AG1157

Food Manufacturing, Processing and Storage Pest Control

Classification 7

Training Manual

University of Arkansas, U.S. Department of Agriculture, and County Governments Cooperating

Edited by

Dr. John D. Hopkins, Associate Professor and Extension Entomologist, University of Arkansas Division of Agriculture.

Contributors

Dr. John D. Hopkins, Associate Professor and Extension Entomologist, University of Arkansas Division of Agriculture.

Dr. Becky McPeake, Professor andExtension Specialist-Wildlife, University of Arkansas Division of Agriculture.

2 Preface This manual provides information for the Arkansas commercial pesticide applicator wishing to become certified in Food Manufacturing, Processing and Storage Pest Control – Classification 7. To become a certified applicator in this category, a candidate must pass both a general standards exam and pass an examination based primarily on the material presented in this manual and (Circular 6) Arkansas Pest Control Law (Act 488 of 1975, as amended). Information covered in the general standards examination is contained in A Guide for Private and Commercial Applicators: Applying Pesticides Correctly. Refer to (Circular 6) Arkansas Pest Control Law (Act 488 of 1975, as amended) for specific requirements. The Arkansas State Plant Board administers the examinations. Up-to-date study mate­ rials can be obtained from the Arkansas State Plant Board, #1 Natural Resources Drive (P.O. Box 1069), Little Rock, AR 72203-1069, phone (501) 225-1598. Additional study information may be obtained from the University of Arkansas Cooperative Extension Service, the pesticide label, current publications on the subject, pesticide distributors and manufacturers. Acknowledgments Information accumulates from direct observations, scientific literature and anecdotes from others. Information from these sources blurs together quickly, and consequently, unique ideas are rare in society. Credit for sources of information on urban pest control and management must go to Land Grant University Extension and research workers, most of whom are entomologists, who pioneered this work, those who kept training and research alive during the period when the success of synthetic organic pesti­ cides preempted nearly all but control evaluations from the 1940s to the 1960s, and those who persist today; Pest Control Industry workers who held training sessions nationally, regionally and locally where information was disseminated among the experienced and provided to the inexperienced; Environmental Protection Agency personnel who molded modern training and influenced the need for national unifor­ mity in training requirements; state regulatory personnel who cooperated with universities and industry and who strongly emphasized the importance of training; and the few textbook authors in the United States and England who compiled the reference data in the understandable and usable form that allows urban pest management practitioners to be professionals. Portions of this manual have been adapted from commercial applicator certification training manuals for general pest control developed by the Oklahoma Cooperative Extension Service, Division of Agricultural Sciences and Natural Resources, Oklahoma State University; Texas Agricultural Extension Service, the Texas A&M University System; and University of Nebraska Cooperative Extension, University of Nebraska-Lincoln. Also, special thanks go to Dr. Jim T. Criswell and Dr. Melinda Crockett, Oklahoma State University, Oklahoma Cooperative Extensive Service; Dr. Don L. Renchie (Texas Cooperative Extension); Dr. Grady J. Glenn (Center for Urban and Structural Entomology), Texas A&M University System; and Dr. Clyde L. Ogg, Extension Educator-Pesticide Education, University of Nebraska Cooperative Extension. Specific acknowledgments should go to the anonymous biological illustrators who graphically render pest and beneficial animals where photographs fail.

The pesticide information presented in this publication was current with federal and state regulations at the time of printing. The user is responsible for determining that the intended use is consistent with the label of the product being used. Use pesticides safely. Read and follow label directions. The information given herein is for educational purposes only. Reference to commercial products or trade names is made with the under standing that no discrimination is intended and no endorsement by the Cooperative Extension Service is implied.

3 Table of Contents

Page No. Page No. Food Manufacturing, Processing Red Flour Beetle ...... 30 and Storage ...... 5 Sawtoothed Grain Beetle ...... 30 Overview of Managing Pest Problems in Merchant Grain Beetle ...... 31 Food Related Facilities ...... 5 Foreign Grain Beetle ...... 31 Building Design ...... 5 Rusty Grain Beetle ...... 32 Creation of In-Plant Sanitation Spider Beetles ...... 32 Program ...... 9 Warehouse Beetle ...... 33 Inspection Observation Routine ...... 11 Other Dermestid Beetles ...... 33 Specialized Plant Inspections ...... 12 Cockroaches ...... 34 Food Manufacturing, Processing Identification of Cockroaches ...... 34 and Storage Integrated Pest German Cockroach ...... 34 Management ...... 13 American Cockroach ...... 35 Oriental Cockroach ...... 35 What Is lPM? ...... 13 Brown-banded Cockroach ...... 35 What Regulates Storability? ...... 13 Flies ...... 36 Monitoring Tools ...... 15 Ants ...... 36 Trap Design and Attractants ...... 15 Bees and Wasps ...... 36 Future Applications ...... 16 Other Occasional Insect Pests ...... 36 How to Use Insect Traps in Booklice ...... 36 a Warehouse ...... 16 Silverfish and Firebrats ...... 37 A Plan for Pest Management for the Popcorn and Seed Industry ...... 19 Crickets ...... 37 Pesticide Labels, Applications Ground Beetles ...... 38 Other Arthropods ...... 38 and Regulations ...... 21 Sowbugs and Pillbugs ...... 38 Labels ...... 21 Applications ...... 21 Rodents and Their Control ...... 39 Pesticide Regulations ...... 22 Senses, Agility and Reactions of Rodents ...... 39 Pesticide Residues ...... 22 Recognizing Rat and Mouse Signs ...... 39 Pesticide Tolerances ...... 23 Rodent Management ...... 41 Site Names ...... 23 USDA Meat Plants ...... 24 Equipment And Application Safety ...... 25 Techniques ...... 56 Sprayers ...... 56 Insect Pests and Control ...... 26 Dusters ...... 58 Moths ...... 26 Space Treating Equipment ...... 59 Almond Moth ...... 27 Indianmeal Moth ...... 27 Respiratory Protection ...... 64 Mediterranean Flour Moth ...... 27 Air-Purifying Respirators ...... 64 Mealmoth ...... 28 Approval of Air-Purifying Respirators for Pesticides ...... 65 Beetles and Weevils ...... 28 Air-Supplying Respirators ...... 65 Lesser Grain Borer ...... 28 Cigarette Beetle ...... 29 Selected References and Drugstore Beetle ...... 29 Study Material ...... 68 Confused Flour Beetle ...... 29 Glossary ...... 69

4 Food Manufacturing, Processing and Storage

Agriculture’s Food Safety Inspection Service Overview of Managing (USDA-FSIS), Environmental Protection Agency Pest Problems in Food (EPA), Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) and Department of Related Facilities Transportation (DOT). There may be more than one state agency that will be inspecting the food Management of pests in food processing plant also. In Arkansas, the Arkansas State facilities requires a high degree of professional Plant Board, the Arkansas Department of knowledge combined with experience. Pest Health (ADH) and the Arkansas Department of management includes many items in addition to Environmental Quality (ADEQ) will either be pesticides. A good definition for pest manage­ inspecting the plant or affecting pesticide ment: IPM is the integration of chemical, selection and/or application. physical, cultural and biological controls into a system that minimizes health, economic and Many food plants also have strict guidelines environmental hazards. Some have stated for which pesticides can be used in the plant pesticides are to be used as the last resort or as and where the pesticide(s) can be used. In addi­ a method to correct a serious problem. tion, the food plant’s contractors may have further restrictions on pesticide use regarding One of the first steps in managing pests in the processing of the contractor’s product. The food plants is a well-constructed building. applicator must be aware and follow all of Preventive design and maintenance is an these requirements. extremely valuable tool and first step in pest control. When preventive design/construction is not possible, then steps must be taken to apply Building Design preventive measures to existing facilities to decrease pest problems. Through the engineering design of the building, pest prevention will be made easier. Food plants must employ daily, ongoing pest The design includes not only the building, walls management programs including record keeping and interior but also the exterior landscaping, to monitor both effectiveness and legality of pest drainage and where usable materials will be management. stored and, very importantly, where unusable (trash) materials will be stored outside. The The pest management program must be location of property lines can be very important directed against the threat of pests not only in if a food plant’s neighbor does not practice the facility but also from surrounding areas. sanitation or is a business which will provide Pests may be introduced to the facilities via harborage for pests. incoming ingredients, materials and transporta­ tion vehicles. Pest management must be directed Short grass, neatly trimmed shrubs, paved at preventing favorable environments for the access ways and proper drainage are some of the pest to develop. environmental management strategies that help reduce or eliminate shelter areas for most pests. The first step in pest management for a food Rodents are further discouraged by surrounding processing facility is design and construction to the building foundation with an 18- to 24-inch eliminate pest entry and harborage. Without strip of 1-inch gravel in a trench six (6) inches this step, the pesticide applicator is working deep. This also makes an excellent area for traps from a deficit situation in which the applicator and bait stations. If the bottom of the trench is is on a continuous treadmill of trying to catch up lined with roofing paper, weed growth is with the problem. reduced. A soil sterilant may be used as a surface treatment. The applicator must also be very aware of federal and state regulations regarding the use Building design or remodeling for pest of pesticides in a food processing facility. This prevention involves building framing, can include the Food and Drug Administration construction materials and building services. (FDA), United States Department of It is important to keep framing four inches or

5 more away from walls so that inaccessible voids or punch holes in these walls because holes are not designed into the building. Where voids provide access to the interior of the wall, which cannot be prevented, the voids should be filled makes excellent insect quarters. with polyurethane foams coated with epoxy filler or similar materials. Steel column floor Roofs should be smooth, built-up paper and junctions should be grouped and sloped 60° to pitch type and free of spills and standing water. facilitate cleaning. Reinforced concrete framing Pitch and gravel roofs are difficult to clean, and should not leave ledges for dust, should be free corrugated metal roofs can support insect life in of pits, crack and crevices and sealed and the voids. painted where necessary. It is desirable to have as few windows as Concrete is suitable for floors, but if not possible in a food production zone. Windows are properly poured, concrete will crack and hold hard to clean and allow many pests to enter dust. Coating the floor will help aid in sanita­ when left open. Transparent glass block tion. The concrete must be cured and the surface windows should be considered when outside must be sandblasted, ground or acid-etched and light is necessary. primed with the recommended bonding material Doors should be made of metal and have before the coating is applied. The type of service tight-fitting seams. Use of air curtains on needed will determine the coating required. delivery doors or other large entries could also Wet processing areas require acid-proof or prevent certain pest entry. Any night-lights brick floors for easy cleaning and resistance to should be located 30 feet or more away from erosion. If the floor will be exposed to large exterior doors so insects will be attracted away quantities of running water or harsh chemicals, from the doors. Train shed doors are particularly the concrete substrate should be protected from difficult to rodent proof, but by use of a channel erosion with an asphalt membrane over which threshold and proper locations of the track the tile cement is applied before laying tiles and splice, an acceptable seal can be obtained. grouting. Good epoxy or acid-proof grouts must Good lighting with dust-tight fixtures leads be carefully and smoothly applied to the joints, to easy inspection, better housekeeping and which should be no more than 1/4 inch wide to improved pest management. Wall-suspended reduce water penetration and pest shelter. lockers, urinals and shower partitions and Nonproduction zones of food plants may be ceiling-suspended toilet partitions allow wet covered with asphalt or straight vinyl tiles. cleaning of floors. Likewise, water fountains However, these tiles may have cracks or void should be wall mounted. areas due to incomplete bonding, which will Electrical and plumbing services should be harbor insects, so they should not be used in installed so there is adequate access for cleaning areas where there is a high potential for insect behind and through the wall. Pipe insulation infestation. Tiles may also be discolored by should be dense, tough and well sealed and elec­ pesticides. Old wood floors offer many pest trical control panels should be either sealed to harborages. Store the new flooring materials for or held away from the wall. All such panels several days in the same area where it is to be should be insect proof. used. This preconditioning reduces shrinkage and cracks that can develop later. Equipment layout and design should be roomy, easily accessible for cleaning and should There should be a floor drain every not have rolled edges, ledges, dead ends or 400 square feet of floor in a wet processing area. pockets in which insect-attracting dirt, dust or Floors should be sloped toward the drain at waste products can accumulate. Equipment 3/16 inch per foot into a four (4) inch or larger should either be raised at least six (6) inches off sanitary line which should be equipped with the floor or sealed to the floor with a pliable check valves to prevent the entrance of insects material that will resist vibration. and rodents. There are five distinct general areas of Wall materials include precast or poured activity in food plants in which various pests concrete, concrete block, brick, tile and metal must be managed. In addition to understanding curtain. Whatever the material, it should be the life cycles and habits of pests, you should sealed or repainted and sealed so that it will be consider management in three successive steps: easy to clean and so that pores, cracks and joints will not offer insect shelter. Be sure that when 1. Preventive maintenance purchasing hollow, sandwich panel-type metal 2. Other non-chemical management options curtain walls, they are well sealed. Do not drill 3. Pesticide management options

6 The following are procedural guides for each in wet weather and liquid baits in area of activity. dry weather. (Insects) Grounds • Install solid insecticidal baits in and 1. Preventive Maintenance around breeding sites that cannot be removed. • Eliminate improperly stored equipment, litter, waste, refuse and uncut weeds or • Treat as needed with approved grass within the immediate vicinity of insecticides, especially near potential buildings or structures to reduce pest insect breeding sites. harborages. (Birds) • Eliminate excessively dusty roads, yards • Use chemical bird repellents where or parking lots. Pave where necessary possible on bird harborage and and establish well-maintained lawns. nesting sites. This reduces the possibility of food • Avicides may be selectively used in contamination from dirt, microbes and many ways. other airborne particles that may drift into the plant. • Properly slope and adequately drain the Buildings grounds to avoid contamination of food Effective grounds management is beneficial products through seepage of foot-borne in preventing pest entry, but it cannot stop all filth. Poor drainage also provides a pests or prevent pest entry from incoming breeding place for insects, micro­ ingredients and/or materials. organisms and water source for rodents. • Position outside lighting away from Some general preventive maintenance and buildings and focus the lights toward non-chemical control guidelines that apply to all buildings to attract night-flying insects areas of operations within the buildings are: away from doors and windows. Low sodium lights attract fewer insects and 1. Preventive Maintenance should be used when possible. • Rodent proof all doors, walls, windows • Reduce potential bird harborage by and roofs. screening off harborage areas. Reduce • Screen all windows that can be opened. any waste food product or raw product • Eliminate cracks, crevices, recesses and spillage outside to reduce food potential ledges for ease of cleaning and elimina­ for birds, insects or rodents. tion of potential pest harborages. • Eliminate food that may accumulate • Eliminate access to ledges and roofing near dust collection or exhaust systems. areas for birds. 2. Nonchemical Management • Locate equipment off the floor and away from walls or seal equipment to walls • Consider various types of rodent, insect and floors. and bird traps. • Maintain adequate housekeeping 2. Nonchemical Management programs. • Housekeeping – Keep all areas free of • Implement pest monitoring programs loose materials such as cardboard, rags, including pheromone(s) and sticky traps. processing waste and equipment. • Clean structure frequently with brooms 3. Pesticide Management and vacuum, paying particular attention (Rodents) to out-of-the-way places. • Maintain and inspect bait stations. • Clean both the interior and exterior Install bait stations at adequate of all equipment (electrical and intervals and inspect often for signs of mechanical) often. activity. Be aware of rodent migration • Inside buildings, utilize electrified grids seasons or nearby construction that may for attracting insects. However, outside cause rodent migration. Rodenticides buildings electrified grids may do more must be kept fresh. Consider solid baits harm than good.

7 Incoming Ingredients and • Ensure proper sanitation and Material Storage Warehouse elimination of harborages. 3. Pesticide Management 1. Preventive Maintenance • Space treatment withnon-residuals. • Inspection of all incoming vehicles as • Spot treatment with nonresiduals. well as ingredients and materials is • Crack and crevice treatment with essential to determine that pests are not residuals. brought into storage areas. • Contact treatment with nonresiduals. 2. Nonchemical Controls Frequent inspections of all programs are necessary. • Store ingredients and materials away from walls far enough to permit access for inspection and sanitation. Packaging Areas This is the most critical area of the entire (Rodents) • Place rodent traps (windup and snap) at facility since foods are most likely to be or near all doors and at intervals along exposed in their finished form. Contamination walls and maintain a map of trap loca­ resulting from human contact can also be a tions. Record catches for each trap. significant problem in this area. Packaging materials must be considered as a source of (Insects) and home for pests. • Utilize air curtains at dock and pedestrian doors Records for chain of custody can be very important for packaging material to document (Birds) proper care and protection from pests. • Selectively use revolving bird lights. Add Preventive maintenance, nonchemical wires, prongs or other deterrents to rooftops or roosting sites. Note: all management and pesticide management are the mechanical and electrical units require same here as stated earlier. frequent inspection to ensure proper functioning. Finished Products Warehouse The probability that rodents, insects and 3. Pesticide Management birds might gain entry into the finished • Use rodent bait stations containing product warehouse is just as great as with anticoagulants to supplement rodent receiving materials and storage. The manage­ traps (where company policy permits). ment requirements are similar. However, the • Space treatment with nonresiduals. possibility of rodents and insects being intro­ • Crack and crevice treatment with duced into warehouses via carriers is less residual insecticides. likely unless all operations are housed • Spot treat with residual insecticides. together and there are lapses in the pest • Fumigate raw bulk commodities when management program. infested during receiving and, if possible, before entering the processing plant. Vehicles Frequent inspections are necessary to The need for an effective vehicle inspection determine that all controls are functioning program cannot be overemphasized. If pest-free correctly. finished products are placed on a pest- contaminated carrier, the pest control manager Processing Area has not fulfilled their obligations. Carrier inspection of boxcars and trucks with false 1. Preventive Maintenance walls is difficult at best since it is impossible to closely examine behind walls. Vehicles must be • Detailed monitoring program clean and free of infestation prior to loading • Total facility IPM program final product. 2. Nonchemical Management (Vehicles before loading) • Place rodent traps near doors if situation • Space treatment. warrants and monitor for activity. • Crack and crevice treatment.

