū Ma‘šar in his Mudhal see K. Dyroff Kunitzsch on the Hermetic astral sources in Arabic in Boll, Sphaera, pp. 482-539. About Abū Ma‘šar’s and Latin literature (see now Hermetis Trismegisti works see in particular F. Sezgin, Geschichte des Astrologica et Divinatoria. Liber de Stellis Beibeniis arabischen Schrifttums. Band VII. Astrologie – ..., cura et studio G. Bos, Ch. Burnett, Th. Charmas- Meteorologie und Verwandtes bis ca. 430 H. Leiden son, P. Kunitzsch, F. Lelli, P. Lucentini, Turnhout 1979, pp. 139-151. 2001). 18 A. Warburg, La rinascita del paganesimo antico, 12 See C.A. Nallino, Tracce di opere greche giunte Firenze 1980; D. Pingree, The Indian Iconography of agli arabi per trafila pehlevica, in A Volume of Ori- the Decans and Horās, Journal of the Warburg and ental Studies Presented to Professor E.G. Browne, Courtauld Institutes, 36, 1963, pp. 223-254. Cambridge 1922, pp. 345-363. 19 F. Saxl, Verzeichnis astrologischer und mytho- 13 On this problem see Nallino, Tracce di opere gre- logischer illustrierter Handschriften des lateinischen che ..., pp. 356-360; Pingree, The Yavanajātaka of Mittelalters. Band 2. Die Handschriften der Na- Sphujidhvaja, 2 Vols. Cambridge (Mass.) 1978, vol. tional-Bibliothek in Wien. SHAW, Phil.-Hist. Klasse, II, 442-443; see also F. Sezgin, Geschichte des ara- N. 2. Heidelberg 1925-26. See also F. Saxl, La fede bischen Schrifttums. Band VII. Astrologie – Meteoro- negli astri, Turin 1965 and Beiträge zu einer logie und Verwandtes bis ca. 430 H. Leiden 1979, pp. Geschichte der Planetendarstellungen im Orient und 38-41. Okzident, Der , 3, 1912, pp. 151-177: D. Pin- 14 A. von Gutschmidt, Die nabatäische Land- gree, Indian Planetary Images and the Tradition of wirtschaft und ihre Geschwister, ZDMG, 15, 1861, Astral Magic, Journal of the Warburg and Courtauld pp. 1-110, in particular p. 88. Institutes, 52, 1989, pp. 1-13; Raffaelli, L’Oroscopo 15 F. Boll, Sphaera: neue griechische Texte und del mondo, pp. 36-40. Untersuchungen zur Geschichte der Sternbilder,

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modifications was transferred through derstanding.22 Thus if Augustine cannot the Arabic Introductorium maius to be read and commented without referring Spain, then to and finally was to, for instance, Sogdian or Chinese per- embedded in the Astrolabium planum of tinent sources, Latin, Mediaeval and Pietro d’Abano, a contemporary of Dante Christian studies23 cannot be indifferent and Giotto.20 The Sphaera barbarica, as to the development of Oriental studies. described in the work of Pietro d’Abano, On the other hand, Manichaean doctrines actually played an important role in the show some influences that can be ulti- program of decoration of the so-called mately derived, as Geo Widengren tried Salone at the Palazzo della Ragione in to demonstrate in a seminal work titled Padua (1306) and in the Salone dei Mesi Mesopotamian Elements in Manichae- at the Palazzo Schifanoia in Ferrara ism,24 from the Babylonian and Assyrian (1470).21 background. It is a pity, however, that it This is only one of an enormous num- is very rare to see Assyriologists directly ber of examples which show that East entering the debate on these general and West cannot be separated, and that problems or considering the results of some artistic results of the Italian Ren- discussions about the Mesopotamian aissance need, for instance, to be traced world produced outside their own field.25 back to a Graeco-Babylonian writer I have an impression, probably wrong or whose work was modified and expanded based on insufficient evidence, that in through Egyptian, Indian, Sasanian and this respect some Assyriologists seem to Arabic hands. react like the “Classicists” of the Orien- Another example can be offered by the tal studies. study of like Manichaeism, We have also to underline, however, where it is impossible to conduct any se- that the common idea that the introduc- rious research without paying attention to tion of the concept of rational thought, sources that can be alternatively not only the λόγος, and then that of “science,” in Greek, Latin, Coptic, Syriac, but also should be strictly ascribed to the Ionian in Middle-Persian, Parthian, Sogdian, school of philosophy, has been ques- Arabic, Uigur, Chinese, all of which are tioned by F.M. Cornford, as early as in necessary for a correct and complete un- 191226 and again in 1952,27 in two books