8 Creation of In-Plant Goal Sanitation Program The main goal of in-plant sanitation is to review existing activities. After seeing what is For in-plant sanitation programs to be being neglected or performed improperly, it is successful, the program must be supported and the prime duty of the committee to compile a list followed by all plant personnel including upper of these deficiencies by category. A suggested management. Inspections of any facility routine is to precede each item recorded, consume a considerable quantity of executive possibly on a sample inspection sheet, with the and supervisory time. Therefore, it is important categorical classification of the item. that inspections are organized and efficient, and Generally, all defects will fall under five provisions made to utilize the information main headings: gained. Inspections should be given the same careful attention as any other production main­ 1. Pest Control tenance activity. Keeping this in mind, the 2. Operational Methods following comments are aimed primarily at the 3. Personnel Practices establishment of an in-plant sanitation 4. Maintenance for Sanitation inspection program. 5. Cleaning Practices The procedure in setting up an inspection Preceding each deficient item, single or program can be broken down into five basic multiple notations of PC, OM, PP, M or C will steps. These are: serve to categorize the problem. 1. Organization The reason for identification categorically of 2. Goal deficiencies observed by the committee is the 3. Inspection violation becomes more obvious when a critical 4. Utilization situation starts to appear within a given cate­ 5. Follow-up gory. If 50% of the items concern maintenance, it can be assured the plant manager will have Organization some answers from the maintenance depart­ ment. It could also be the plant superintendent The need for in-plant inspections for any food does not like the engineer and is loading the plant operation is quite obvious. In nearly all report. In which case, another problem area has instances, the motivation to operate a clean, been brought to the committee’s attention. orderly, complaint-free plant surpasses the fear of The true goal of the in-plant sanitation enforcement activity. Protection of the consumer committee is to recognize weaknesses in the and maintenance of a respected trade name are program, to find missed areas in all phases of strong motives for proper sanitation pest the effort if these exist and to solve sanitation management programs. In this interest, it is problems beyond the scope or authority of the obvious that a complete review of the sanitation individual in charge of the in-plant sanitation effort is needed on a periodic and scheduled basis. program or individual departments. As there will be many decisions to make as the program progresses, in matters of finance, Inspection policy and personnel, it is best to have the A poorly equipped sanitation committee will highest company official fully support the do a poor job. Rank-and-file employees know program. When the group meets, the highest where problems exist and how corrections can company official present should act as chairman best be made. The inspection committee should of the committee. In addition to the chairman, utilize this information source. The inspection all department heads should be involved, plus committee should start with clean, spotless an office manager, a safety officer, a personnel outer clothing; a white or green smock would be director and similar department heads as appli­ minimum. A suitable and identifiable uniform is cable. The reason for this large group is pest better. A white uniform with a jacket identified management affects all departments and all as Sanitation Inspection Team, or other such departments affect the plant’s pest management marking, is suggested. program. Also, the more persons looking, the more apt the committee is to see and correct Often when equipment is poorly cleaned, any problems. faulty lighting is to blame. The same applies to

9 inspections. See to it that each member of the diate action can be taken on items that can be inspection carries a halogen flashlight. Some corrected readily. members may prefer having halogen flashlights As the routine of inspections is established, attached to their bump caps in order to allow there may be temptation to consider making up free use of their hands. A scraper or spatula is a sanitation checklist or form. This may be often helpful. helpful as a rough guide. A checklist becomes a Generally, the engineer will carry a problem if it becomes routine, and constructive screwdriver and pliers that will be needed tools. “digging” is forgotten. The recorder should bring a suitable note pad There will be times when it is necessary to and pencil and use them. look for and to catalog specific things. Surplus The committee should assemble on time at a lubricant conditions, chipped or peeling paint on selected site. Determine at this time where an structures or equipment and similar product inspection will be made. Proceed to the selected hazard defects are to be considered here. The area and begin with the inspection. Try not to emphasis of enforcement inspections is shifting look into all the places you examined on the to conditions whereby a product may become previous inspection unless that location has a violative. This means if a condition exists where history of pest problems. It is a fallacy of inspec­ condensate is dripping off a pipe into a product tors that if an insect was found at a specific zone, a violation already exists. location, that person tends to return to and look These are of initial and primary concern and at the same location. should be given priority over all else. Rodent Discussions during the course of the evidence in a warehouse should not be tolerated inspection should be brief and confined to and could bring about undesirable comment or matters within the scope of observations in that serious action from enforcement personnel. specific area. If a unit appears to need cleaning, question the cleaning cycle and when the unit Utilization was and is to be cleaned. If the same unit is soiled every time it is viewed, it is likely that Each department should be given a clear, the cleaning cycle should be changed unless the written copy of the inspection notes within a day inspection is occurring during the “dirty” phase after the inspection. Correction of defects that of the day for that unit. are within the scope of activities of a depart­ ment head should be carried out at once. Be constructive, but watch details. Note Depending on the seriousness of the condition, a missing electrical box covers and knockouts. decision must be made by the committee on the Open boxes present possible insect harborage. action to be taken. When such a condition is Surplus lubricant and chipped paint over or in observed by the sanitation committee or the vicinity of a product zone is a product reported to the sanitation committee, immediate hazard and should be noted. It is far better to action should be taken. If product contamination have too many items on the list than to miss or a potential product contamination situation is even one item that is critical. involved, immediate steps must be taken. Recording of defects is important because Usually, the sanitation committee will this information will be a work list and must be identify items of a less significant nature that treated as such. The record sheet should carry can be handled as a matter of routine. At the the date, area or area number and names of end of an inspection cycle, when the entire oper­ persons participating in the inspection. ation including inspection of the roof and Consecutive numbering is suggested, starting grounds has been completed, the sanitation with item 1 and continuing on to the final item committee should hold a meeting and review the at the end of the series of inspections that notes compiled during the survey. comprise one complete in-plant inspection cycle. Uncorrected items left over from previous Be complete when identifying and inspections should be addressed first. To describing recorded deficiencies, but be as address repeat situations, the committee head specific as possible and brief. Get the meaning should go down the list, item by item, to deter­ down on paper so recall on a given item is mine if a correction has been made. If a correc­ simple and appropriate measures can be taken tion has not been made, the department head to correct the deficiency. responsible for the condition should give a realistic correction date. At the conclusion of each inspection, the recorder should comply and distribute inspec­ Not infrequently an item will continue to tion notes to each department head so imme­ reappear on the inspection notes in spite of

10 having been marked as corrected. For example, such a surface because the mite trails are it is a violation of the current Good generally disproportionately large in comparison Manufacturing Practices to have personal to the mite itself. clothing lying about in a food production area. In a mill packing area in very hot or very cold Individual insects, such as the flat grain weather, personal clothing is often where it does beetle, are often difficult to see in stock of the not belong. The packing superintendent’s same color as the insect. One method of observa­ comment may be about having told someone tion is to lay a handful of suspect stock on a flat something. This is not correction, however. surface and smooth it out with a spatula. By Providing a site to place clothing, even just a holding the flashlight at about a 20 or 30-degree specific peg on a specific post, and enforcing its angle to the surface carefully for a minute or two, movement can be noted if there is live use is correction. infestation. Cereal-type insects will usually Both the inspection and meeting should be come to the surface of the stock and can be seen. conducted in a businesslike format, allowing Mites will start to move, and although the mite discussion and problem solving. itself may not be viewed, mites will move flakes of stock, such as bran or chaff, and this move­ There is one facet of this type of inspection ment can be observed. Insects such as the saw­ and meeting that must be carefully watched, toothed grain beetle will sometimes remain and that is to avoid criticism of each other or motionless for up to a minute or so, and only departments. Finger pointing leads to distrac­ then is movement detected. Again, this is a tion from the original purpose and does not lesson in seeing, not haste. meet the goal of providing a safe plant to work or to produce a quality product. In looking for insect or rodent activity, inspect areas most likely to produce results. Follow-up It is general opinion of enforcement agencies that a plant will be clean and free of contami­ Sanitation responsibility does not rest with nants regardless of what must be done to just the plant sanitarian, the plant manager or prevent them. No system is permitted to be any other single plant person. Responsibility for insect infested, even a raw grain handling the sanitation program rests on everyone in the system. While a court case may not evolve from plant including plant administrators. such an infestation, this will appear on an “I Observe” form (Form FDA 483, Inspectional Observations) for which the operation can be Inspection Observation held accountable. Routine Concepts in the amount of allowable filth in any food operation have changed drastically in The first detailed look should start with the past few years. This had diminished from a obscure places, such as areas where pipes pass shovelful to a teaspoonful, and now even a through the wall. Usually, if insect trails are potential contaminated situation must be looked present on a pipe, even ten or more feet off the upon with alarm. floor, they become quite obvious as a flashlight beam is played slowly along the pipe. When such Grease and paint should be of prime concern a situation is found, have the inspection team in the inspection along with insects, rodents or confirm it. This not only gets a second opinion, any other potential source of contamination. but also, quite often, is an educational moment However, it is infrequent that these situations for those of the inspection team who are not are obvious. Pests are observable in hoppers, familiar with the situation. under equipment and inside of equipment framework, and it is the task of the inspection Pay particular attention to any highly team to get in, under and behind such areas to dust-coated surface, especially on a fairly flat make the necessary observations. This is piece of structure. By holding a flashlight at a another reason to carry a good light. Places flat angle to the surface, minor disruptions of missed in cleaning are generally dark and the dust coating are elongated and become more inaccessible or else they would not have obvious. Insect trails or mouse footprints usually been missed. stand out well in such situations. Light colored dust on a dark surface is best for this type of A lesson in equipment framework observation. Such trails, as those made by mites, examination is to determine from which side a are almost microscopic, but readily stand out on piece of equipment is cleaned. The problem, if

11 one exists, will usually be on the reverse side of requires inspection of raw product received at a the framework, or the one nearer the person food processing plant; however, this often is not cleaning but on the interior. done. Each plant needs a written inspection procedure for receiving and inspecting incoming A void, for the purpose of inspection routine, raw product. Not only is the raw product vital is any space that cannot be accounted for or for processing, but often either the product or access gained for routine check. These are poten­ the receiving area is the source of most pest tial danger spots. More often than not, a single problems. These problems can be eliminated or insect trail on the floor will point the way to an greatly reduced by a good inspection and adverse condition. Remember, suspect every­ sanitation program at receiving. thing that cannot be accounted for in false spaces in equipment and structure. Items to include for a receiving procedure include: Know what previous inspections reports have stated. If no mice have been reported on 1. Guidelines for acceptance level of rail the plant trapping record, and hair is observed cars and trucks as per insects (live or on a snaptrap, something is wrong. Perhaps this dead), odors, rodent contamination and is just a failure to clean the trap, perhaps not. physical condition of the car. Insects may be either in the raw product or the A portion of each inspection should be transportation vehicle. devoted to watching employee actions and in- plant practices in general. This observation 2. Guidelines for checks and visual should be done in a manner as to see the opera­ examinations of both bagged and bulk tion, as it would normally be done – not as it products. Included in this are methods to be may be done with plant supervisors present. used and the number of samples and how to A routine daily inspection of each area is the take samples for inspection of insects or for responsibility of that area’s supervisor. These quality control analysis. daily inspections should be included in the plant 3. A recording form that is used to provide inspection reports. direct and quick communication when a Good sanitation should be rewarded and problem is detected. recognition should be made to the area and 4. Set housekeeping standards for receiving personnel working in that area. This is an area. important part of total plant cooperation. 5. A pallet-cleaning program coupled with a Often a periodic inspection by an outside cleaning code and frequent checks. firm will provide insight into the plant’s operations. An outside inspection can help 6. Specifications as to height, storage and identify strengths and weaknesses in a location of stocks in relation to each other. sanitation program. One purpose is to isolate slow-moving stock away from dusty areas or raw product. Specialized Plant 7. A reliable method of ensuring stock rotation. Inspections A very critical item at the receiving area is the quick removal of spilled raw commodity, Persons responsible for sanitation broken packaging and other garbage type mate­ inspections for specific areas of the plant need rial. Removal means not only getting the mate­ to be given the authority to implement and rial into a trash receptacle but having the trash enforce sanitation programs. removed frequently and the trash container Warehouse: The person in charge of kept clean. sanitation needs to be able to require leaving an A pest manager must know which pests 18-inch space between pallets and walls and cause product damage and those that occur due 14-inch space between double rows of pallets. to some management situation but do not This extra space allows for inspection of the damage the final product. The pest manager warehouse for insects and rodents. The 18-inch must know why a pest occurs, that is, what space between the wall and pallets is not conditions must be present for the pests to attractive for rodents. survive and how to remove those conditions. The Raw Product Receiving: The law (FD&C pest manager must also be aware of the federal Act, Title 21, Code of Federal Regulations) and state regulations relating to his/her plant.

12 Food Manufacturing, Processing and Storage Integrated Pest Management

When people discuss food processing pest factors that regulate systems, monitoring, management, discussion usually concerns a maintaining good records and using this infor­ crisis point or another area where a problem mation to make sound management decisions. has erupted and people are trying to solve the problem. Most concerns revolve around concern from governmental and regulatory enforcement What regulates actions or consumer complaints. The biggest storability? impediment to improved management and implementation of IPM systems is the Postharvest systems are regulated by prevailing attitude of eradication. While moisture content, temperature, pest access and managers of other commodities such as fresh time that the product is in a susceptible state. market produce have accepted IPM principles, Within biological limits, the greater the the food processing and distribution system temperature, moisture content and the time has not yet accepted the philosophy behind products are in a susceptible condition, the this system. higher the resultant pest population. Management systems must be built around these biological and management factors and What is IPM? their influence on population dynamics. IPM is defined as a systematic approach to Moisture Content: Different insect and commodity protection emphasizing increased mold species have different requirements for information for improved decision making to grain moisture. The rice weevil is limited by its reduce purchased inputs and optimize social, requirements for high grain moisture (>13%), economic and environmental consequences. whereas the lesser grain borer can tolerate dry The IPM concept emphasizes integration of grain. Within limits, the greater the moisture disciplines and control measures into a total content, the higher population growth. Mold management system. Control or management growth normally requires high grain moisture measures include natural enemies, cultural greater than 14-15%. Most processed goods are management, temperature and other physical low in moisture content, and this helps reduce controls, sanitation and pesticides. This system population development. anticipates and prevents pests from reaching damaging levels and improves overall economic Temperature: Temperature is the most and social outcomes. From an economic and important regulatory property in processed ecological standpoint, IPM is based on the food storage. Temperatures below 65°F are “economic threshold” concept that management unfavorable for insects and molds. Likewise, action is taken only when potential losses due grain temperatures above 95°F are unfavorable to pest populations exceed costs of controls for insects. Insects are especially sensitive to available to reduce the populations. high temperature, and high temperatures have been used as a disinfestation and management Basic changes in management decision- practices for centuries. From a stored product making processes are required to implement an management viewpoint, keeping insects at sub­ effective IPM program. Food processors and optimal temperatures is important to reduce distributors must realize most decisions have population development and minimize damage consequences far beyond a particular time and cosmetic concerns. Table 1 shows the period and location. Excessive use of manage­ general response to high and low temperature. ment practices such as pesticides may reduce The interaction of both temperature and time profitability, create potential worker hazards to achieve mortality are obvious. Even rela­ and stimulate pesticide resistance. Keys to tively low temperatures can be very effective in implementing IPM include understanding suppressing insect populations.

13 Table 1. Response of stored-product insects to cold tolerant, whereas adults of the rusty and temperatures (Fields 1992) red flour beetles are the most cold tolerant.

Temperature Table 3. Mean percent mortality of lesser grain borer Zone (ºF) Effect and rusty grain beetle populations in instantaneous 122-140 Death in minutes temperature drop from 86°F. Lethal 113 Death in hours Lesser Rusty 95 Development stops Temperature Grain Borer Grain Beetle Sub-optimum 90-95 Development slows 86¡F 10 19 Maximum rate of 77¡F 6 17 Optimum 77-90 development 68¡F 2 2 60-77 Development slows 59¡F 2 1 Sub-optimum 60-55 Development stops 50¡F 10 96 41-60 Death in days Lethal 0 Death in minutes 43¡F 98 95 32¡F 100 99 How long will packages have to be in a cool temperature controlled climate? Table 2 shows Surrounding conditions have a significant several packages and time to get the tempera­ influence on insects. Earlier discussion demon­ tures to a level where insect mortality will occur. strated the significant impact commodity moisture could have on population development. Likewise, relative humidity has a significant Table 2. Times for selected commodities to reach impact on insect mortality in different 32ºF to ensure insect mortality. All commodities were exposed in a 27 ft2 freezer filled to capacity. temperatures. Time: Stored grain insects and molds are Tempera­ ture Time to very predictable and have an exponential Setting 32ºF Time to growth curve after the product is processed. Commodity (ºF) (hrs) equilibrium Managers have the ability to shift this popula­ tion curve to the right or to the left and the -14 7 30 Cornflakes -5 6 30 magnitude of the height depending on their sanitation program and the ability to aerate to Flour -14 55 160 control temperature. (100 lb) -5 29 130 Macaroni -14 29 130 Access: Most stored product insects can fly (24 lb) -5 18 95 and move within and between storage struc­ tures. Maintenance sanitation and residual A key component is that insects are very sprays are keys to minimizing residual popula­ durable creatures and, if insects are given time tions in storage facilities and reducing the popu­ to adjust to changing temperatures, insects will lation growth of insects. Food warehouse modify their physiology to survive extended facilities are very attractive to stored product periods of harsh temperatures. This is primarily insects and insects will find these facilities. true for cold temperatures. However, if the Keeping insect movement to a minimum is a temperature change is rapid and dramatic (e.g., key component to sound management. taking insects from 90°F to 60°F), very high mortality will occur (Table 3). Keys to Reduce Access Different insect species have differing Carefully inspect all materials entering a tolerances and temperatures that are optimal. warehouse area. This should include raw prod­ Insects most sensitive to cold are red and ucts, paper materials, packaging or any other confused flour beetles. The most cold tolerant material that could transport insects. are the weevils and the Indianmeal moth. The stage of development can also help insects Building design: Design storage and survive harsh climates. For example, larvae of processing areas to minimize open areas, the lesser grain borer and rice weevil are very unscreened vents and other areas of access.

14 Screens: Screen all vents, doors and other significantly attracted to light and this is a good areas to minimize access. Use fine mesh screens way to initially sample for Indianmeal moth to minimize penetration. adults. Replacing incandescent or mercury vapor light with yellow or sodium arc lights at outdoor Make sure doors are not left open, and it is areas can be effective in reducing the attraction preferable to have double doors to minimize of insects from outside services. migration. If a significant infestation is found, Trap Design and eliminate the population to prevent spread and modify microclimate to prevent insects from Attractants developing significant populations. For each insect and sampling requirement, the user must decide what kind of trap and if Monitoring Tools there are needs for attractants.