20 See Warburg, La rinascita del paganesimo antico, Heaven – London 2000 (revised edition of The Hid- pp. 249-272. See also Pingree, The Indian Iconogra- den Tradition. The secret History of medieval Chris- phy of the Decans and Horās, Journal of the Warburg tian heresy, London 1994). and Courtauld Institutes, 26, 1963, pp. 223-254. 24 See, G. Widengren, Mesopotamian Elements in 21 Warburg, La rinascita del paganesimo antico, pp. Manichaeism (King and Saviour II). Studies in 249-272. Manichaean, Mandaean, and Syrian-Gnostic Relig- 22 The special condition distinguishing Manichaean ion, Uppsala – Leipzig 1946. studies as an obvious field of intercultural phenom- 25 See for instance, the problem of the impact on the ena and interactions has positively developed strong Western and Oriental world of the story of Enkidu scholarly co-operation, which is for instance visible and Gilgamesh, which is discussed in my contribu- in the activities of the IAMS (The International As- tion Between and India: Some Re- sociation of Manichaean Studies), organizing regular marks about the Unicorn Cycle in Iran, in Mythology Conferences and publishing books and a Manichaean and Mythologies, Melammu Symposia II, edited by Studies Newsletter. R.M. Whiting, Helsinki 2001, pp. 149-179. 23 This is particularly true in the case of some Medie- 26 From Religion to Philosophy: a study in the Origin val Heresies, like that of the Bogomils and of the of Western Speculation, New York 1912. Cathars. See Y. Stoyanov, The Other God. Dualist 27 Principium sapientiae. The Origins of Greek Religions from Antiquity to the Cathar Heresy, New Philosophical Thought, Cambridge 1952.

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which show the mythical and ritual ori- Similarly the idea of power, its evolu- gin of the beginning of Greek philoso- tion, and the simple concept of phy, as J.-P. Vernant28 has clearly sum- royalty with its rituals and religious im- marised, not without reflections about plications, born in the Mesopotamian and Oriental parallels. This does not mean Egyptian worlds, played an enormous that the greatness of Classical thought is impact on other societies, starting with reduced, but that its origins and proc- the Achaemenid , but generating, esses have to be historically located in a throughout the struggles with the Greek context without prejudices in which ra- world, many speculations which would tional thought is seen only as western, or be seminal for the origin of the politico- where only this thought is the valid philosophical determination of concepts thought, as again Vernant29 has pointed such as state, society, citizenship, na- out with extreme clarity. In its turn, fur- tionality, and so on. The ideological bat- thermore the methodological approach to tle around the ideas of monarchy, oligar- the history of sciences, in particular in chy and democracy, the so-called Verfas- the case of extra-European and non- sungdebatte, situated by Herodotus (III, Greek-oriented societies, has gained a 80-84), in the Persian atmosphere of a fresh eminence, not in the sense of a bold discussion between Darius, Otanes and confrontation or of an exaltation of Megabizos, reflects a controversial sub- medical, astronomical, mathematical, or ject, which found the highest known physical doctrines born and evolved speculations in Greece, but that was not without any relation with the Greek without any echo or background in the world – a sort of approach which, in my East.31 Thus it is clear that we are not opinion, would result, in a kind of re- playing with words à la mode, like inter- versed prejudice, both irrational and culturalism and so on, which, like many blind – but as a field deserving autono- “politically correct” expressions, can be mous criteria of analysis and explana- used only as empty words; these are facts tion, which cannot be subordinated to waiting for answers not only in the aca- those fields which basically originated in demic world but in the modern con- the Greek world, as Pingree has tried to sciousness. It is not by chance that Hegel explain in a very significant article in his Vorlesungen über die Philosophie provocatively titled “Hellenophilia aga- der Geschichte32 considered the Iranian inst History of Sciences.”30 area as the place in which “nature” was

28 Mythe et pensée chez les Grecs. Études de psy- logia e Storia Antica, N.S. III, 1996, pp. 99-106; chologie historique, Paris 1996, pp. 374-375 and pas- idem, Erodoto e Bisitun, in Presentazione e scrittura sim. della storia: Storiografia, Epigrafi, Monumenti. Atti 29 Ibidem. del Convegno di Pontignano (aprile 1996), ed. by E. 30 D. Pingree, Hellenophilia versus History of Sci- Gabba, Biblioteca di Athenaeum 42, Como 1999, pp. ence, ISIS, 83, 1992, pp. 554-563. 101-116 31 On this problem see F. Gschnitzer, Die sieben Per- 32 G.W.F. Hegel, Vorlesungen über die Philosophie ser und das Königtum des Dareios, Heidelberg 1977; der Geschichte, Gans 1837, quoted according to the J. Wiesehöfer, Der Aufstand Gaumātas und die An- Suhrkamp edition, Werke, 12. Band. Auf der Grund- fänge Dareios’ I, Bonn 1978; J.M. Balcer, Herodotus lage der Werke von 1832-1845 neu edierte Ausgabe. and Bisutun. Problems in Ancient Persian Historiog- Redaktion E. Moldenhauer und K.M. Michel, Frank- raphy, Historia, Heft 49, Stuttgart 1987; M. Dan- furt am Main 1979, pp. 215-236. See also A. damayev, A Political History of the Achaemenid Em- Panaino, La Persia nel pensiero e negli scritti di pire, Engl. tr. by W.J. Vogelsang, Leiden 1989, pp. Hegel, Paideia, XLII, N. 4-6, 1987, pp. 193-213 and 105-106; D. Asheri, L’ideale monarchico di Dario: G.M. Cazzaniga, La religione dei moderni, Pisa Erodoto III 80-82 e DNb Kent, in Annali di Archeo- 1999, p. 297.

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actually separated from the “Spirit,” and points of view and free interpretations, as the clash between the Persian Empire and it commonly should happen in the aca- the West as a seminal moment in the demic world, but based on the general transition of the Spirit of History from assumption that the ancient world, like East to West. If this very typical the modern one, was in continuous evo- Hegelian pattern cannot be followed to- lution and open to different evolution day, and without mentioning the various and exchanges and that the oriental bor- prejudices of Hegel concerning Indian der was not a wall which produced only and Chinese ,33 it is interesting to separated and diverging cultures with no note that already in his system the dia- mutual impact.34 We start from the lectic processes between East and West Mesopotamian background, as a chrono- were not at all reduced to the wars op- logical basic moment, but we try to focus posing Persians and Greeks, but dwelled on the changes and continuity in history on many aspects of the multicultural and and culture without prejudices against multiethnic , which specific traditions, races or religions. In was considered very close to the modern other words, I hope that our efforts will idea of the State. be able to enforce a new cultural per- The MELAMMU project has necessarily spective in which East and West could be to deal with problems as those I have considered as part of a unique Eurasiatic now stressed, offering the clear percep- continent, without excluding some parts tion that these represent data which can- of the African world, and not as two im- not be neglected or relegated to a corner permeable walls. In this respect I would of exoticism. At the same time, our tar- simply mention the great scientific and get, in particular when we enter subjects human example offered in this century by which in recent years have been mainly Giuseppe Tucci, who not only in his methodological, remains linked to the many studies on the Chinese, Indian and facts and the data, which imply the re- Tibetan worlds, or on Buddhist, Hindu or construction of a scenario, not a simple Zoroastrian problems but also during his list of questions and problems. The risk, many explorations in Central Asia con- in fact, by speaking only of methods is to tinuously focused on the importance of pass over the facts, which at the end such an intercultural dimension of Eura- would be ridiculous and nonsensical. It is sian history.35 clear that our project represents a cul- We have also to take into considera- tural position, of course with individual tion the actual cultural conditions of the