The backbone of any management system is A pheromone is a chemical attractant effectively sampling pest populations and moni­ released by an insect to affect the behavior of toring grain/product quality. There has been a the same species of insect. Two commonly used great deal of excitement regarding new pheromones for insects are sex and aggregation sampling tools that have become available for pheromones. insect sampling in grains, warehouses and Sex pheromones are used to facilitate mate processing facilities. These tools can be location and mating. There are several commer­ pheromone baited or used unbaited. These cially available sex pheromones for use in traps sampling tools have not been accepted because to improve sampling. Most commonly used is the they are presently uncalibrated and there is no Indianmeal moth pheromone. implementation work demonstrating these in commercial situations. In processing industries, Aggregation pheromones are chemical trapping systems are of great assistance in substances released to attract members of the detection to maintain low populations of insects. same species. The most commonly used is the confused flour beetle pheromone. Key Monitoring Tools Food attractants are often used in Visual – Visual inspection can be a key to corrugated traps and have significant advan­ maintain a low population in food processing tages because the food attracts all species of and food warehouses. Key areas to watch are food-processing insects. An obvious limitation foods that are high risk: to the use of food attractant in a food ware­ house is the competition with food odors • Longest in the warehouses surrounding the traps. •F rom a high risk firm • In an area that is the warmest Trap Placement • Near access points •P oor packaging Trap placement is a key component in managing food processing insects. Placement of Visual inspections also have another added traps is dependent upon: benefit – they force personnel to walk through a facility and notice any open packages, improper Time of Year – Different times of the year sanitation and other areas that will attract and have different temperature profiles within the allow a population of insects to develop. processing area and warehouse. When tempera­ tures are 90ºF, extensive movement within and Lights – Lights are often an excellent place around the facility will occur. to begin a facility inspection. Most stored product insects are attracted to lights. If Outdoor Use – If outdoor traps are used to Indianmeal moths or other insects are noticed measure movement into a facility, the traps flying around lights, there is likely a population should be placed in areas that will not collect within the warehouse. Indianmeal moths were extensive amounts of dust but are close to areas often thought to avoid light; however, they are of entry.

15 Number of Traps Per Square Feet – The 2. Identification of pests or the potential for number of traps required depends on the risk the pest infestation. manager is willing to take, personnel time avail­ 3. Determination of the extent of the problem. able and pest level at which the manager wants 4. Evaluation of a particular treatment or to maintain the population. A rule of thumb may control method. be one trap per 4,000 to 5,000 square feet. A key part is putting traps in high-risk areas where All pheromone-baited traps were not created there have been insect problems before. This equal. Traps for moths may act differently than practice can prevent buildup and the requirement beetle traps (Figure 1). One cannot treat all for extensive insecticide application or fumigation stored-product pests the same when it comes to and/or product removal. recommending an effective trapping program. Long-lived insect adults (e.g., flour beetles) tend to be less attracted to pheromone-baited traps Interpreting Trap Catch than short-lived insect adults. A flour beetle There are no hard and fast rules for adult that lives for 12 to 18 months does not interpreting trap catch. A better practice may react as dramatically as an Indianmeal moth be examining the trends in trap catch and adult that may only live in this stage for one to attempting to modify management practices two weeks. to reduce populations. Insect population grow exponentially, and when outbreaks occur, they are often easy to measure. Future Applications With decreased pesticide alternatives and increased regulations, the processing industry will have to begin looking for alternatives to pesticides. These alternatives will have to be based on the ecology of the system with an emphasis on system regulatory mechanisms. Many flourmills are beginning to use heat treat­ ments to manage insect populations. Management options should emphasize avail­ able tools such as hot or cold temperature manipulation, improved monitoring systems in processing, increased awareness of sanitation and housekeeping and having well trained personnel throughout the system from Figure 1. Moth trap (top), beetle trap (bottom). acquisition to marketing. Know the Pest How to Use Insect Traps Knowing the pest is half the battle in in a Warehouse controlling it when establishing and managing a grain, bulk commodity or bagged product pest A tool to determine the presence or absence management program. This holds true when one of potentially harmful pest insects is needed tries to interpret the results and data from such where stored commodities are held for extended a trapping program. lengths of time. Pheromone-baited traps are excellent tools for this purpose. Common Insect Pests in Grain and Trapping systems are significant tools to use Processed Food in an integrated pest management program in Tables 4 and 5 summarize the results of warehouses. Pheromone-baited traps can be surveys conducted in 1980 and in 1988 and used in a variety of ways to assist in a ware­ show the frequency at which stored-product house pest management program: insects were found in raw grain and 1. Inspection of bagged commodities. processed food.

16 Table 4. Most frequently found stored-product Too much dust can cause sticky traps to be insects in raw grain in the United States. ineffective. In this situation, alterations to the Number of States sticky trap can prevent an excessive build-up of Responding dust or a pitfall-type trap could be incorporated. Rank Species 1980 1988 Dusty warehouses offer challenges for conventional sticky glue traps. In these extreme 1 Indianmeal moth * 27 30 conditions, a sticky trap may become useless 2 Sawtoothed grain beetle 20 23 after several days, or even after several hours. 3 Red flour beetle* 16 26 The selection of a trap that can deflect the dust, or a pitfall-type trap that does not include glue 4 Rice weevil 19 19 as the entrapment mechanism, will need to be 5 Confused flour beetle 17 11 implemented. 6 Flat grain beetle 7 18 Placement of traps will depend on the 7 Granary weevil 8 13 temperature in the warehouse. In the spring, the 8 Foreign grain beetle 7 11 ceiling of the unheated warehouse offers optimum conditions for the growth and develop­ 9 Lesser grain borer* 8 10 ment of stored-product insects. As the tempera­ 10 Angoumois grain moth* 10 3 ture gradients in the warehouse change during *A pheromone lure is commercially available for this the summer months, the harsh conditions near stored-product insect pest. the top of these facilities may hinder the capture of insects in a monitoring program. Table 5. Most frequently found insects in processed food in the United States. Outdoor Trapping Number of States Responding Trapping for stored-product insects around the outside of a stored-product warehouse can Rank Species 1980 1988 offer several advantages in an overall pest management strategy. The trap selected for 1 Indianmeal moth * 29 40 outdoor trapping must be able to withstand the 2 Sawtoothed grain beetle 33 38 weather (e.g., plastic construction) and should 3 Red flour beetle* 24 24 not be prone to becoming saturated with insects quickly. 4 Dermestids* 24 23 5 Confused flour beetle* 15 20 By placing pheromone-baited traps on the outer perimeter of a storage facility, potentially 6 Cigarette beetle* 13 15 destructive insects can be intercepted or lured 7 Drugstore beetle* 6 11 away from stored food and grain. A feral popula­ 8 Flat grain beetle 0 3 tion of many of the most common stored-product insect pests is available outdoors throughout the 9 Rice weevil 0 2 United States and Canada. Thus, the outdoor 10 Granary weevil 0 2 pheromone trapping technique can help the 11 Warehouse beetle 0 0 modern pest manager predict the arrival of indoor populations of insects and prevent many *A pheromone lure is commercially available for this from causing an infestation. stored-product insect pest. Trap Placement Traps There is no exact number of traps that It is important to recognize that there is not should be placed in a warehouse to detect the always one type of trap that is best to use in a presence or absence of pest insects. The number pest-monitoring program in warehouses. It is of traps needed may change according to several important to match the specific trap to the factors determined by the trained person environmental conditions in each particular situ­ implementing and reevaluating a trapping program. Some factors to consider are: ation. Some examples of this would be: 1) dusty areas vs. areas that are not dusty, 2) hot vs. cold 1. Quality assurance standards by temperatures and 3) outdoors vs. indoor use. management

17 2. Seed vs. finished goods beetle). An optional lure for the cigarette beetle 3. Pharmaceutical vs. raw intermediate could be placed in each trap in some situations. products After determining that his warehouse 4. Popcorn vs. field corn contained little or no detectable target pests in Important questions to ask are: half of the facility, the traps were moved to the half of the warehouse where insects were found 1. What is the goal of a sanitation program? Is in the pheromone-baited traps. Another the goal zero insect tolerance? approach that can be used instead of moving the 2. Is an attempt being made to mass trap out traps is to employ more traps in a uniform grid a population, or to just monitor a pest pattern in the suspect areas of the warehouse. population? After several days or a week, these traps are Figure 2 illustrates a situation where one checked and recorded again. At this point, there trap per 100,000 cubic feet is placed in a is one trap per 50,000 cubic feet. If the pest finished grocery product warehouse. The pest management inspector has more time, he/she management inspector checks each trap weekly. can tighten the grid even further to pinpoint A record of the results is kept in a separate log this infestation (one trap per 10,000 cubic feet). away from the physical trap itself. A map The inspector can then start visually searching should be made of each trapping location. Each for signs of an active infestation in the areas trap in this practical example contains two where the most insects were captured. This lures: (1) Plodia complex (Indianmeal moth), could be cast skins of Trogoderma larva; odor and (2) Trogoderma complex (warehouse beetle, distinctive to certain insects (e.g., flour beetles T. galbrium, furniture cabinet beetle, khapra and roaches); webbing on bags, flaps of the bags or the surface/side-walls of a grain bin; pupa casing in corrugated cardboard; or actual live insects on finished product. In this actual warehouse, old code-dated rolled oats were found to be infested with Indianmeal moths, sawtoothed grain beetles and flour beetles. Some nearby dog food also contained large stored-product insects that could have entered this warehouse from the often- opened dock door. The cost of this program for pheromone-baited traps/lures would typically run about $250 to $300 per year. The time needed to count and record seven traps each week would be about 30 minutes. Interpreting Trap Catch A common misconception in a strategy used to manage grain, bulk commodities and bagged products using pheromone-baited traps is that there is a set numerical threshold for action or reaction. There is no magic number for deter­ mining action. A trained pest management inspector must weigh all factors before making a decision. The key to interpreting trap catch is to look for increases in numbers of insects from one trapping period to the next (e.g., 1 - 5 - 30). It is often easy to see when an outbreak occurs. At this time, the pest management inspector can recommend appropriate corrective Figure 2. Monitoring for stored-product insects in a action (e.g., chemical, nonchemical, sanitation, finished foods warehouse. discarding product).

18 B. Anticipation of winter storage/fumigate A Plan for Pest before winter Management for the C. Mice in cold storage 1. Insulation, be aware Popcorn and Seed Industry D. Lighting/placement is critical 1. Indoors Purpose: To establish an on-going, year 2. Outdoors round pest management program to eliminate E. Beneficial insects (non-food areas) any damage incurred by insects, rodents or birds. This would include both physical damage IV. Chemical Control of Bulk Seed to the seed and the defacing of the packaging Storage that contains the seed. A. Timed pyrethrin dispensers *replacing vapona strips History of the Problem 1. 32-day aerosol cans of two percent natural pyrethrin The popcorn and seed industries in the 2. Labeled insecticides United States are making rapid advances in the B. Pheromone traps manipulation of the genetic structure of plants 1. Moth trap/every fourth bin (outside in order to create varieties that are more the bins) productive. However, even with the amount of 2. Grain probes in the bins (one per technology available, most seed companies are 5,000 bushels) years behind other processed food disciplines in 3. Check every two weeks/ the protection of their stored commodities from July-November stored-product insect pests and rodents. 4. Critical check before processing C. Routine fumigation of bulk bins I. Monitoring and Inspection 1. Aluminum phosphine tablets A. Pheromone traps 2. Aluminum phosphine pellets 1. Indianmeal moth traps 3. New Degesch Mini-Ropes 2. Angoumois grain moth traps *retains the dust in the rope 3. Grain probes in bulk bins D. Empty bin treatment 4. Recordkeeping is essential 1. Beneficial insects 5. Replacement of traps and lures 2. Residual insecticides B. Glue boards and Ketch-alls/rodent 3. Fumigation: Chloropicrin inspection E. Perimeter control 1. Dock and loading areas 1. Weeds 2. Critical points in the operation 2. Bare ground herbicides C. Visual inspection 3. Gravel or blacktop 1. Insects 4. Insecticides a. Inbound packaging materials a. Where to spray/one foot upside b. Webbing from moths and two feet away from bin 2. Rodents b. How to use/see label instruc­ a. Black-light inspections/inbound tions b. Fecal pellets c. How often to spray/twice a 3. Birds summer a. Nests 5. Spillage clean-up/important b. Feces V. Chemical Control in Seed II. Building to Keep Out Pests Warehouses and Processing Areas A. Insects A. ULD Treatments (Ultra Low Dosage); B. Rodents *replace vapona C. Birds 1. Check pheromone traps/once per week and record catch III. Non-chemical Control 2. Minor threshold: if total catch A. Cold storage exceeds 10 moths per week 1. 50ºF with 50 percent R.H. a. Apply remotely if possible 2. Insect activity in cold temperatures (timer) a. Reduces activity b. Particle size: 15 to 30 micron b. No reproduction 3. Three percent Pyrethrin

19 4. Types of ULD equipment: Micro-Gen Limitations 5. Safety equipment to use a. Proper respirators Pheromone-baited traps have some limita­ b. Draeger detection tubes before tions in management of grain, bulk commodities re-entry and bagged products. These traps are very sensi­ B. Fumigation with aluminum or tive to the target insects being monitored. magnesium phosphide However, other insects often are present and go 1. Trained, certified and experienced undetected because of a lack of effective or effi­ 2. Safety cient trapping systems. In one field situation, 3. Proper storage/cool, dry, well cigarette beetles were extensively monitored and ventilated, locked managed with limited applications of chemical 4. Cold temperature fumigation insecticides only to find that several pallets of a. Magnesium phosphide oats were highly infested with a hidden (1) Degesch Fumi-Strip population of flour beetles. (2) Degesch Fumi-Cel 5. Inert gases The entomologists’ and chemists’ inabilities 6. Aerate to safe level to duplicate the exact chemical messenger or messengers have not given us a complete choice 7. Proper safety equipment available of effective pheromones with which to work. The 8. Draeger detection equipment beetle pheromones seem to be much harder to identify than the moths. However, results VI. Rodent Control Program demonstrated by the lesser grain borer aggrega­ A. Outdoor tion pheromone hint that when the components 1. Bait stations/tamper proof are discovered and mixed in commercial 2. Rodenticide pheromones in the correct combinations, they a. Grain based/Talon Weatherbloc, can work well to detect the presence or absence Vengence of a target insect pest. Advances in biotech­ b. Liquid bait, summer nology and the potential cloning of these precise c. Safety chemical messengers will overcome some of 3. Building them out these limitations. B. Outdoor perimeter control 1. Weed abatement 2. Bait stations, every 60 feet Conclusions 3. Ditches and standing water The use of pheromone-baited traps to 4. Rats need water every day determine the presence or absence of a pest 5. Gravel 24 inches perimeter population in storage facilities is an exciting 6. All doors should fit tightly new step toward a total pest management program. The interest in pheromones in recent VII. Bird Control years has been fueled by their potential to A. Cooperative venture with surrounding modify the behavior of pests and to attract them groups to traps. By monitoring the change in trap catch 1. City over time in warehouses containing stored prod­ 2. Grain companies ucts, action levels can be decided and the judi­ B. Farm machinery sheds cious use of control methods can be prescribed C. Warehouses when population growth is observed in one or 1. Close doors more areas of a facility. 2. Plastic strips 3. Rid-A-Bird perches (restricted use The practical application of pheromone- pesticide) baited traps to alter insect behavior and prevent 4. Avicides reproduction is helping provide the grain, bulk 5. Bird netting commodity and bagged product industries with 6. Sticky Bird Repellent the option of a total pest management strategy.

20 Pesticide Labels, Applications and Regulations

The pesticide applicator should be wording such as “Food Areas: limited to crack thoroughly trained in the uses and hazards of and crevice treatment only. Application of this the materials being used. The applicators are product in the food areas of food-handling responsible for preventing adverse effects to the establishments other than as a crack and public, to pets and domestic animals, to prop­ crevice treatment is not permitted.” Some impor­ erty, to the environment and to himself and tant definitions of terms that appear in labeling other applicators. In addition, the application with respect to use on food-processing areas are must achieve effective results on the pest as follows. problem being treated. Applications Labels By definition the label is the information Food printed on or attached to the pesticide Food is considered as: container. Labeling includes the label and all other written, printed or graphic material (1) Articles used for food or drink for man or accompanying the pesticide. other animals (includes pet food, bird seed and feed for cattle, horses, swine, poultry, The importance of reading the label cannot etc.) be stressed too much. The information that (2) Chewing gum appears on the label represents some of the (3) Articles used for components of any such most expensive literature available. The articles research and development that lead to the wording on a label frequently costs millions of dollars and takes many years to complete. The Food Processing Facilities information on the label is the best literature An area or place other than a private available on the safe and proper use of the residence in which food is held, processed, pack­ chemical. The most important moments in pest aged, stored and distributed in bulk. These control are the time spent in reading the label. places can include dairies, meat processing Please refer to the chapter on Labels and facilities, bakeries, grain storage facilities and Labeling in the manual entitled Applying food product warehouses. A comprehensive Pesticides Correctly for a discussion of the basic listing of food processing facilities is found later information that appears on every pesticide in the chapter. (Restaurants, school lunchrooms, label. The following is a discussion of terms that bars, hospitals, etc., are not included under food are found on labels frequently used by the pest processing facilities.) control industry. Nonfood Areas Some information appears on the labels of the insecticides used by pest control operators Include garbage rooms, lavatories, floor that is rather specific to the industry. This infor­ drains (to sewers), entries and vestibules, offices, mation is extremely important since the Federal locker rooms, machine rooms, boiler rooms, Insecticide, Fungicide and Rodenticide Act garages, mop closets and storage (after canning (FIFRA) states it is illegal to use any pesticide or bottling). in a manner inconsistent with its labeling. A specific example where this information is Food areas include areas for receiving, important to the pest control industry involves serving, storage, packaging (canning, bottling, the use of pesticides in food-handling establish­ wrapping, boxing), preparing (cleaning, slicing, ments. You can only use those insecticides that cooking, grinding), edible waste storage and bear directions on their labels for use in food- enclosed processing systems (oils, dairies, edible processing establishments. Typical labels have oils, syrups).

21 Residual Insecticides equipment legs and bases, conduits, motor housing, junction or switch boxes. The crack and Include products applied to obtain crevice treatment includes the use of sprays, insecticidal effects lasting several hours or dusts or baits. It permits the use of products in longer and which are applied as general, spot or food areas as long as the insecticide is placed crack and crevice treatments. Residuals include only into cracks and crevices. It does not permit the common insecticides such as Baygon, treatment of surfaces. In some cases, a pin- Diazinon and Dursban. Also included are stream spray may be an acceptable application pyrethrins and DDVP. These are usually thought method, but a better approach may be to make of as nonresidual materials; however, certain application with an insertion tube directly into formulations with higher than normal concentra­ cracks and crevices. tion, applied as coarse sprays, provide insecti­ cidal effects lasting several hours or longer and are therefore considered residual by EPA. Pesticide Regulations

There are three types of residual Pesticides are regulated nationally by EPA applications recognized by EPA: general, spot through the Federal Insecticide, Fungicide and and crack and crevice. Each may be used in Rodenticide Act (FIFRA). Within Arkansas the certain areas of food-handling establishments, Arkansas State Plant Board has responsibility and they are defined as follows. for regulating all pesticide applications.