33 On the other hand, we have to note that Hegel’s Cambridge (Mass.) – London 1993) with a remark- attitude towards India changed progressively and that able and wide-ranging view of facts, data and Hegel entered in a strong debate with A. von Hum- sources. boldt specifically about the interpretation of some 35 See, for instance, I segni di Roma nell’India e philosophical concepts contained in the Bhagavadgītā, nell’Estremo Oriente, Nuova Antologia, 378, 1935, as S. Marchignoli has clearly shown in Che cos’è lo pp. 3-14; Le grandi vie di comunicazione Europa- yoga? Traduzione ed egemonia alle origini dell’in- Asia, Torino 1958; A propos East and West; consid- dologia tedesca, in Verso l’India. Oltre l’India. Scritti erations of an historian, East and West, 8, 1957/57, e ricerche sulle tradizioni intellettuali sudasiatiche, pp. 343-349, and many others. In this perspective the ed. by F. Squarcini, Milano 2002, pp. 87-102. extremely significant publications of K. Karttunen 34 A very stimulating and intercultural approach to have to be carefully taken into consideration (India in the historical dynamics of the border separating the Early Greek Literature, Studia Orientalia 65, Hel- Roman Empire from the East has been offered by F. sinki 1989; India and the Hellenistic World, Studia Millar (The Roman Near East. 31 BC – AD 337, Orientalia 83, Helsinki 1997).

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new generations of students who face studies and our academic institutions. many difficulties in anyone of our aca- The problem now is not how to return to demic institutions, as they try to venture a “golden age,” which would be impossi- themselves in the field of the scholarly ble and foolish, but how to prevent some work in a domain which is not economi- dangerous and disastrous results. In fact cally “thrilling” and that necessarily re- in a situation in which the cultural back- quire a long and heavy training. Our stu- grounds of our young students appear dents do not posses, or rarely possess, as restricted and with a strong tendency in was common in the past, a strong back- society to a limited specialisation and ground in Classical studies, historical with scholars who, more than in the past, methodology, philosophy and literature. do not know anything about the different Perhaps the obvious differences with the historical societies and cultures and think past educational system also has some that is time to save themselves and their positive aspects; for instance the appar- subject on a little boat, the final risk ently more easier access to our studies to could be a sort of complete and recipro- young people not necessarily, as it gen- cal separation between fields which erally was on the past, belonging to the should be in close connection. The risk upper classes of society. We do not have in few words would be that of producing the time, nor is this the right place, for a “good” technicians, who, as parallel general consideration at the basic reasons rectae, will never cross each other’s way for such a change; we can simply men- ad infinitum. Notwithstanding some pe- tion the collapse of some élite schools culiar aspects of the century which will like the gymnasium and the lyceum, be over in two months, we have to con- which in some countries still survive but sider again that the Bildung of the mas- in difficult conditions and with some re- ters who, between the XIXth and XXth strictions, or – what is more important – centuries, founded our disciplines, was the general misconception of studies very strong and came from many points which ordinary people believe to be out of view; of course you can remark that of date or simply a nonsensical waste of they had, and fought for, philosophical time, because they are expensive and and historical positions, which were very without attracting a direct income and often politically oriented, a problem to any apparently productive result, which which I would like to come back soon; is another “ideological” element to take on the other hand they started from a into consideration. The market society is cultural dimension which was the highest actually interested in our work only su- possible and their interests were (or perficially and strictly for business rea- might have been) at the same time as sons (the past and the Orient being a nice wide-ranging as their cultural back- subject for movies, novels and so on; in ground. This, of course, was possible other words as a hobby à la page), not also because the specialist level of re- because of a cultural choice and reflec- search, the basic literature was not so tion on the meaning and importance of great and it was possible, or in any case the past and its inner links with the pres- more reasonable, for a single person to ent. Die Welt von Gestern thus is really be really competent in various subjects surpassed by a number of social and without being a “monster.” On the other structural transformations which will hand such an apparently favourable change also our lives and necessarily our situation did not produce, without some

8 PANAINO REFLECTIONS ON THE CULTURAL MEANING OF THE MELAMMU PROJECT

interesting exceptions, the basic idea that side (i.e. in with more clear words with the different cultures in Antiquity were ancient Oriental studies, considered ex- linked and reciprocally indispensable for pensive and not useful) for infecting also a correct approach to the past, neither the common subjects (as Ancient His- was this point of view current and com- tory, Classical Philology, Ancient Phi- mon in our universities. On the other losophy, etc.), we should also avoid any hand this soon-to-be ending century has sub-cultural trend, which will isolate seen the elaboration and then the explo- each scholar into his more or less beauti- sion of racist and intolerant , ful box. MELAMMU is perhaps a drop in which were closely linked to the ancient the ocean, but a drop can fill the vase, studies. The criminal mirage of Aryan producing a significant impact on the superiority36 was not only and simply the scholarly world. production of ignorant people, but was If some specialists of Oriental studies also scientifically justified and elabo- also ignore Greek and Latin, have no rated thanks to the direct collaboration idea of modern patterns in historical re- and enthusiastic speculations of highly search, have known only from newspa- reputed scholars and academicians.37 In a pers something about Sigmund Freud and small world, as it is today, this risk is Carl Gustav Jung, have never read a neither over nor we can assume it is philosopher or do not have any idea of definitely extinguished. The strong de- the great literature of the past, the risk is pression of the so-called South of the that our efforts could remain in a limbo World, or if you prefer, the Third World, of exoticism and esoteric knowledge, as a is producing a direct movement of mi- turris eburnea where the problems of the gration, in particular towards European normal world would not arrive. Against countries, which gives a fresh stimulus this trend, I maintain a perhaps bizarre for intolerance and racism. We have then and peculiar idea that the study of the to reflect on these facts because there are past, of civilisations and societies which some chauvinist trends which, as are far from us in time and space is diffi- intercultural modern phenomena, could cult in itself, but without a proper back- find a room also in our speculations on ground, a strong education of the indi- the past and could determine some dan- vidual spirit, could be very risky and gerous attitudes in current non-scholarly blind. In fact, strictly speaking about (but perhaps also scholarly) society. ideologies, we cannot avoid remarking Now, if we have on one hand the need that our scholarly work is not apart from to defend the evolution of ancient and our times; thus when we discuss past oriental studies, and in this I think we ideologies we necessarily see them have necessarily to join our colleagues of throughout the lens of our modern cul- Classical studies who sometimes do not ture and we cannot presume that current realise that the progressive destruction of ideologies do not play a sort of direct or ancient studies will start with the exotic semi-direct influence on our opinions. I

36 See, for instance, the discussion of the problem by Vernunft, Berlin 1954 (Destruction of reason, Engl. L. Poliakov, Le mythe arien, Paris 1971. translation by P. Palmer, Atlantic Highlands, N.Y., 37 We can simply recall that the intolerant specula- 1981), in particular the last chapter in the paragraph tions of H. St. Chamberlain were based on the works dedicated to H.St. Chamberlain as the founder of of Paul De Lagarde, a famous and technically very modern racism, and passim. good Orientalist; see G. Lukács, Die Zerstörung der