General If pesticides are misused, then other state agencies can become involved. These agencies Application to broad expanses of surfaces include the Departments of Health, such as walls, floors and ceilings or as an Environmental Quality, Labor, Transportation, outside treatment. This is permitted only in etc. The responding agency depends on the nonfood areas using only those insecticides exact misuse that occurs. Therefore, proper so registered. application is critical to both food worker and business safety. Spot Application to limited areas on which insects Pesticide Residues are likely to occur, but which will not be in contact with food or utensils, and will not ordi­ For a pesticide to be used on or in a food or narily be contacted by workers. These areas may feed product it must either have a tolerance or occur on floors, walls and bases or undersides of be exempt from a tolerance. Excessive residues equipment. For this purpose, a “spot” will not can cause both food and worker safety problems. exceed two square feet. In order for spot treat­ Residues can occur from direct application to the ments to be justified, there must be a surface on product in the processing area, application to which insects are likely to occur. A “spot” may be equipment, direct application to product being round or long and narrow. This indicates that a held in a storage area, space sprays which considerable area could be treated, but in prac­ contaminate the product and application to the tice the area must be limited to places where product before it arrives at the processing insects are present or are likely to occur. facility. The latter can occur either in production or in transit. Crack and Crevice EPA is becoming increasingly concerned A crack and crevice treatments is the about residue detection – not the level but the application of small amounts of insecticides into fact that residue can be detected. Part of the cracks and crevices in which insects hide or concern is a result of EPA shifting policy to through which they may enter a building. Such consider human exposure from sources of expo­ openings commonly occur at expansion joints, sure to a pesticide. Thus, a pesticide which has between different elements of construction and a wide use will have a higher potential for between equipment and floors. These openings greater exposure to humans. This exposure may lead to voids such as hollow walls, includes food, air, water, etc. Therefore, any

22 insect management program in a food make a spray from two pesticide containers, processing area must include more than just you will use the restrictive portion from the use of pesticides. each label.

Use of a pesticide on sites that are not Pesticide Tolerances listed on the label is considered misuse of the pesticide and is a violation of the label and law. Pesticide tolerances are set by EPA but they Such use could result in illegal residues and/or are authorized by the Federal Food, Drug and food safety concerns. Cosmetic Act (FFDCA). Pesticide tolerances can be “in or on” raw agricultural products or in Even though a site name is on the label, processed products. In 1996, Congress passed the user must read further into the label to the Food Quality and Protection Act (FQPA) ensure that the pesticide can still be used on which did away with the Delaney clause and that site in a manner that will control the pest. redefined how pesticide tolerances would be At times the site name will be on the label, but established. Two major changes were the the pesticide use will be restricted to a certain requirement that EPA consider all exposures type of application. (air, water, food, etc.) from a pesticide and the requirement EPA consider aggregate effects A listing of EPA sites which one may run from pesticides. The latter means all risks from into for food processing areas is provided below cholinesterase-inhibiting insecticides would be under the heading “Pesticide Use Site Groups.” considered when establishing a tolerance for one These are names EPA considers when regis­ cholinesterase-inhibiting insecticide. tering a pesticide. You are likely to see such wording or similar wording on pesticide labels. Although EPA sets tolerances, the Food and You must understand what the site wording Drug Administration (FDA) enforces tolerances means or misapplication can occur. for food and feed while USDA enforces toler­ ances for meat and meat by-products. Therefore, Pesticide Use Site Groups pesticide applications in a food processing facility must be done with great care to mini­ The following use sites are from the Code of mize potential for food contamination or excess Federal Register 40 Part 158 Appendix A. These pesticide residues which may lead to illegal site listings are used by companies and EPA to tolerances in the finished product. If the food determine specific tests required for registering contains any poisonous substance (pesticide) a pesticide. Therefore, similar site names are which is not approved or exists above the used on pesticide labels. These site names on approved level, then the product is adulterated labels are both restrictive and broad. For and must be destroyed. example, the site name “fruits” would include all fruits, whereas the site name “flour mill machinery” would limit the pesticides use to Site Names only flour mill machinery and not other Pesticide labels are the law and must be machinery in food processing plants. followed to obtain proper use of the pesticide. Processed or Manufactured Products, and One of the pieces of information on a pesticide Food or Feed Containers or Dispensers label is where the pesticide can be used. These use areas are called “sites.” Sites have various Food and feed containers, dispensers names, with some being specific and others and processing equipment general. A specific site would be “flour ware­ Airtight storages – large (empty/full) house” compared to a general site as “ware­ Airtight storages – small (empty/full) houses.” If a pesticide label has specific sites, Fumigation chambers that pesticide can only be used for those sites Bins even if other pesticides, with the same ingredi­ Elevators ents, have other sites listed on their labels. You Storage areas – (empty/full) must use a pesticide according to the label Processing or handling equipment and from which you obtained the pesticide. If you machinery (other than food processing)

23 Commercial and Industrial Uses USDA requirements as well as EPA label requirements. If the USDA requirements are not Food and feed processing plants followed, both the applicator and facility can be Bakeries in big trouble. Bottlers Canneries There are other regulations that may affect Dairies, creameries, milk processing where you can use a particular pesticide. These plants include state regulations, USDA regulations and Feed mills, feed stores company policy. Fresh fruit packing and processing Meat processing State regulations may prohibit use of Poultry processing certain pesticides or restrict their use in certain Wineries, wine cellars areas. It is the applicators responsibility to Flour mills, machinery, warehouses, bins obtain information on any such state require­ and elevators ments. Such regulations can vary from more Egg processing stringent use requirements to prohibiting the Candy and confectionery plants use of certain pesticides. Remember, state Sugar processing, cane mills, etc. requirements often vary between states. Cider mills Questions regarding regulations specific to Dry food products plants Arkansas should be addressed to the Arkansas Tobacco processing State Plant Board, #1 Natural Resources Drive Air treatment for processing and (P.O. Box 1069), Little Rock, AR 72203-1069, transportation of foods phone (501) 225-1598. Beverage processing USDA regulations can come in various Nut processing forms, but they mainly are associated with Cereal processing USDA inspection services such as the Federal Seafood processing Vegetable oil processing Meat Inspection, Federal Equipment and Spice mills Sanitation Division (FESD), Federal Grain Vinegar processing Inspection Service (FGIS), Food Safety and Farinaceous processing (noodles, etc.) Inspection Service (FSIS) and others. Any pesti­ Mushroom processing cide used in federally inspected meat processing Dried fruit processing plants must be on USDA’s FESD list and Pickle processing approved by the plant’s federal inspector. Be Ice plants certain you understand the regulations of each Chocolate processing USDA section and how it applies to the facility Fruit juice processing you are working. Eating establishments (all) Company policy is an aspect an applicator Food handling areas needs to determine before signing a contract. Food serving areas Some companies do not allow use of certain Eating establishment nonfood areas registered pesticides. If this would be the case, Air treatment for eating establishments you need to be aware of the situation and deter­ Food storage equipment (coolers, mine beforehand if you can service the account refrigerators, etc.) without the use of those pesticides. Examples Eating and serving utensils (spoons, etc.) could include not allowing any pesticide that Food marketing, storage and distribution EPA has classified as a B1, B2 or C carcinogen. Food dispensing and vending equipment Food stores, markets, stands Meat and fish markets USDA Meat Plants Food catering facilities Food marketing, storage and distribution For USDA meat processing plants, the Pest equipment and utensils Management Professional (PMP) must go through the USDA inspector to obtain a list of When selecting a pesticide for use in a food pesticides that can be used within that plant. use area, one needs to assess whether the site is This list changes every year. on the label and if the food area is under USDA inspection service. If the site is under USDA The USDA inspector will provide the PMP inspection, then the applicator must follow with the list. The plant will have an approved

24 pest control plan and will provide the PMP with a list of materials to use. The PMP will provide Safety the plant with a list of pesticides, from the Pesticide safety is the responsibility of the approved list, the PMP will use. The PMP’s list employer and the applicator. The applicator is will be filled out on the plant’s forms. responsible for the safety of other applicators, Residuals cannot be used in production employees of the food processing facility and the safety of the food product. areas. Production areas are defined as areas where the product is being handled and Safety information can be obtained from the is exposed. pesticide label, pesticide Material Safety Data Sheet (MSDS), technical information received Residuals cannot be used where they may be from the company and other sources. Other “carried” into the production area. “Carried” can sources of safety information include applicator include transported on shoes, hands or through association material such as the National Pest air currents. Thus, this may include restrooms Control Association, American Institute of and offices. Baking, Pest Control Technology, etc. Residuals can be used in production areas It is the applicator’s responsibility to ensure if they are (1) used as a crack and crevice the safe application of any pesticide. This treatment and the crack and crevice is sealed includes making a survey of the facility before after application. The Arkansas State Plant conducting an application. During the inspec­ Board, (501) 225-1598, and the Arkansas tion, the applicator should consider all possibili­ Department of Health, (501) 661-2000, are ties that may occur before, during and after the contacts for further information. application. You should consider practices the You may obtain the list of chemicals from facility is undertaking which may affect the the Government Printing Office by purchasing pesticide. This would include use of detergents List of Proprietary Substances and Nonfood and cleaning materials, pesticide applications Compounds, Authorized for Use Under USDA the facility is doing itself, sanitation, etc. When Inspection and Grading Programs, treating food-serving areas, you should consider Miscellaneous Publication Number 1419. if the pesticide will be present on the tables and in the air when food is served. If so, you may When selecting a pesticide for use in a food need to select another pesticide. When treating use area, one needs to assess whether the site is storage areas, the applicator should insure that on the label and if the food area is under USDA the application will not leave residue on inspection service. If the facility is under USDA containers in which food may be placed. inspection, then the applicator must follow Determine the facilities cleanup procedures to USDA requirements as well as EPA label ensure that the cleanup will not negate the requirements. If the USDA requirements are not pesticide application. It is best to develop both a followed, both the applicator and facility can be safety checklist and an inspection checklist. This in big trouble. will help ensure a safer application.

25 Insect Pests and Control

Insects are among the most important moths are in the packaging area. Not all beetles and numerous of the pests plaguing the food or moths present in a food processing facility are processing industry. Although only a portion of insects that will feed off raw or processed food. the many hundreds of insects that are found Some are just there. Somehow they got into the in the plants cause serious damage to the plant. During the summer, this may apply to final product, no insects are allowed in the ground beetles which wander into buildings. final product. Some may be attracted to problem areas in the facility such as a wet area in which mold is One important aspect in managing insects growing. There are many mold-feeding insects is knowing about the insect. Where the insect that can be a nuisance in food plants. likes to spend its time, what foods the insect prefers, what conditions the insect does not Others like, how the insect develops, etc., are vital pieces of information necessary for a good Most insects in “others” undergo what is management program. Without these pieces of called gradual metamorphosis. This means they information the pest management program is have basically three life stages: egg, nymph and really nothing but responding to problems and adult. The nymph looks similar to the adults, not solving the problem. and has similar habits, ecological preferences and food choices as the adult stage. In most Food processing insects can be divided into groups, the difference is nymphs do not have three broad groups: the beetles, the moths and wings whereas the adults do have wings. others that include roaches, mites, silverfish, etc. Beetles and Moths Moths

Beetles and moths have one thing in Moths and butterflies are familiar four- common. They both have four life stages: egg, winged insects characterized by the flat, over­ larva, pupa and adult. The pupa is the stage in lapping scales and hairs that, in most cases, which the larva changes into the adult. completely clothe the body, wings and other Although the adults of beetles and moths do not appendages. These insects develop by complete look alike, the other stages do have some simi­ metamorphosis with four stages in their life larities. Basically, the larva is the “grub or cycle: egg, larva (or caterpillar), pupa and adult. worm” stage and does not look like the adult. They have chewing mouthparts in the larval Larva of both beetles and adults may feed on stage and coiled sucking mouthparts as adults. raw food or processed food. Both beetle and The larvae, unlike the beetle larvae, have moth larva have chewing mouthparts. When an abdominal legs. Moths are most active during inspection finds an insect larva, it will either be dawn, dusk and at night. a beetle or moth. They can be separated by Most larvae are important pests of stored looking at the back half of the larva. If there are products. Although the adults are important for legs present, the larva is a moth larva. If legs reproduction, the larvae consume and contami­ are missing they are beetle larva. There are nate our food. They often leave the infested some exceptions, but for the major beetles and products and move about inside the structures, moths found in food processing plants, this rule leading to other problems. Excessive popula­ will hold. The pupa is the stage in which the tions can spread bacteria and molds. Moths larva changes into an adult. There is no feeding will also attack fabrics and other material of during the pupa stage. Adult beetles are raw animal origin such as woolens (clothing, and processed food feeders. They have chewing carpets, upholstery, tapestry, etc.), fur and mouthparts. Adult moths do not feed on raw or feathers. Such damage usually occurs when processed food because they have sucking clothes are stored for an extended period of mouthparts. However, moths can contaminate time. Some of the more common and important the final product by being “packaged” if the moths are discussed below.

26 Almond Moth (Cadra cautella) 2. Sanitation is a must! Remove pockets of infested foods in machinery, buildings and The adult almond moth has 4 wings, with warehouses. Remove accumulations of dust, about 5/8-inch wing spread. The forewings are flour and other materials in which the brown to gray with a pale wavy band near the tip insects can feed and breed. and darker band across the middle. Larvae of the almond moth are dirty white, with brown or black 3. Infested material can be heat-treated, spots along their back. Larvae increase to about 140 degrees F for one hour or 120 degrees F 1/2 inch long when fully grown. Almond moths for two hours. Cold treatment (cooling) has can produce five to six generations per year. been shown to be a viable suppression tech­ nique but has not been advocated as an Although they can be found in dried fruits, elimination process because some strains of nuts and pet foods, they are most frequently Indian meal moths can undergo extended found infesting various candies composed of resting periods (diapause) at reduced chocolate and nuts. temperatures. Indianmeal Moth 4. Properly labeled residual insecticides can be applied to grain; however, the webbing (Plodia interpunctella) should be removed first. The adult Indianmeal moths have four wings 5. Properly labeled space sprays can be used to with a spread of 3/4 inch. Their forewings are gray kill moths. Evening applications are gener­ near their body and reddish near the tip. Both ally preferable since the moths tend to be their head and thorax have a reddish color. When most active during this period. fully grown, the larvae of the Indianmeal moth leave a silken thread behind wherever they crawl. 6. In some circumstance, spot or general This webbing can be found on or near the surface fumigations are required. of the food where they feed. Indianmeal moths can 7. Some studies have shown that a produce five to six generations per year. hymenopterous parasite, Bracon hebetor Say, provides control of the larvae. Mediterranean Flour Moth (Anagasta kuehniella)

Figure 3. Indianmeal Moth, Spread (l), Resting (r). Figure 4. Indianmeal moth larvae feed on as wide a Mediterranean Flour Moth range of foods as any food-infesting insect. They prefer the coarse grades of flour and milled products and are commonly found in The adult Mediterranean flour moth has packaged cornmeal, whole-wheat flour and four pale gray wings with a wing spread of various prepared flours. They also feed on 3/4 inch. Their forewings are a pale leaden gray many types of grains and grain products, with transverse, wavy, black markings. The garden seeds, oil seeds, nuts, peas and beans adult moths rest with their head and thorax and their products, spices, powdered milk, held high. Larvae have lateral dark spots on chocolate, dried fruits and vegetables, drugs, each segment of their abdomen distinguishing dried pet foods and many others. In large, the Mediterranean flour moth from the crowded populations, they are cannibalistic, Indianmeal moth. The larvae of the especially on larvae in cocoons and pupae. Mediterranean flour moth spin silken thread wherever they go and web and mat together Control Considerations particles of food on which they are feeding. The larvae will leave the feeding area to pupate. 1. The prime consideration should be avoidance. All products entering the The Mediterranean flour moth prefers flour premises should be carefully examined and but infests wheat, bran, nuts, chocolate, seeds, rejected or heat-treated or fumigated. biscuits, beans and dried fruits.

27 Mealmoth (Pyralis farenalis) Lesser Grain Borer (Rhizoperth dominica)

Figure 5. Mealmoth.

Figure 6. Lesser Grain Borer.

The forewing of the adult meal moth is light brown with dark-brown patches at the bases and tips. Also, each forewing has two wavy, The lesser grain borer is one of the smallest transverse white lines. The larvae of the meal- beetles injurious to grain in this country. The moth are whitish, and about 1 inch long when adult is readily distinguished from other grain fully grown. The larva shows a contrast between pests by its slender cylindrical form and small the black of the head and the first body segment size. It is polished dark brown or black, with a and the white of the remainder of the body. The somewhat roughened surface. The dimensions body of the larva is often tinged with orange of the lesser grain borer are about 1/8 of an toward each end. Mealmoths produce three to inch long and 1/32 of an inch wide. This grain four generations per year. borer belongs to family of beetles that has the Mealmoths are usually found feeding on head turned down under the thorax and is damp or spoiled grain, bran or meal. To elimi­ armed with powerful jaws. Both the adults and nate moth infestation of food and stored-grain larvae cause serious damage to a great variety products, you must find and destroy infested of grains. material; then treat the area where they were Each female lays 300 to 500 eggs and stored. Infested materials can be fumigated to deposits them, singly or in clusters, upon the eliminate the infestation. To keep areas or loose grain. The eggs hatch in a few days, and product from becoming reinfested, a thorough the small whitish grubs, or larvae, crawl actively cleaning is essential. This begins by removing about the grain, feeding on the flour produced any spilled foods, then maintaining a good by the boring adults, or they bore directly into housekeeping program. kernels, especially those that have been slightly damaged. The larvae complete their growth Beetles and Weevils within the kernel, transform into white pupae, and then change into adults. They then cut their Worldwide, there are more than 250,000 way out of the kernel. species of beetles, some of which are found in The lesser grain borer is primarily a pest in homes and buildings where they feed upon our whole grains; however, it is capable of infesting food, carpets and the building structure. Beetles other materials such as flours, dry dog food, and weevils are distinguished from other insects edible legume seeds, wood, cork, macaroni, by the peculiar hardened forewings known as edible bulbs and tapioca roots. This insect elytra that meet in a straight line over the commonly penetrates packages of foods in middle of the abdomen. The primary difference storage or in rail cars. between beetles and weevils is that weevils have a head with a beak or snout while beetles do not Control Considerations have this characteristic. 1. For small infestations, locate the infested As noted earlier, these insects develop materials and destroy or use heat or through complete metamorphosis with four freezing. stages in their life cycle: egg, larva, pupa and adult. The larvae may be slender and active, as 2. In stored grain, use approved fumigation with many stored-food beetle larvae, or clumsy, procedures and/or protective chemicals, or relatively inactive grubs. Beetle larvae have use aeration with cool air to retard insect thoracic legs, whereas weevil larvae are legless. activity and development.