9 PANAINO REFLECTIONS ON THE CULTURAL MEANING OF THE MELAMMU PROJECT

use to say to my students that when we the need to regard the historical work as try to reconstruct the past we have to re- a strictly intellectual field, and that we alise that it is not an objective datum in cannot be simply technicians. Thus the front of our eyes, but that it appears limits in ours and in our students’ modified by our culture, language, re- cultural background could produce new ligion and experience. This does not sig- distortions in research that necessarily nify that we have no hope for a correct implies open minds and a strong aware- comprehension of the past, but that we ness of the difficulties we have to face. must venture in our studies with the con- This apparently dangerous situation sciousness that we have to know or we does not signify that the time is over for must suspect the more or less hidden Orientalism; in a changing world, the distortions linked to our individual per- process of globalization,38 as it has been ception and then the risks that we have to now called, the web, the single market focus on. We have to travel like Odys- and business economy, will attract more seus among the sirens, with the problem and more interests on the Oriental World; being that the sirens are inside our per- consequently we will see, as it normally ceptions. If absolute objectivity would be happens, a fresh interest in the past, su- impossible for a single person, we have perficial and economically motivated it to maintain the deep suspicion that we may be, which, without a conscious cannot see everything and for this we scholarly community, could be used also need the help of other insights and for ideological operations,39 or, as the stimulating supports. The intercultural contributions of Eric Hobsbawm have approach is thus based not only on the shown in other fields,40 for the invention idea that ancient cultures played a recip- of seemingly old (but actually new) tra- rocal influence on each other, but also on ditions. We cannot avoid realizing that the assumption that the specialists too of by speaking of , of ancient ide- these fields accept such an idea too; in ologies, of religions, of conquest and re- other words, if any research proceeds lated events of the past, we contribute, without the suspicion that other elements willingly or not, to building up an image are involved, it would be more difficult of the past, which, in its turn, can be to focus, to determine, or if necessary to used for political reasons in the present limit and exclude the possible relations world, as for instance for changing a with other cultures and their signifi- border or for assuming a place as the cance. Our cultural options are clearly original (quasi-mythological) birth-place reflected in our methods of working and of a nation. This is not an exemplum fic- in the selection of the data and of the tum; if you think for a moment of the re- protagonists of the game we want to re- cent Serbo-Albanian conflict, and the construct. For this reason I still insist on way in which its historical or pseudo-

38 See, e.g., the chapter on the “Homo globalizzatus” on the History of a Problem, in Matériaux pour of E.J. Hobsbawm, Intervista sul nuovo secolo, a cura l’histoire économique du monde iranien, textes réunis di A. Polito, Roma-Bari 2001. par R. Gyselen et M. Szuppe, Paris 1999, pp. 13-33. 39 A simple example of analysis of the ideological 40 See, e.g., E. Hobsbawm, On History, London 1997, evaluations of historico-religious data, such as those in particular the last article originally published with represented by the interpretations of the so called the title: The Historian between the Quest for the Zoroastrian reform, is discussed in my article: Social Universal and the Quest for Identity, in Diagnose, and Economic Patterns in the Old Avesta. Reflections 42/4, 1994.

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historical reasons going back to the Mid- cultures in particular for the West have dle Ages have been treated by the press not been superseded by new and more and the media you would probably real- precise and accurate methods of investi- ise the danger the lies in history. gations, but simply subjected to a sort of Of course any of us is free in his or her damnatio memoriae. The damnation of own choice and political options, but we course has infected also the same idea cannot presume that, as scholars, we are that a number of direct or indirect links neutral and not involved in the reality of and connections were possible and to be our times. investigated. I believe that sometimes we Before closing these “short” introduc- should return to these works, not because tory words, I would like to come back to they necessarily contain the true solu- the history of our studies by considering tions, but because those researches repre- with all of you the strange destiny of two sented an enormous effort to open the groups of scholars who were very sig- investigation of the Oriental world as nificant between the end of the XIX and well as Biblical and Christian studies be- the beginning of the XX century. Perhaps yond of their established limits.43 In it is only an impression, possibly wrong many respects their results, in particular like some sensations, but I still wonder in the case of the Panbabylonismus with why the exaggerations and the methodo- its bold and overwhelming focus on the logical limits of schools, which now are Astralmythologie, appear out of date or ill-famed or to put it less harshly, not sometimes fantastically fancied and not well-reputed in many academic clubs, pertinent. Then, if their spirit, after two like the Panbabylonistische Schule41 and world wars, has been completely lost, the Religionsgeschichtliche Schule,42 their contribution to the development of have been radically erased with many Oriental studies has not been seriously and many suggestive and intriguing – I meditated and taken into consideration would add in some cases correct – sug- into the framework of more solid steps.44 gestions and insights; the contribution of Ideologies as intercultural phenomena these scholars who tried to focus on the are the scholarly subject of our meeting, importance of Mesopotamian and Iranian but anyone of us influences ideas and