28 Cigarette Beetle Drugstore Beetle (Lasioderma serricorne) (Stegobium paniceum)

Figure 8. Drugstore Beetle.

Figure 7. Cigarette Beetle adult (l), larva (r).

The cigarette beetle is a small stout, oval, The drugstore beetle and the cigarette reddish-yellow or brownish-red beetle, with the beetle are similar in appearance. The adults head bent down nearly at a right angle to the are about 1/10 of an inch in length, cylindrical body. This gives the beetle a humped appearance and uniform brown with fine silky hairs. The when viewed from the side. It varies in size, but cigarette beetle adult has a stout, oval, reddish is usually about 1/10 of an inch long. Cigarette yellow or brownish-red body with the head bent beetles breed in a variety of seeds and may occa­ down at right angles to the body. The adult sionally be found attacking grains left in storage. The antennae of the cigarette beetle are drugstore beetle has a three-segmented, saw­ saw-like and the head is somewhat retracted. like antennae that is pressed to the body when at rest. The adult cigarette beetle lives 2 to 4 weeks, during which time each female may lay as many This beetle lays eggs in almost any dry as 100 eggs. The developmental period from egg organic substance. The small white grubs or to adult is quite variable but, under favorable larvae emerge from the eggs and then tunnel conditions, is 6 to 8 weeks. through these substances. When fully grown, they pupate in small cocoons. The entire life Cigarette beetles are primary pests of stored cycle may be passed in less than two months. tobacco, yet they will occasionally attack stored Note: This species is not reportedly encountered grain and cereal products. Breeding can occur in as frequently as the cigarette beetle, but control rice risings, ginger, pepper, dried fish, seeds and measures would be similar. cereal products.

Control Considerations Confused Flour Beetle (Tribolium confusum) 1. In food processing plants, managers must establish an inspection routine for all raw materials. Properly labeled chemicals can also be used for control of adults that are outside of foods/containers. 2. All infested articles must be located and Figure 9. destroyed. Confused Flour Beetle. 3. Infested food materials in smaller containers can be destroyed by freezing (0 degrees F for 5 to 7 days) or by heating (as in an oven at 140 degrees F for 30 minutes). 4. Properly labeled insecticides can be used as The confused flour beetle is a shiny, sprays to provide some control of adults that flattened, oval, reddish-brown beetle about 1/7 of are outside of foods/containers (sprays will an inch long. The head and upper parts of the not affect larvae and adults in foods or thorax are covered densely with minute inside containers). punctures. The wing covers are ridged lengthwise and are sparsely punctured between 5. In warehouses/storage facilities, properly the ridges. labeled fumigants, fogs and vapors can be used for control (however, there are signifi­ The average life of these beetles is about cant limitations related to these types of one year, but some have been known to live products). almost four years. The female loosely lays an

29 average of about 450 small, white eggs in flour Red Flour Beetle or other food material. Confused flour beetle eggs are covered with a sticky secretion and (Tribolium castaneum) thus become covered with flour or meal. These eggs also readily adhere to the sides of sacks, boxes and other containers. Figure 10. Red Flour Beetle. When fully grown, the larvae transform into small, naked pupae. Although they are white initially, the pupae gradually change to yellow and then to brown and, shortly afterwards, transform into adult beetles. Under favorable conditions, the period from egg to adult averages The red flour beetle is almost identical in about 6 weeks. appearance to the closely related confused flour beetle. It can be distinguished from the confused Confused flour beetles are generally feeders flour beetle only with the aid of a magnifying of all cereal products. These flour beetles have glass. However, the red flour beetle can fly, while been found feeding on more than 100 different the confused flour beetle cannot fly. The foodstuffs. Common items infested include segments of the confused flour beetle antennae grain, seeds, flour, meal, cereal products, gradually increase in size from the base to the animal matter, wood, vegetables, drugs and tips, whereas the last few segments of the red spices. They have also been found to infest flour beetle antennae are abruptly larger than peas, beans, cottonseed, cracked nuts, dried the other segments, forming enlarged tips. The fruits (especially raisins), grits, snuff, baking head margins of the confused flour beetle are powder, milk chocolate, yeast, powdered milk, expanded and notched at the eyes, with a ridge insect collections and eggs and larvae of their over the eye. The head margins of the red flour own species and of others. beetle are nearly continuous at the eyes and do not have a ridge over the eyes. Control Considerations This insect is constantly associated with the 1. Inspect all new susceptible products (start confused flour beetle and has similar feeding with insect-free raw materials). and breeding habits. 2. In mills, it is helpful to use impact machines (entoleters) as grain is taken in to destroy Sawtoothed Grain Beetle flour beetles in all life stages. Insects and (Oryzaephilus surinamensis) their fragments may be removed by aspiration after impacting. 3. Use constant monitoring/inspection programs.

4. Fumigate infested products prior to Figure 11. acceptance/unloading. Sawtoothed Grain Beetle. 5. Use all sanitation practices possible to insure plants are maintained in clean condition. 6. Apply approved residual pesticides where The sawtoothed grain beetle is one of the they are labeled for use (note, however, that best known of the cosmopolitan grain pests. It is resistance has been reported to several a slender, flat, brown beetle about 1/10 of an products). inch long. It gains its name from the peculiar 7. Infested materials can be heated to structure of the thorax, which bears six 140 degrees for one hour or 120 degrees sawtooth-like projections on each side. It for four hours (as long as the maximum attacks, in both the larval and adult stages, all temperature reaches the center of the food of vegetable origin, especially grain and containers or mass). Also, infested products grain products such as flours, meals, breakfast can be stored in subfreezing temperatures foods, stock and poultry feeds, copra, nut meats, for a week for control of the flour beetles. candies and dried fruits.

30 The sawtoothed grain beetle has been In the merchant grain beetle, the eye recorded from alfalfa seed, barley, breakfast diameter is larger than the temple region cereals, cereal rat baits, corn, cornmeal, corn behind the eye and the head is rectangular. The starch, flour, macaroni, milo, mixed feeds, oats, sawtoothed grain beetle has smaller eyes and a popcorn used as a packaging material, rice, more triangular head. The merchant grain shuffle board wax and powdered hand soap beetle is also slightly larger and is a darker containing cornmeal, wheat and wheat bran. It brown than the sawtoothed grain beetle. The has also been found in spices, herbs, nutmeats, habits and development of the two insect species dried fruits, birdseed, dog food, graham crackers are similar, but the merchant grain beetle lays and is very common in stored grain. only one-half to two-thirds as many eggs. In addition, the merchant grain beetle can fly, but The adults live, on an average, six to ten the sawtoothed grain beetle cannot. Control of months, but some adults may live as long as the merchant grain beetle would be the same as three years. The female beetle lays 43 to 285 the sawtoothed grain beetle. eggs. She drops them loosely among the food­ stuff or tucks them into a crevice in a kernel of Foreign Grain Beetle grain. The small, slender, white eggs hatch in three to five days. (Ahasverus advena)

The emerging larvae do not stay within a single grain but crawl about actively and feed. During summer, they become fully grown in about two weeks. The mature larvae then Figure 12. Foreign Grain Beetle. construct delicate, cocoon-like coverings by joining together small grains or fragments of foodstuffs with a sticky secretion. Within these cells, the larvae change to the pupal stage, which lasts about one week. In the summer the developmental period from egg to adult is four weeks. This insect is placed in the same family as the sawtoothed and merchant grain beetles (but Control Considerations doesn’t have the “saw teeth” along the margins of the thorax). Usually it is found in large 1. In groceries or warehouses, locate infested numbers only when the infested product(s) is materials and remove/destroy them. mildewed or moldy. In fact, they can feed on 2. For small amounts of infested products, you pure cultures of mold. can use heat (140 degrees for 20 to 30 Females lay eggs singly or in clusters and minutes) or cold (freezing the product for a under favorable conditions, the eggs hatch in few days). about 4 days. The larvae may complete four or 3. Properly labeled residual insecticides may five molts, and the entire larval stage ranges be of help in controlling adults that are from 11 to 19 days. Its pupation lasts three to outside of the infested food products. five days, and the life cycle from egg lay to adult averages 22 1/2 days. The insect tends to do its 4. Maintain product off the floor at cool best work and develop fastest and healthier at temperatures below 65ºF. temperatures at 80 degrees or above and 75% relative humidity or above. Reports indicate that Merchant Grain Beetle females lay virtually no eggs when the relative (Oryzaephilus mercator) humidity is held at 58% or below. The merchant grain beetle is often confused The foreign grain beetle may be found with the sawtoothed grain beetle. It is less associated with a wide variety of products: commonly found in grain than the sawtoothed grains, cereal products, cocoa, peanuts and other grain beetle and appears to prefer oilseed prod­ oilseeds and their products, dried fruit, herbs, ucts, including nuts. Cereal products are more spices and various roots or their products. likely to be infested with this insect than the Although some of these may serve adequately as grain itself. a food for this species, when found in large

31 numbers, the beetles probably are developing on Spider beetles tend to be most active at molds. Thus, this indicates high moisture night. During daylight hours or under bright conditions conducive to mold growth. light conditions, they usually hide in dark areas (cracks and cervices or under any available Control Considerations material). When food products are piled in Because the occurrence of the foreign grain stacks, the beetle population tends to be beetle usually indicates high moisture condi­ confined to the periphery. Activity is usually tions with mold, the best control measures greatest during falling temperatures. are to:

1. Find and remove moldy material(s).

2. Dispose of any product in poor condition as a result of the mold. Figure 13. Spider Beetle.

3. Correct conditions favoring mold (e.g., water leaks, entry points, etc.). Use fans and, where practical, heat to dry the infested area(s). Note: It may take 30 to 60 days for all adults to cycle out of the area after Spider beetles develop slowly, the shortest molded material is removed. life cycle being about eight weeks. The egg stage may extend from eight to 16 days. Normally 4. Use properly labeled insecticides to help there are three larval molts, and the larval control adults that are outside the infested development is highly variable. Under favorable products. conditions, spider beetle adults are long-lived (some reported for 6 months up to 2 years under Rusty Grain Beetle moist conditions). (Cryptolestes ferugineus) Temperature is the most critical factor that This insect is similar in appearance and determines the extent of population increase. biology to the flat grain beetle (Cryptolestes Maximum temperature is about 86 degrees F. pusillus). It is more cold-tolerant than the flat but optimum is about 77 degrees. They usually gain beetle, but it infests the same kinds of die quickly as temperatures reach over 93 materials that the flat grain beetle infests. The degrees F. Most species tend to reproduce and rusty grain beetle is normally a secondary pest develop best between 50 and 90% R.H. and is reported to prefer high moisture condi­ tions and decaying products. It is also commonly Spider beetles are mainly scavengers on stated that they are found associated with fungi plant and animal substances, but they can (mold growth). Researchers working with stored readily transfer their feeding to processed foods. grains in Oklahoma have reported finding rusty Early studies found the beetles associated with grain beetles in grain and other products that nests of birds, insects or other animals where contain less than 10% moisture. So there may be they were feeding on animal excrement, a preference for higher moisture conditions and feathers, hairs and debris. mold growth, but apparently they can survive Generally, the most serious damage caused and develop under other conditions. by spider beetles is not the amount of food Management measures are the same as consumed but in contamination from frass, body suggested for the foreign grain beetle. fragments and silk deposited as they wander about walls and ceiling. Larval feeding on grain Spider Beetles is readily distinguished because the larvae eat the brancoat of the kernels unevenly. Feeding These insects are occasionally associated with larvae secrete silken threads that incorporate stored food products. They infest warehouses and fecal particles and tend to surround themselves. households and occur rarely in mills or other Older larvae tend to wander in search of a sites food-processing plants. In general, they are to form their cocoons in which to pupate. During considered more of a nuisance than destructive. this period, they may chew holes in textiles and

32 containers of linen, cellophane, plastic and peas, barley, beans, breakfast cereals, cake cardboard. The adults do not cause this type of mixes, dried chili pepper, cocoa, cookies, copra, damage, but they may deposit their eggs corn, corn meal, powdered chicken soup, dried through the meshes of bags. Food containers peaches, egg noodles, dried figs, flour, fudge may become covered by masses of silk cocoons. mixes, garbanzos, hominy grits, macaroni, oats, The most common damage, from large popula­ peanuts, pecans, pistachio nuts, potato chips, tions, occurs to foods stored over long periods in powdered milk, powdered puddings, raisins, rice, dark, damp areas (68 to 73 degrees F). rye, soybeans, spaghetti, spices, tapioca, tortillas, walnut meats, wheat, wild rice and numerous Control Considerations other kinds of stored seeds. 1. All foods should be inspected before their Control Considerations entry into a warehouse or household. 1. Sanitation is important, especially the 2. Insure that oldest products are moved first, removal of food residues which may be as long storage encourages infestations. nutritious and serve as a source of insects 3. Insure that are stock is piled or in racks that can infest foods or grain. that facilitate inspection and treatment. 2. For processed foods, dog food, cereals, etc., 4. Eliminate or seal all cracks and crevices dispose of infested materials. that provide hiding places for beetles and 3. Freezing or heating may be used to disinfect pupation sites for larvae. materials. 5. Search for and destroy all animal nests in or 4. Appropriate spray and fumigation treatments close to the premises (also eliminate animal may be used. excrement around the premises (e.g., pets, rodents, birds, etc.). Other Dermestid Beetles 6. Apply approved residual insecticides to (Trogoderma species) warehouse before stacking sacks or other food containers, and fumigate when neces­ There are several different Dermestid spp. sary. Treat all cracks and crevices that are that have characteristic oval-shaped bodies, not sealed. including the black carpet beetle and the Khapra beetle. Distinguishing characteristics Warehouse Beetle between species are difficult to find. An expert is (Trogoderma variabile) needed to tell the differences. Dermestid spp. larvae are tapered with their Adult warehouse beetles are oval and head at the large end. Prominent bristles or black with variable patterns of reddish-brown hairs are often found at the pointed end of the blotches, and have a fine hairy covering. They larvae. They feed in waste grain, grain dust, range in size from 1/10 to 1/6 inch (2.4 to flour, powdered milk, candy, dehydrated soup, 4.4 mm), and the females are larger than the cigarettes, woolen products, furs, feathers and males. Warehouse beetles have the ability to fly. hair. Infestations are common in old boxes of Adults of the warehouse beetle have an clothes, overstuffed furniture, woolen carpets average life span of 14 days. Females lay on and piano felt. When these insects are present average 38 eggs, but can lay as many as 94 eggs their cast larval skins can usually be found in or in one day. Most eggs are laid during the first nearby the commodity. Often the presence of three or four days of life. The life cycle of the adults in an area may be the first sign of an warehouse beetle is about 45 days with egg infestation. incubation lasting seven (7) days, larval development 34 days and pupal development Control of dermestids in food products four (4) days. should be the same for other food-infesting beetles. In fabrics, prevention by sealing fabrics The warehouse beetle is commonly found in correctly and storage in tight containers with such stored foods as almond meats, Austrian moth crystals is an important part of control.

33 Cockroaches stage until the nymph is an adult. Once an adult, the cockroach has reached its largest size. Males mature quicker than females. Cockroaches are the most abundant and troublesome pests in many buildings. They When cockroaches of various sizes of the contaminate product with their droppings, their same species are seen during an inspection, bodies and the bacteria they carry. Cockroaches this is an indication of a well-established can carry organisms that can cause diarrhea, cockroach colony. When making surveys, dysentery, cholera and many strains of trained inspectors frequently note these three Salmonella and Staphylococcus bacteria known signs of cockroach infestation: cast cockroach to cause food poisoning. skins, egg cases and stains or excretion of cock­ roaches. Excreta of the larger adults are almost Each species of cockroach varies somewhat as large as small mouse droppings but differ in in their appearance and habits. However, all having six lengthwise ridges. When cockroach cockroaches have the same basic characteristics. infestations are heavy, people can detect a Their bodies are flattened from top to bottom characteristic must odor. and vary from tan to chestnut brown to black. When they are at rest, the head is flexed down­ ward and backward under a shield like pronotum. They have one pair of long filamen­ Identification of tous antennae or “feelers,” large compound eyes Cockroaches and chewing mouthparts. There are about 57 species of cockroaches in Cockroaches hide during the daylight hours the United States. However, only two small and in cracks and crevices in walls, doorframes, two large species are commonly found in build­ equipment, furniture, secure places in bath­ ings and homes in Arkansas. These are the rooms, utility closets, steam tunnels, animal German cockroach, the Brown-banded cock­ houses, basements and sewers. They are highly roach, the Oriental cockroach and the American gregarious and nocturnal in habit. Because of cockroach. Characteristics that distinguish these their nighttime activity, their feeding habits are four species are discussed below. seldom observed.

Cockroaches are general feeders, consuming German Cockroach most of the food man eats, especially the carbo­ (Blattella germanica) hydrates. They discharge liquids from their mouth and thoracic glands, implanting a musky odor to food and heavily infested rooms. Their appetite includes a taste for glue, paste, the sizing in book covers and pages, excrement and Figure 14. sputum. A high level of sanitation will reduce the German Cockroach. number of cockroaches, but not eradicate them.

Cockroaches have gradual metamorphosis and lay their eggs in a case called an ootheca. Each cockroach type has a different shaped ootheca that can be used for identifying the type German cockroaches are light brown (tawny) of cockroach present and easily identified by having two parallel black streaks on their back just behind their When the nymphs hatch, they are white but head. They are about 1/2 inch long when mature quickly turn brownish or black depending on the adults. Considered the most common household type of cockroach. The nymphs will not have insect pest, they usually thrive in cooking areas, wings but look like small cockroaches. As the as they prefer heat and moisture. Females carry nymphs grow they will shed their exoskeleton or their egg capsule until hatching time. Four to skin. The shed skin is called a cast skin. This six egg capsules are produced per female cock­ shedding will be done at each nymphal growth roach with 30 to 40 eggs per capsule.

34 American Cockroach Brown-banded Cockroach (Periplaneta americana) (Supella longipalpa)

Figure 15. American Cockroach.

Figure 17. Brown-banded Cockroach, Female (l), When mature the American cockroach is Male (r). large (1 1/2 inches) and reddish brown. These cosmopolitan cockroaches have fully developed Brown-banded cockroaches are small (1/2 wings that extend to or beyond their abdomen. inch) adults. They are light brown and readily The shield like band behind the head has a distinguished by two lighter-colored transverse yellowish edge. Females produce reddish-brown bands across the base of the wings and to black capsules containing 14 to 16 eggs. They abdomen. It is important to identify them prefer basements (near pipes and plumbing correctly since they are generally found high on fixtures) and steam heat tunnels or warm walls or on ceilings in protected areas. They sewers. They feed on a variety of foods, but can also frequent electrical appliances. Although survive without food for 2 to 3 months as adults. they feed on almost anything, they seem to prefer starchy foods. Female brown-banded Oriental Cockroach cockroaches produce an average of 15 egg (Blatta orientalis) capsules with each containing 10 to 18 yellow to red-brown eggs.

Other cockroach species infest buildings in other areas of the country. Some of these are very similar in appearance to those described above but differ in their habits. As a result, proper identification is essential to control. Contact local experts for information on other species that may be important in your area.

Apply insecticides as crack and crevice or spot treatments to places where the cockroaches hide. Label directions of residual pesticides Figure 16. Oriental Cockroach, Female (l), Male (r). permit only crack and crevice treatment to be used in commercial food handling areas. Dusts The Oriental cockroach is dark brown to can sometimes be blown into places difficult to black and about 1 inch long when an adult. reach with spray. Use ULV (ultra low volume) Females have small rudimentary wings while and aerosol application of contact sprays and those of the male cover 3/4 of the abdomen. Each flushing agents to supplement residual sprays female produces eight capsules containing about and dusts. Use them alone where the label 16 eggs. They feed on all kinds of filth, rubbish prohibits use of residual insecticides. and other decaying matter and prefer to congre­ gate in dark secluded areas, such as crawl The removal of food and water sources and spaces, basements and water drains. Note: many destruction of breeding places is essential in lay people call this roach a “waterbug.” obtaining satisfactory cockroach control.

35 entry or hide (along foundation walls, doorways, Flies window sills, baseboards, behind built-in cabi­ Flies have one pair of wings (two wings) as nets and furniture or beneath refrigerators and adults. Flies feed by lapping and sucking up food other heavy appliances). with their sponge-like mouth. Flies actually release enzymes onto their food and the enzymes Bees and Wasps dissolve the food to the point where the fly can “sop” the food up with its mouthparts. Most any Bees and wasps present problems to food organic matter can be a food source for flies. Flies processing facilities when they build their nests undergo complete metamorphosis: egg, larva, near or on buildings, equipment or when they pupa and adult. Like the larvae of weevils, fly inhabit the surrounding areas. They pose threats larvae have no legs; however, fly larvae differ in to workers in plants because of their annoying that their head is located at the small, pointed threats and stings. Although they may not sting end. Fly larvae are called maggots. employees, they can cause employees to be The main flies that food-processing facilities injured by attempting to avoid bees or wasps. may experience include the house fly, fruit fly Adult bees and wasps are robust four-winged and the green bottle fly. The house fly likes any insects that may nest in attics or between walls, warm moist, organic material such as garbage, or may enter buildings in the fall to hibernate. manure, packinghouse wastes and other such Nesting colonies build one of two main types of material for egg laying. Fruit flies cause a high nest, either exposed comb or comb enclosed in a percentage of insect contamination of fruit and paper envelope. Honey bees present a special fruit products. They are especially attracted to problem due to the risk of honey seeping through decaying fruit and garbage. The green bottle fly walls when the wax comb is weakened by heat. prefers garbage. The blue bottle fly is similar to Carpenter bees may burrow a 1/2 inch diameter the green bottle fly, but prefers decaying opening in face boards at eaves, porches and near animals for egg laying. Flies are quite prolific entrances. Some species of bees and wasps will and can quickly become a nuisance when ample have a brood emerge continually during the food and breeding locations are available. warmer part of the year. These insects present a Management of flies starts with sanitation in particular risk to people who are hypersensitive the removal of breeding locations and a good to stings. cleaning program followed by various mechanical Special protective clothing is needed when and insecticidal controls. Wind curtains can controlling wasps and desirable when controlling prevent many flies from entering areas of the bees to protect against stings. Insecticide sprays plant and all windows should be screened. directed into the nests work well, particularly with wasps and hornets. The sprays must be applied at night with an applicator large enough Ants to do the job quickly without getting too close to Normally only adult ants are seen. These the nest. Dusts may be blown into the nest open­ ants eat many foods, but sweets and grease are ings of hornets and yellow jackets. For some preferred by the food pest ants. Most species species, baits may be available. have a winged stage once a year, and these are often mistaken for termites. They may come in Other Occasional from the outside where they have built their chambered nests in the ground. Their life cycle Insect Pests is a complete metamorphosis: egg, larva, pupa and adult. Booklice/Psocids (Lepenotus and Control of indoor or outdoor nesting ants can Liposceles Species) be accomplished by direct treatment of the nest. Locate the entries of the carpenter ant, then Booklice are very short (1/16 inch) and soft blow an insecticide into the nesting area. bodied. Depending on the species, some psocids Control of other ant species is accomplished have wings while others are wingless. Certain with sprays, dusts or granular insecticides psocids are called “booklice” because they are directed at the nest and surrounding area. Baits very small and resemble lice, plus they are may be effective as well. If you cannot locate the found around books and papers stored in nest site, apply insecticides where the ants gain damp locations.

36 5. Seal cracks in interior and exterior founda­ tion walls and repair leaking rain gutters, downspouts, root vents and roofs. Figure 18. Booklouse. 6. Avoid accumulations of paper, books or magazines. 7. When infestations occur, ventilate and dry These insects feed on microscopic molds, areas with a dehumidifier and/or fans. fungi, dead insect fragments, pollen and other 8. Insecticides should only be used as a starchy foods found in humid environments such supplement to sanitation, heat/cold and as houses, warehouses, libraries and structures drying techniques and never as the primary where green lumber is stored or used in control procedure. Residual and space spray construction. Sweating and high humidity may treatments with properly labeled materials form in wall voids when new lumber becomes can be employed once all other control enclosed (i.e., from uncured green lumber) or considerations listed above have been in/around newly plastered areas. employed if a few booklice are still found in Damp basements, crawl spaces, leaky and the area. sweating plumbing, cereal, flour, bird nests, furniture stuffing of natural plant fiber, paste on Silverfish and Firebrats book bindings, grains and similar sites/materials are areas where booklice infestations are Silverfish and firebrats are wingless insects common. They do not normally actually damage with a characteristic flat shape, widest before grain, but they can contaminate grains and the middle, and tapering to the rear. They have stored food products. Although they can be a long antennae and three long antennae and major contamination problem for mills, three long tails at the end of the abdomen, processing plants, storage facilities and other giving rise to the common name “bristle tails”. locations, they are considered more a nuisance They are silvery, brownish or blackish. and annoyance pest. Development from egg to adult is competed in about 12 weeks. Control Considerations Often found in warehouses, silverfish or 1. The primary method for avoiding problems firebrats primarily cause damage to paper, book with psocids is good sanitation. Keep bindings, wallpaper, labels and stored foods. spillage cleaned up and store food, boxes, Silverfish are nocturnal in habit and are most books and papers off the floor and in frequently found in dust, label and box storage dry areas. areas, file cabinets and in sinks where they have become trapped searching for water. Firebrats 2. Lowering the relative humidity (R.H.) prefer hot, dry situations and are found more hinders development or causes death due to often in bakeries, boiler rooms or behind heating desiccation (drying out). Effort should be units. made to reduce the R.H. in rooms and build­ ings to less than 50 percent. Drying of To control this insect problem, direct sprays infested materials and reducing the R.H. also into cracks and crevices, dusts and bait eliminates the primary food sources such as insecticides prove to be effective. molds and mildews. Crickets 3. All efforts should be made to prevent infestations. Infested cereals or stored foods The house cricket is a shiny, black insect can be discarded or supercooled in a deep that is fond of warmth and may become a pest freeze (up to 7 days). Books, papers or uphol­ in processing plants, although it ordinarily lives stered furniture can be dried in sunlight. out-of-doors. This insect develops by gradual metamorphosis. It has chewing mouthparts, long 4. Fix all leaky plumbing, insure that the legs fitted for jumping and two pairs of wings outside grade is away from the building, when fully grown. The adult male produces the install a vapor barrier in the crawl space or familiar chirping sound by scraping his outer add additional ventilation in crawl space. wings together. Crickets sometimes feed upon

37 book bindings and labels. The cave and camel Ground beetles do no damage but can crickets often invade basements if openings are become a persistent nuisance where moisture is available. They are large humpbacked insects, difficult to control. Removal of debris around usually with no wings, and with antennae much foundations is helpful in controlling this insect. longer than the body. They are plant feeders and Proper management of lighting will discourage are considered nuisance pests in processing them from entering buildings, as the adults are facilities. Crickets can become very numerous in active at night and readily fly toward lights. the fall and are attracted to lights. Proper management of lighting will discourage them from entering buildings as the adults are active Other Arthropods at night and readily move toward lights. Sowbugs and Pillbugs Sowbugs and pillbugs are arthropods but not insects. They are very much alike in appear­ ance ranging from gray to brown. Their bodies are oval in shape, about 1/2 inch in length, with the upper surface of their bodies covered by heavy segmented plates. They have seven pairs of legs and no wings. Figure 19. Slender Ground Beetle (l), These insects can be a pest in greenhouses, Ground Beetle (r). flower beds and sometimes potted plants. They can become a nuisance in damp areas (under Ground Beetles fiber mats, pallets, rugs, etc.) sometimes feeding on improperly stored paper boxes and corru­ These nimble, soil inhabiting species occur gated cartons. Removal of leaves, decaying vege­ in a wide range of sizes and colors. The smaller tation, peat or composting materials next to or forms may be about 1/8 of an inch long, while adjacent to foundations and buildings will the larger can be up to an inch in length. Colors generally aid in preventing infestation of build­ vary from brown and black to red and green. ings. The same control measures used for Ground beetles prey upon other insects and centipedes and millipedes are usually effective. related animals in the soil. A gravel barrier, as described in the section on They may invade processing facilities, rodent control, will assist in decreasing sowbugs usually at windows and doors. and pillbugs.

38 Rodents and Their Control Domestic rodents constitute a major pest Balance problem in structures. There are three major domestic rodents in the United States: the house Their sense of balance is excellent. A falling mouse, Mus musculus; the Norway (brown or rodent always lands on its feet. The roof rat sewer) rat, Rattus norvegicus; and the roof even maintains its balance well while walking (black or ship) rat Rattus rattus.A field key that on suspended wires. will aid you in identification of domestic rodents is presented in Figure 20. Rats and mice eat Reaction to Strange Objects almost everything man or livestock use as food. Rats contaminate much more with their urine, Rats may avoid a new sound or a strange hair, feces and other filth than they eat, with the object in their environment for three or more result that such products must be destroyed. days, particularly if their associates are alarmed Before you can control rodents, it is important by it. Other objects are readily accepted by them you know the behavior patterns and identify the (examples: food, garbage). As rodent population correct species. pressures build, all of the rats may develop a fright reaction to disturbances. Mice are more likely to explore new objects and to be caught in Senses, Agility and newly set traps. Reactions of Rodents Climbing Touch Roof rats and house mice are good climbers, A rodent’s sense of touch is well developed and the Norway rat can climb quite well when in highly sensitive whiskers or vibrissae, and necessary. certain guard (tactile) hairs. Rats and mice prefer to run along walls or between things Jumping and Reaching where they can keep their whiskers in contact Rats can jump nearly 2 feet vertically and with side surfaces. 3 feet with a running start; they can jump 4 feet horizontally and 8 feet from an elevation that is Vision 15 feet above the finish point. Rats can reach Their vision is not too well developed. upward about 13 inches. Apparently they are colorblind, so any distinc­ tive coloring of poison baits does not reduce Swimming their acceptance as long as the dye is tasteless. Rodents are good swimmers. They are able to swim up through floor drains and toilet Smell bowl traps. A rodent’s ability to smell is keen. Rodents apparently like the odors of most foods eaten by Recognizing Rat and humans. They are accustomed to the smell of humans, so human odor on baits and traps does Mouse Signs not repel them. Rats and mice are habitually nocturnal and Taste secretive and are rarely seen during the day except when infestations are heavy. Therefore, A rodent’s tasting capabilities are highly it is necessary to interpret signs of their activi­ developed. Rats associate sickness caused by ties properly in order to plan control work. poison bait with the bait and not the poison. These signs are found in secluded places, such They prefer fresh food to stale or spoiled food. as along walls, under piles of rubbish and behind or under boxes, boards and thick vege­ Hearing tation. From the rodent signs, one can tell the species present and whether a rodent infesta­ Rodents have a keen sense of hearing. They tion is current or old, heavy or light. This infor­ can locate the source of a noise within 6 inches. mation is critical for designing your rodent Unusual noises cause rodents to attempt escape. control plan.

39 40

Figure 20. Field key to domestic rodents. Droppings are therefore less distinct. The tracks of the five-toed rear paws are more commonly observed Fresh fecal droppings are usually moist, than are those of the four-toed front paws, but soft, shiny and dark, but in a few days they both may be present. To detect rodent activity, become dry and hard. Old droppings are dull place patches of any dust material, such as flour and grayish and crumble when pressed with or talc, along runways and check for tracks. To a stick. see tracks in the dust, hold a flashlight at an angle that causes the tracks to cast distinct Runways shadows. Tail marks, too, are often visible in dust or tracking patches. Rats habitually use the same runways between food, water and harborage. Because of Urine the keenly developed sense of touch in their vibrissae (whiskers) and in specialized hairs Dried rodent urine will fluoresce bluish along the body, rats prefer continual body white to yellowish white when illuminated with contact with at least one vertical surface, such a blacklight. Be aware, however, that numerous as a fence or wall. Rats also follow “odor trails.” items will fluoresce under a blacklight Outdoors, their runways are narrow pathways of including optical bleaches found in many deter­ beaten earth swept clear of debris. Indoors, gents and lubricating oils. For positive identifi­ greasy runways are found along walls, steps and cation, use a Brom Thymol Blue Urease Test. rafters. Undisturbed cobwebs and dust in a Place the suspected material on Urease-Brom runway indicate that it is not in use. Thymol-Blue test paper. Moisten with water and place a cover glass over the testing area. If Rubmarks a bluish spot appears after three to five minutes, it is urine. Along regularly traveled runways, a dark, greasy mark forms from contact with the rodent’s body. Fresh marks are soft and will Rodent Management smear if rubbed. As the grease ages, it dries and gathers dust and will flake off when scratched Commensal rodents can cause considerable with a fingernail. The rubmarks of the Norway damage to stored grain and structures. If rats or rat are most commonly found along runways mice are present in and around such facilities, it near ground or floor level, while those made by is because they are able to find food, water (in the roof rat are most commonly seen overhead the case of rats), places to hide and places to as swing marks beneath beams or rafters at the nest and rear their young. Good sanitation prac­ point where they connect to the walls. Mice do tices, combined with steps to prevent rodent entry into structures and the elimination of not leave detectable rubmarks except when the rodent harborage, will reduce rodent problems. infestation is heavy. While sanitation and rodent-proofing may not eliminate rodents, they will limit the size of rat Burrows or mice populations the premise can support. The Norway rat prefers burrows for nesting and harborage; the roof rat burrows only occa­ Sanitation and Habitat sionally. Burrows are found in earth banks, Modification along walls, under rubbish or concrete slabs and in similar places. If a burrow is in use, its Clean, orderly facilities will not support entrance will be free of cobwebs and dust. Fresh large numbers of rodents. Attention to key rubmarks on hard-packed soil and the openings elements that rodents require for survival, food indicate a well established and presently used and shelter, is important in limiting the burrow. The presence of fresh fragments of food habitat’s carrying capacity for these species. or freshly dug earth at these burrow entrances Sanitation involves good housekeeping, also indicates current use by rats. including proper storage and handling of food materials. Warehouses, processing areas, pack­ Tracks aging areas and similar structures may provide excellent habitat for commensal rodents. Fresh tracks are sharp and distinct, Finished products should be stored in rodent- whereas old tracks are covered with dust and proof structures whenever possible.

41 Shelter is an invitation for a rodent in a warehouse that cannot be economically problem (especially when shelter is near a food rodent-proofed and is under constant rodent source). Particularly when structures are not pressure from the surrounding area. rodent-proof, it may be difficult to prevent rodents from feeding on food products; however, Nonfood supplies such as boxes, machinery, it is possible to achieve good rodent control by sacked goods, lumber, building supplies, etc., taking away their shelter. When mice and rats should be stacked away from the walls and are unable to hide or rest, they cannot remain kept off the ground to aid access to the area. in any location for long. Regular removal of These need to be inspected for rodent infesta­ debris and weed control around structures will tion as frequently as the food stores. reduce the amount of shelter available to Reduction of outdoor harborage around the rodents. In some instances a strip of heavy premises will assist in relieving the constant gravel placed adjacent to building foundations pressure from outside rodent populations. or other structures will reduce rodent Racks should hold stacked lumber, building burrowing, especially burrowing by Norway supplies, rubbish, etc,. at least 18 inches rats. Gravel should be at least 1 inch (2.5 cm) (45 cm) off the ground. Other outdoor in diameter and laid in a band at least 2 feet harborage such as weeds, brush and junk piles (0.6 m) wide and 6 inches (15 cm) deep. In any should be trimmed or removed. event, keeping the periphery of buildings and other structures clean of weeds and debris Sources of water should be dried up and (including stacked lumber, firewood and other the cause eliminated by repairing leaky faucets stored materials) will discourage rodent and plumbing, draining standing water or activity and allow easier detection of rodent covering open water supplies that cannot be signs. Cleaning up also puts rodents under handled any other way. stress. This makes it more likely they will accept lethal quantities of baits (rodenticides) Rodent-Proof Construction if these are used as part of a control program. Where rodents cannot enter structures, Water sources should be eliminated they cannot cause damage to products stored wherever possible. Rats require water daily for inside them or damage the structures them­ their survival, unless feeding on very moist selves. Ideally, all structures where food prod­ foods. While house mice can survive without ucts are stored or processed should be water (obtaining it from their food), they will rodent-proof. To prevent rodent entry, the drink when water is available. Drainage ditches physical capabilities of rats and mice must be and water runoff areas must allow water to flow understood. For example, rats and mice can: quickly away from structures so no standing • Run along or climb electrical wires, ropes, water accumulates. Where no sources of water cables, vines, shrubs and trees to gain are present, rats cannot thrive. Further, reduc­ entry to a building. tion of water sources enhances the effectiveness • Climb almost any rough vertical surface of liquid rodent baits. such as wood, brick, concrete and weath­ Storage ered sheet metal. • Crawl horizontally along pipes, augers, Food products must be stored properly on conveyors or conduit. commercial premises. Where possible, these • Gnaw through a wide variety of materials materials should be kept in rodent-proof including lead and aluminum sheeting, containers or rooms. Sacked foods should be wood, rubber, vinyl and cinder block. kept in orderly piles, preferably on pallets so In addition, rats can: they can be readily moved. An 18-inch (45 cm) strip of light-colored paint should be painted on • Climb the outside of vertical pipes and the floor around the base of the walls in the conduits up to 3 inches in diameter; climb warehouse. Warehouse personnel should not the outside of larger pipes attached to pile supplies against the walls on top of these buildings by bracing themselves against strips. This permits easier inspection and treat­ the wall; climb the inside of vertical pipes ment in rodent control work. Intersecting between 1 1/2 and 4 inches (3.8 and stored products with frequent aisles and daily 10.2 cm) in diameter. sweeping or vacuuming of spilled foods should • Jump from a flat surface up to 36 inches be routine. Promoting these practices is the (91 cm) vertically and as far as 48 inches only chance of achieving some degree of control horizontally.