41 On this very subject will deal in de- and behaviours as well as on the dimension of the tail in the forthcoming proceedings of the Fourth history of religious traditions with a very liberal in- Symposium of the Melammu Project, “Schools of sight derived from a Neokantian antimetaphysical Oriental Studies and the Development of Modern general approach. Historiography,” held in Ravenna, 13th – 17th Octo- 44 An interesting and fitting example is offered, for ber 2001. instance, by scholars like Carol Clemen, who, as an 42 See, for instance, the defense of the main trends of important member of the Religionsgeschichtliche this school in the field of Iranian religious studies by Schule, and a part from some of his works on the Gh. Gnoli, in Universalismo e nazionalismo nell’Iran Greek sources concerning the Iranian world (Fontes del III secolo, published in Incontro di Religioni in Historiae Religionis Persicae, Gissae 1920; Die Asia tra il III e il X secolo d.C., a cura di L. Lanciotti, griechischen und lateinischen Nachrichten über die Firenze 1984, pp. 31-54. For an overview of this persische Religion, Giessen 1920), wrote a very school see the article published by Kurt Rudolf, Re- seminal and stimulating book titled Religions- ligionsgeschichtliche Schule, in The Encyclopedia of geschichtliche Erklärung des Neuen Testaments: die Religion, ed. by M. Eliade, New York – London Abhängigkeit des ältesten Christentums von nicht- 1987, vol. 12, pp. 293-296. jüdischen Religionen und philosophischen Systemen, 43 We have to underline the attention focused by this Giessen 1908 (reprints and new edition, Giessen school on the problem of the plurality of the origin of 1924, 1939). This work, soon translated in English in Christian religion, or on the role of religious practices an improved and enlarged version (Primitive Christi-

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people, contributes to the education of contribute to the enforcement of the new generations of students and young studies into an Eurasian perspective, of- scholars. Thus we are part of society and fering also a real occasion for the ex- its cultural development. For these rea- change of students programs, doctoral sons I hope that from this project new activities, and common education into a ideas and proposals for a strong col- spirit of real tolerance and cultural con- laboration among different fields, schol- sciousness. ars and nations will emerge and it could

anity and Its Non-Jewish Sources, translated by R.G. mentioned in this very work); but we can suspect that Nisbet, Edinburgh 1912), very widely entered into the third reprint of Clemen’s book, in 1939, under the many intercultural problems making an extensive use Nazi regime, could have been used for other pur- of the existing bibliography and with a very “liberal” poses. Another interesting problem concerns the in- discussion of many subjects which in a few years terpretation of the mutual influences between the would be, if not censured, at least hidden and aban- Iranian and Judaic worlds, which reflects a lot of doned. On the one hand, if the context in which this cultural and religious difficulties and prejudices, with kind of researches was developed, in particular the which I have tried to deal in my contribution titled attempt of focusing the Non-Jewish background of L’Ecumene iranica e lo Zoroastrismo nel loro svi- , was very interesting in se and with no luppo storico, published in Atti del seminario inver- hidden points in Clemen, it has on the other hand to nale: Il popolo del ritorno: l’Epoca persiana e la be prudently evaluated because of the racist trends in Bibbia, Lucca, 25-27 gennaio 2000, Biblia 2001, pp. which, following the work of De Lagarde, the com- 13-100, in particular in the chapter 5.2. “La questione plete independence of Christ from his Judaic origins delle mutue influenze tra mondo iranico e giudaico,” was the object of heavy ideological interests. We pp. 69-83, which I will edit, in a new and enlarged know that the work of Clemen was free from these version in the proceedings of the next Melammu prejudices (nor actually the name of De Lagarde is Symposium.

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