42 • Drop 50 feet (15 m) without being seriously Cement mortar Should be 1:3 mixture or injured. richer. • Burrow straight down into the soil for at Concrete Should be 1:2:4 mixture or least 36 inches (91 cm). richer and 4 inches (10 cm) • Reach as high as 13 inches (33 cm) along thick. vertical walls. • Swim as far as 1/2 mile (800 m) in open Hardness is not the only consideration, water, dive through water traps in however. The shape and position of the material plumbing and travel in sewer lines against is also important in determining if a material a substantial water current. will be attacked. Rodents cannot work on smooth surfaces, seeking instead a “gnawing House mice can: edge” such as a joint, butt, small hole or other • Jump as high as 18 inches (46 cm) from a irregularity where they can get a better bite. floor onto an elevated surface There are a multitude of devices and • Travel considerable distances hanging situations encountered in rodent-proofing a upside down from screen wire. given structure. The main points to consider are As mentioned above, rats can enter openings listed on the following pages. larger than 1/2 inch (1.27 cm) while mice can penetrate openings over 1/4 inch (6 mm). Doors Although these are small openings, any place a young animal can squeeze its skull through, the Like humans, rats find the easiest entrances rest of the body can generally follow. are doors. Tight-fitting doors with a sill clear­ ance of less than 3/8 inch (1 cm) prevent most The location of the openings is equally rats from entering if doors are kept closed. Self- important. A rule of thumb for rats is that all closing devices may be useful in preventing openings 39 inches (1 m) above and below human carelessness. Doors with higher clear­ grade level should be blocked. Grade level ances should have metal channels or butt means not only the height above ground line but plates installed. also above any objects such as sheds or stored materials the animals can easily climb on to reach an opening. Norway rats have been known Windows to get into upper storage, particularly where The next logical openings are windows that vines, fire escapes and other vertical “ladders” are within reach of rats. Windows left open at are available. Roof rats tend to inhabit attics night are particularly vulnerable. Mosquito and the upper levels of structures. Additional screens will probably prevent entry, but heavier measures may be necessary to block entry near screening with 1/4-inch (6mm) hardware cloth is pipes or electric wire openings. recommended. When attached to wooden The next consideration is the use of rodent- framing, the metal wire should be wrapped resistant materials. Stuffing a wooden block in a around the edge of the frame. Windows that hole is about as effective as newspaper. The swing out horizontally need be protected with a following materials are rodent-resistant. basket device. Windows that do not need to be opened should be nailed shut and any broken Stainless steel wool No specific weight or density. glass repaired. Sheet metal 26-gauge or heavier, galvanized. Vents and Drainpipes Perforated metal 24-gauge or heavier of rust- Vents that are accessible to rats should be resistant materials with screened in the same manner as windows. Be openings no more than aware that 1/4-inch mesh hardware cloth 1/4 inch (6 mm). reduces ventilation efficiency and may even Hardware cloth 19-gauge or heavier with freeze completely over in severe winter storms. rust-resistant coating and This could create a potentially dangerous situa­ openings no more than tion leading to a lack of air circulation and suffo­ 1/2 inch (13 mm) for rats and cation in some structures (for example, livestock 24-gauge with 1/4 inch or poultry confinement structures). Roof vents (6 mm) for mice. do not normally need rat-proofing except where Brick Regular size 3 3/4 inches roof rat invasions are a threat. All utility and (10 cm) with mortared joints. service openings into the basement should be

43 inspected and closed. Drainpipes in particular Interior Rodent-Proofing should be screened and kept in good repair, as this is a favorite entryway. Where rats climb up Double walls are attractive rat passageways. sewer pipes and into toilet bowls, a rat guard Eliminate them wherever possible, or place can be installed. A piece of pipe 8 inches (20 cm) stops of galvanized sheet metal or concrete. in diameter and approximately 30 inches Cement floors are recommended, particularly in (76 cm) long is placed into a vertical sewer pipe food-handling establishments. Other types of to prevent rats from entering. flooring should be inspected and rat-resistant flooring should be used to seal off openings in It seems to be part of the steam fitters’ code the floors. Stairwells should be blocked off that a one-foot hole must be knocked in the wall completely or left wide open. In multiuse build­ to place a one-inch pipe, a two foot hole for a ings, seal the interior passageways around any two-inch pipe, etc., and to leave these open for food-handling section. when they are called back for repairs. These openings must be sealed with cement or sheet Inspection metal. Small holes can be tightly packed with coarse steel wool. After installing rodent proofing in structures, keep close watch of these structures for about two weeks, as pressure to break Foundations and Basements through new rodent-proofing is particularly Norway rats generally enter through heavy following its installation. Also, begin a basements. Holes and cracks in foundation walls trapping or baiting program to completely elimi­ and basement floors must be blocked. In rat- nate rodents trapped inside by the proofing. The infested locations, put hardware cloth, sheet effectiveness of stoppage is only as good as its maintenance. Frequent inspections and prompt metal or broken glass in large openings before repair of any breaks is a necessary part of the sealing with concrete. This gives the concrete overall rodent program. The following items time to harden before rats chew through the should be checked on the exterior: uncured concrete. • Doors, windows and vents Where foundation entries cannot be • Weeds and other vegetative harborage completely blocked or a dirt floor exists, a • Old equipment, pallets, boxes, etc., stored curtain wall can be built. A rat that burrows against the building down to the bottom of the “L” will travel along • Cracks and holes in building the base rather than digging outside the leg of • Loading docks the “L.” While “L” type is recommended, some • Utility openings in exterior walls authorities recommend a straight 36 inch (1 m) wall can be just as effective in keeping out The interior should be checked for: rodents and is cheaper to install. • Floor and drain caps that are tightly sealed • Pipe and other utility line openings in Outside Utility Lines interior walls and floors • Holes and cracks in expansion joints Roof rats travel along utility lines where • Sources of food, water and harborage they can gain entry into structures. Guards with a 18-inch (45 cm) radius are needed to interrupt A repair kit for rodent-proofing and its the free passage of these expert wirewalkers. maintenance should include hammer, pliers, tin They should be placed away from the building so snips, 1- and 1 1/2-inch masonry nails, assorted the rats cannot jump over the guard and onto wood nails and staples, odd cuts of galvanized the building. Guards should be constructed of at tin, odd cuts of 1/4-inch hardware cloth, screw­ least 24-gauge metal. Nails should be spaced far driver, assorted screws, keyhole or coping saw, ice pick or awl, staple gun, caulking compound, enough apart so as not to provide footing for plastic wood, tape measure, concrete mix, the rats. bucket, trowel, plaster patching compound, 3M body caulking compound, contact glue, white, Loading Docks epoxy, stainless steel wool, short lengths of wire, wood blocks and dowels. These areas may offer harborage for rodents, plus provide very easy access to a A building will remain rodent-proof only as building. Keep docks clean of all debris and long as the protective devices are maintained. other shelter for rodents. Careless breaks in rodent-proofing devices,

44 thoughtless actions in propping doors or Placement of Tracking Powders windows open and changes in building construc­ tion or plant operations may undo all the Your choice of placement depends upon previous work. Constant inspection of rodent- circumstances and personal experience, but the proofing devices to prevent leaks is as necessary overriding consideration should be safety. as plugging up all the holes in a sinking boat. Tracking powders can be placed in the following ways: Tracking Powders 1. Spread in normal runways between food, Tracking powder is a toxic dust placed water and shelter sources. where rodents travel. They pick up the chemical on their feet and fur and ingest the toxicant as 2. Placed on an apron and around feeding and they groom themselves or handle food with their watering bait stations in normal feeding forepaws. Tracking powders have been used for areas. a long time. However, many, if not all, are 3. Exposed in especially constructed tunnels, Restricted Use pesticides. runways or stations constructed from round tubes such as the cardboard cores of The advantages of tracking powders are: carpets, PVC pipe or other rolled material. 1. Useful when food is plentiful and bait The tunnel should be at least 18 inches acceptance is difficult to achieve. Tracking (45 cm) long and between 2 to 4 inches powders reportedly result in no bait shyness (4 to 10 cm) in diameter. It is advisable to or awareness of the toxicant. place stops of 1/2 inch (1 cm) at the ends of the tunnels to keep the powder from being 2. Usually added to the environment without blown or tracked out. All tracking tunnels arousing suspicion of rodents, though some should be conspicuously marked with individuals may avoid patches, at least poison labels. initially. 4. Blown into dry burrows or other enclosed 3. Can increase the effectiveness of a rodent spaces. control program when used in combination with other methods, such as spreading Different types of powders are available. around bait and water stations. The powder blown into burrows and double walls can be finer than that placed in the open. The disadvantages of tracking powders are: Powder should be placed at least 15 feet (5 meters) or more from food supplies. It is also 1. They cannot be used where there is a more effective if placed near harborage. The hazard of the toxic powder being blown further the animal travels before grooming onto food, tracked on food by rodents or itself, the less material will remain adhered to applied in areas with constant human the feet and fur. Place powders only at floor traffic and air currents. Dusty and damp level to minimize chances of being blown where locations and scattered straw or other loose they could cause contamination. materials interfere with the effectiveness of powders. Application of Tracking Powders 2. They create a greater hazard than baits Powder can be applied with a spoon, duster, because the toxicants in tracking powders salt-and-pepper type shaker, flour sifter or jar are 10 to 40 times the strength found with holes punched in the lid. A spoon is used to in baits. place dust in tunnels. A duster is recommended 3. Powders are usually more expensive for use on burrows or enclosed spaces. In open to apply. placements, apply carefully to keep the dust from becoming airborne. 4. The applicator must accurately locate areas traveled by rodents or the application will Application should be confined to a given be wasted. area. A uniform layer of powder should be applied to produce a layer at least 8/100 inch 5. It is almost impossible to remove the (2 mm) thick. Less powder is less effective, while tracking powder completely when cleaning a layer deeper than 16/100 in. (4 mm) is a waste up any premises. of material. In all cases, follow label directions.

45 Powder must be replaced when it becomes more additives to assist in compounding an caked or diluted with dust, dirt or other extra­ acceptable bait. The choice of toxicant will be neous materials. Tracking powders may be used dictated by the target species, need for quick or in connection with other controls such as solid long-term control and safety considerations. or liquid baits. Some suggest scattering baits with powders in patches. Rodents may stop to The use of toxic baits, i.e., rodenticides, is investigate the food even if they do not eat it. recommended when there are large infestations The speed with which they travel across a patch of rodents and there is less concern about of tracking powder affects the amount they will odors resulting from decomposing carcasses. pick up. Light-colored or highly reflective Whenever a rodenticide is used, safety must be powders arouse more suspicions than dark- the first consideration. Toxic baits should be colored dusts. It may be most efficient to lay placed where they are inaccessible to children down tracking patches of nontoxic materials and pets. Rats and mice are colorblind; there­ (talc, flour, etc.) to check activity before applying fore, dyes that are tasteless to rodents can be toxic powders. used in baits to identify them for reasons of safety. Tracking powders are most popular for use against house mice, particularly when other One classification of rodenticides is methods are not successful. Tracking powders anticoagulants (Table 1), which are slow acting, are least effective against the roof rat, which chronic toxicants that require multiple feedings walks with its legs extended and tail carried to be effective. Examples of first-generation anti­ above the ground in comparison to other species. coagulants are warfarin and chlorophacinone. Furthermore, roof rats spend more time on Second-generation anticoagulants (brodifacoum, vertical surfaces and upper structures where bromadiolone, and difethialone) can be effective powders cannot be used. after a single dose, though it may take up to 5days before death ensues. Roof rats generally Baits and Baiting require a few more feedings of first-generation anticoagulants than Norway rats to produce In controlling rodents with rodenticides, the death. However, little difference is evident when selection of a proper bait material is of utmost using second-generation anticoagulants. importance. One reason for the success of commensal rodents is their ability to utilize Rodents poisoned with anticoagulants die foods available in a variety of environments. The from bleeding internally. A few cases of pet type of environment as well as physiological poisoning have been reported when pets feed on requirements and individual preferences of a dead rodents. Dogs are more sensitive to anti­ given rodent population determines the success coagulants than are cats, and pets accustomed or failure of a baiting program. to feeding on dry foods can easily ingest a toxic dose of rodenticide if these baits are accessible While certain baits are accepted more often to them. Older, first-generation anticoagulants than others, there is no “universal bait” that is (e.g., warfarin, diphacinone, chlorophacinone) consistently accepted in all circumstances. Thus, are considered less hazardous to pets because it is necessary to constantly assess baits and they typically require multiple feedings to remain flexible in shifting techniques to suit a achieve a lethal dose, and accidental poisoning particular situation. Baits can be bought can be treated with an antidote, Vitamin K1. commercially or mixed on your own. Commercial However, the majority of anticoagulants being formulations are recommended, as these are marketed today (including many d-CON governed by regulations that require that opera­ products) contain brodifacoum or other second- tions are safe for their employees. Conversely, generation materials than can be fatal in a baits that you mix can be better accepted by single feeding. rodents than commercial baits because they are fresher. However, poor quality bait material and Label directions on anticoagulants inadequate mixing facilities may make it commonly instruct maintenance of a continuous cheaper and more effective to rely on a variety supply of bait for 15 days or longer until feeding of commercial baits than to mix one’s own. ceases. Anticoagulants are purposefully slow acting to prevent rats from becoming bait-shy. If Baits are made of three components: the bait produces an ill effect in a rat but not toxicant, food or bait base and usually one or death within a few hours, the bait will often

46 become associated with the illness. Bait shyness bait shyness does not usually occur. These can persist for weeks or months and may be baits, in effect, serve as their own prebait. transferred to nontoxic foods of similar types. Zinc phosphide is relatively quick acting, Bromethalin, cholecalciferol and zinc with results evident one-half to 20 hours after phosphide are single-dose, nonanticoagulant ingestion. Because a rat or mouse could poten­ rodenticides that can be effective for tially ingest a small amount of zinc phosphide anticoagulant-resistant populations of and survive, prebaiting is recommended. rodents (Table 2). Although only a single dose Prebaiting, that is, training rodents to feed is required, both bromethalin and cholecalcif­ repeatedly on nontoxic bait prior to applying erol may take up to four days before death the toxic bait, will encourage rats to feed ensues. Because of this slow action, the rodent’s subsequently on the toxic bait, thus largely subsequent illness is not associated with the preventing sublethal doses and thus bait bait even if a sublethal dose is consumed; thus, shyness. As with any product mentioned, be

Table 1. Anticoagulant used for rodent control.

Usual types of formulations Common name and typical trade Food Tracking Restricted Use names Chemical name bait Liquid powder Pesticide? Brodifacoum* 3-[3(4’-bromo[1,1’ biphenyl]-4-yl-)-1,2,3,4­ X (Talon®) tetrahydro-1-naphthalenyl]-4-hydroxy-2H-1­ benzopyran-2-one Bromadiolone* 3-[3-(4’-bromo [1,1’biphenyl]-4-yl)-3-hydroxy­ X No (Maki®, Contrac®) 1-phenylpropyl]-4-hydroxy-2H-1-benzopyran­ 2-one Chlorophacinone 2-[(r-chlorophenyl)phenylacetyl]-1,3­ X X Yes for tracking (RoZol®) indandione powder Difethialone* [(bromo-4’-[biphenyl-1-1’]-yl-4) 3-tetrahydro­ X X No (Generation®) 1,2,3,4-nathyl-1] 3-hydroxy-4, 2H-1-benzo­ thiopyran-2-one Diphacinone 2-diphenylacetyl-1,3-indandione X X (Ramik®, Ditrac®) Warfarin 3- (a-acetonylbenzyl)-4-hydroxycoumarin X X No *This product is capable of being lethal in a single feeding.

Table 2. Single-dose, non-anticoagulant rodenticides used for rodent control.

Usual types of formulations Common name and typical Food Tracking Restricted Use trade names Chemical name bait Liquid powder Pesticide? Bromethalin N-methyl-2,4-dinitro-N-(2,4,5-tribromophenyl)­ X X No (Assault®, 6-(trifluoromethyl) benzenamine Vengeance®) Chloecalciferol 9,10-Seocholesta-5,7,10 (19)-trein-3 betaol X No (Vitamin D3, Quintox®, Rampage®) Zinc phosphide Zinc phosphide X X Yes for tracking (Ridall®) powder and other formula­ tions

47 sure to follow label recommendations to this information to different circumstances achieve best success. All single dose, non- should be very evident. anticoagulant baits should be removed and destroyed after the end of a poisoning program. Norway Rat Food Preferences Single-dose, nonanticoagulant rodenticides Food Base Preferences work in a variety of ways. Bromethalin depresses the central nervous system and Meats Frozen horsemeat, beef hamburger, results in paralysis. Cholecalciferol, also called cooked horsemeat, pork shoulder, Vitamin D3, is a calcium releaser that causes beef round, beef heart too much calcium to be released into the blood, Vegetables Frozen sweet com, frozen green resulting in kidney, liver or heart failure. The peas, canned sweet com, carrots, advantage of Vitamin D3 is a minimal risk of sweet potatoes, butternut or acorn secondary poisoning to pets or wildlife that eat squash poisoned rodents. Zinc phosphide causes gas to Fish Sheepshead, smoked chubs, white­ enter the circulatory system, resulting in heart fish, channel catfish, smoked sable, paralysis, gastrointestinal damage and liver silver salmon damage. Many formulations of zinc phosphide are Restricted Use and therefore require an Fruits Honeydew melon, red delicious apples, dried shredded coconut, applicator’s license to be administered. cantaloupe, bananas, Thompson Selection of the food base depends upon seedless grapes many factors: species of rodents to be controlled, Liquids Chocolate milk, whole eggs, prune particle size, taste, texture, odor, caloric content juice, apple juice, lager beer, tap and competitive foods available to the rodents. water Rats normally prefer food bases they are accus­ Grain and Breakfast rolled oats, freshly ground tomed to eating. Mice are nibblers and like to Seed whole yellow field corn (only some try new foods, but primarily are seed and grain samples rates this high), steel-cut feeders. Norway rats prefer meat and fish, oat groats, brown/white rice, though basically they are grain-eaters. Roof rats degerminated yellow corn meal, prefer seeds, nuts, fruits and vegetables. hominy grits

Particle size is important. The optimum Cereal grains are preferred for most bait particle size for Norway and roof rats is about materials as they are readily taken, easily 0.04 inch (0.5 to 1.5 mm). Mice prefer a mixed with most rodenticides, and conveniently smaller size. stored because of their low moisture content. The effects of texture, taste and odor of bait Combining several foods (for example, corn and foods on acceptance are intertwined. Whereas oats), appeals to a larger number of individual odor helps attract a rodent to bait, the final test rodents than reliance upon a single food base. of consumption is the palatability of the mate­ rial determined by its taste and texture. Additives Different varieties as well as different Additives are added to rodent baits for processing procedures of the same food will many different reasons, but some lower the result in different rates of acceptance. bait’s acceptance. Thus, it is necessary to deter­ While rodents seek a stable caloric content mine if the advantages from their inclusion in their food intake, this can be influenced by warrant a resultant lowering of bait intake. the quantity and quality of other foods available These additives include: in a given environment. Attractants Rodent food bases can be classified into meats, vegetables, fish, fruits, liquids and grains Attractants are substances that presumably and seeds. The food preferences listed below are draw rodents to a bait. They are mainly odor in the order of acceptance as determined by producing and rarely add to the palatability of Harlan Shuyler in his studies on confined popu­ the bait. There is much mythology and little lations of Norway rats taken from Indiana sites. objective information on the effectiveness of These represent only a portion of the 274 food attractants. Under objective analysis, many of substances tested. The limitations of applying the old favorites like anise oil have actually

48 proven to repel more than attract rodents, at preservatives may be added to baits. Paraffin- least at certain concentrations. Further study of treated baits with the addition of 0.25% parani­ pheromones may eventually provide effective trophenol or 0.1% dehydroacetic acid inhibits attractants. But attractive odors in commercial mold and does not lower bait acceptance to rats. baits are probably more of a lure to the buyers Sodium sulfite (0.1%) has been used to slow than rats. spoilage of meat and fish baits in warm weather. Binders Bait Formulation Liquids aid in formulating and holding the various bait particles together. Water is most When mixing baits, it is essential to follow commonly used. However, when it evaporates, directions on the label. Too heavy concentrations the baits harden. Water also hastens molding, so of toxicant may result in reduction of acceptance oils are preferred. by rodents or increased hazards to nontarget animals. On the other hand, too low a concentra­ Oils can enhance and help distribute the tion may not be sufficient to kill when not toxicant more evenly throughout the bait. Some enough bait is taken. Thus, you must measure binders in rodent baits include bacon grease, bait components accurately rather than by eye. peanut oil, coconut oil, cod liver oil, syrup, cottonseed oil, lard, mineral oil, butter, safflower It is best to mix the dry ingredients oil, soybean oil, corn oil and glycerin. However, separately. Mix the toxicant with liquid compo­ the individual population’s reaction to different nents and the coloring agent, if used, before oils makes it difficult to evaluate them univer­ adding the dry components. Mix thoroughly to sally. The British claim the best binders for mice get an even dispersion of the toxicant are glycerin, corn oil, peanut oil and mineral oil. throughout the bait. An incompletely mixed bait Studies in this country rated coconut, peanut is as bad as having incorrect proportions. Part of and corn oils in that order for Norway rats. the batch will be too strong and the rest too Animal fats tend to lead to rancidity, with weak. If the material is packaged in plastic resulting poor bait acceptance, much more bags, do some experimentation first. For quickly than vegetable oils. example, the oil in the bait could leak through the plastic, making the ink run on the label. Coloring Agents If the mixed material is used in the field, It is advisable to use color baits as a safety provide service technicians with premeasured precaution. This should alert human adults to vials and graduated bait containers to minimize the fact they are not food. Color can also repel the possibility of incorrect proportions. birds that, unlike rodents, are color-conscious. However, coloring agents may add a taste factor and reduce acceptance. So select chemicals with care and use at the minimum amounts necessary to serve as a warning.

Enhancers Figure 21. Bait Station. Compared to attractants, this component increases the palatability of a bait so that more will be consumed. The food base and binders can be considered enhancers. Sugar is the most widely used enhancer that has demonstrated ability to increase palatability. The percentage of sugar most often used in anticoagulant-cereal baits is about 5 percent. Some evidence indi­ cates Dexide (MR-100), a carbohydrate with flavor, increases the acceptance and palatability of anticoagulant baits. Figure 22. Water Bait. Preservatives As rodents prefer baits that are not rancid, moldy, insect-ridden or otherwise spoiled,

49 protection from children or nontarget animals. Ideally, the lip of the container should be no more than 1/2 inch (1.25 mm) high for rats and 1/4 inch (0.6 mm) for mice. Figure 23. But, depending upon circumstances, higher Enlarged trigger trap. sides will be investigated by the rodents. The smallest dimension of the base should be at least three times the height to cut down on the possibility of tipping. The tray should be large enough to hold at least 1/2 fluid ounce (15 cc) to 8 fluid ounces (200 cc) of liquid bait or 4 ounces (115 g) to 1 pound (450 g) of solid bait. Any waterproof Figure 24. material except metal is acceptable for Paraffin Bait Block. liquid containers. Metal may react with the rodenticide solution and create an off-flavor. All trays designed to hold dry baits should be water repellent to prevent moisture seeping in from the bottom, causing the bait to mold. 3. Covered bait station placement – Bait stations or boxes are typically utilized for anticoagulant or other multiple-dose baits and in maintenance baiting programs. The bait is placed in covered containers to Figure 25. confine the bait, protect it from the weather Place Packet. and encourage rodents to feed under the protective shelter. They offer a minimal deterrent to children and pets from the baits. Size and shape may vary according to available materials and the amount of bait being placed. Bait stations should be made of waterproof materials to protect the bait from moisture. Bait Placement While one entry hole is acceptable, two There are four methods of placing baits in entry holes in line with each other are much the field. more effective, so the rodent can see an escape route as it enters the station. The 1. Wrapped or packaged bait placement – holes should between 2 to 3 inches (5 to Small amounts of bait are wrapped in paper 8 cm) for rats, but may be as small as 1 inch or sealed in plastic packets. These reduce (2.5 cm) for mice. hazards to field crews placing the bait. There is more protection for the bait from There should be a provision for a tray, the weather, thus keeping it fresher. built-in hopper or other device for securing a Placements can be made from a distance by water fount. The station should be large throwing packages over an open dump face enough to contain 4 ounces (115 g) of dry or in a crawl space under a building. bait or 8 ounces (234 cc) of liquid bait. However, rodents sometimes fail to detect the bait materials inside the packet. Others 4. Tamper-proof bait station placement – This have the tendency to haul them away to is a covered container that not only protects hoarding places that may transfer toxicant the bait, but also keeps children and pets to the wrong environment. from it. The following is the EPA definition: 2. Bait tray placement – Wet, dry or liquid “A tamper-proof bait box is a structure made baits are exposed in a container. There is no of material impervious to weather and top to the container, and it offers little strong enough to prohibit entry by protection for the bait from the weather or nontarget species. The access panel must be

50 securely attached. The entrance must allow should be more than enough to feed all rodents easy access for target species, yet prohibit present. Minimum placements should be access to bait by larger nontarget species. 2 ounces (50 g) for mice and 4 ounces (100 g) for This can be accomplished by limiting rats. Stack the bait so the rodent can see it over entrance size, by using baffles and/or by the lip of the bait trays. Bait stations should be incorporating a maze-like construction. The set out a week before placing bait in them, if box must be capable of being anchored possible. Rats will not approach a new object. By securely to resist the possible efforts of chil­ waiting a week, the bait will be fresher when dren, pets, domestic animals or wildlife to the rodents first encounter it. move it or displace its contents. It must not constitute an attractive nuisance; e.g., a It is better to replace water solutions container which clearly resembles a toy, completely rather than adding more liquid bait such as a doll house or sand bucket. Proper when stations reach a low level. If remaining precautionary statements must appear in a dry baits are clean and fresh, small amounts can prominent location. The box must have some be added at these placements. Stir the bait at internal structure for containing the bait each visitation to aerate it and prolong fresh­ (i.e., a cup holder or raised lip) so that the ness. At first appearance of mustiness or mold, toxicant will not be exposed on nontarget empty and clean the container before refilling. animals outside the box.” In baiting a premise, particularly a food- “Maze-like construction” as suggested handling or processing establishment, don’t above should be a modification of last resort. overlook the advantages of “perimeter baiting.” The obstructions generally decrease rodent There are fewer restrictions on baiting (trapping acceptance of the station. and gassing, too) outside buildings. It can be easier to remove these peripheral rodents than For perishable baits, set out bait in the late those firmly established inside a building. afternoon so the bait will be fresh when the Removing these rodents reduces the population rodents start feeding around dusk. Baits should of rodents that potentially could inhabit the be placed where rodents will find them. building at a future time. The job inside will be Bait stations protect bait from weather, much easier if the population outside has been children, nontarget animals and irresponsible reduced or eliminated entirely. persons, as well as offer a place of security in which rodents can feed. Where protection of Special Situations – Sewers and nontarget animals is not a serious consideration, Damp Locations a board nailed over a runway may be sufficient. Two openings, 2 x 2.5 inches (5 x 6 cm), on each Baits mixed with paraffin are suitable for end of the runway should face each other so the damp areas such as sewers and marshy outdoor rodents can see a ready exit. habitats. While paraffin can lower acceptance, this is offset by the protection afforded from When protecting humans and other animals is the prime consideration, the bait station must water and molds. Ready-made blocks are avail­ be (1) completely enclosed, (2) attached so it able commercially, but you can make your own cannot be moved and (3) have a lockable access by adding from 33 to 38% paraffin by weight to panel. Baffles may also prevent small children treated grain. from reaching inside the small openings. Heat the paraffin to a liquid state, add the While rats eat at a number of locations, poisoned bait base and mix thoroughly. Pour into mice are very erratic feeders. Many small a mold to solidify. Put a wire hoop into the stations are needed to control mice. Place baits mixture before it hardens. Use this handle to tie or bait stations within 10 feet (3 m) of each down the bait and prevent it from being washed other so that mice will intercept a station. Rats away by water or carried away by rodents. An have larger home ranges, so baits can be placed alternative for outdoor placements is to drive a 20 feet (6 m) apart. These distances are merely a wooden stake through the center of the mix and guide, as a physical layout of a premise will into the ground. determine optimal patterns of placement. Waxed paper containers, reusable Baits should be placed under cover, in rubber/silicone molds or similar containers can burrows and along walls. The amount of bait be used to mold the bait mixture. These can be depends on the rodent species, the size of the torn off when the mixture has hardened. Do not infestation and the toxicant being used. There use identifiable food containers for molds.

51 Winter Baiting person can set a trap, but the successful trapper realizes he or she is dealing with a wary animal, Water baits are most effective during warm, looks for signs carefully and adjusts methods to dry periods. If water baits are used at tempera­ outwit the adversary. There are no magic lures tures below freezing, alcohol or glycerin up to to bring rodents into a trap. You have to put 25% by weight or volume can be added to the traps where the rodents will encounter them. water. These chemicals do lower the acceptance. Another alternative is to increase the sugar Types of Traps content to 10% which will prevent freezing if the temperature remains just below 32ºF (0ºC). Single-Door Cage Trap Higher amounts of sugar would reduce bait Commercially available single-door cage acceptance. traps such as the Tomahawk® and Kage-All® are durable and function well under field condi­ Bait Testing and Prebaiting tions. They are usually the traps to choose when live capture of rats is necessary. These traps To determine an appropriate bait base, will, in many situations, give higher capture conduct a “bait test” by offering rodents bait food success of rats than will snap traps. without toxicants. While this can act as “prebaiting,” it is not the same. The purpose of Wind-up Multiple Catch Traps bait testing is to determine the effect of the environment on the food choices of a particular Multiple-catch (automatic) mousetraps such population. Place several different baits in two as the Ketch-All® and Victor Tin Cat® are to ten locations. The baits should be 4 ounces commercially available. A good choice for ware­ (100 g) amounts and within 1 foot (30 cm) of houses, restaurants, food processing plants, etc., each other, cafeteria style. these traps work using the principle that mice enter small holes with hesitation. The Ketch- “Prebaiting” involves offering rodents unpoi­ All® has a wind-up spring which powers a soned bait for three or more days prior to treat­ rotating paddlewheel that, when triggered, ment. This serves to overcome new object entraps mice in a holding compartment. The Tin shyness and gives an indication of the amounts Cat® has one-way doors that mice cannot exit, and optimum locations for placing the toxic once having entered. Such traps may catch materials. This is not necessary when using many mice in a single setting, but they should anticoagulant baits or treating for mice alone. It be checked and emptied periodically so that is a good practice when exposing an acute toxi­ mice do not die of starvation or exposure in cant for rats in a difficult baiting situation. the traps. However, the economic realities of the industry make this impractical under many situations. Snap Traps Traps and Trapping The “snap trap” is cheap, easy to operate, requires few inspections, can be set in many There are a number of things wrong with situations, and since the animal is killed almost trapping. It doesn’t look professional as anybody instantly, more humane. can buy and set a trap from the dime store. It is very expensive in terms of labor. It is a slow way Operation of Traps of removing a heavy infestation. One basic principle of effective trapping is All true. But trapping has been and should that time and opportunity are lost if the trap set remain a tool for solving rodent problems. Traps in the field is not in prime operating condition. can be used where it is necessary to remove an In using cage traps, the triggers should be animal completely from the premises elimi­ checked several times to achieve the proper nating a potential odor problem. Traps can be sensitivity to respond to the weight of the target used where toxicants should not be used such as animal. Double entrance traps with mesh sides food handling areas, residences with small chil­ present the least sinister appearance to the dren, hog farms and zoos where poisoned rats proposed victim. They should be as large as might be eaten, etc. The snap trap is the best possible and still enable the target animal to answer for removing pests as humanely as trip the trigger. The simpler the trigger mecha­ possible without toxicants. nism of these traps, the less chance of failure. The most important consideration is the The trigger mechanism for snap traps must attitude of the person doing the trapping. Any also be in good working condition. Be certain the

52 staples holding the spring are firmly embedded Trap Placement in the wood. The trigger catch should be bent in the right position so that the bait pan lies at the Next to having a trap that will function proper distance above the trap base. The wooden properly, the most important consideration is base should be flat and not warped or it will roll proper trap placement. Do not rely on any lure as the rodent steps on it. While some commer­ to bring the animal to the trap. Put the trap in a cial firms make enlarged bait pans for their place where the rodent will literally stumble traps, these can be added easily to others. over it in the normal course of his activities. Put Material can be of corrugated cardboard, fly traps next to walls, in dark corners, behind and screening, wire mesh, sheet metal, etc. A really under objects, where tracks and droppings are good material for mousetraps is made from numerous, and in normal travel lanes going aluminum cans. This material is easy to work, from cover to food and water. Force the animals light in weight, does not rust and will not to pass over the trigger by putting boxes or become limp as cardboard does in damp situ­ boards to form barriers that will guide them to ations. In making the pan, cut it out at least where you want them to cross. 1/4 inch (0.5 cm) smaller than the area covered by the trap jaw. Rivet or fasten to the regular Placement of Snap Traps bait pan. The leverage increases the sensitivity of the trigger, and for runway traps, provides Traps should be placed in groups or areas so additional surface area to increase the possi­ they can be easily accounted for. Use many bility of the rodent tripping it as it runs down rather than a few traps. Possibly a dozen would a trail. be the minimum number to use in a private dwelling while 50 to 100 is not excessive for a When oiling a trap, use a medicinal grade warehouse or other commercial installation. mineral oil instead of a petroleum-based oil as Traps should not be spaced more than 10 feet this may increase repellency. Traps do not have (3 m) apart, preferably as close as 3 feet (1 m) to be clean to be effective; in fact a dirty trap is for mice due to their limited range in certain probably less repellent to a mouse than a shiny environments. For rats a minimum of 20 feet new one from the factory. But while dirt is prob­ (6 m) should be observed. ably attractive to mice, in a commercial situa­ tion, its value must be weighed against its Trap shelters are an effective modification public relations effect. of trapping technique. They enhance the profes­ sional appearance of the job. It is easier to locate Traps should be cleaned up and possibly the traps when rechecking. The possibility of painted before placing at a food-handling something being dropped on the traps and account. Painting with a water-based fluorescent setting them off is reduced. The trap is anchored paint may aid in recovery of the few traps that so an animal cannot drag it off. Trapped animals might be dragged away. Numbers should be are concealed from a sensitive human audience. painted on them to help in record keeping. This also adds to the professional appearance of They provide the necessary guide forcing the these devices. animal to pass over the triggers of runway traps. The danger to pets and children is some­ A hole should be drilled in one corner as what reduced. In building the shelter, make close to the edge as possible on the side away certain it is curved enough to give clearance to from the bait pan. It is rarely necessary to set the jaw as it closes. a drag or otherwise fasten down these traps on a horizontal surface. But if the occasion arises, If rodents are difficult to trap, it is possible a drag wire can be slipped through this hole to bury traps lightly in sawdust, flour, feathers, without interfering with the operation of the confetti, etc. Bait is set in the center and the jaw when it is pulled back in the set position. traps left unset for several days to overcome This hole also makes a convenient way to shyness. When covering with loose material, it is string a number of traps on a wire for ease necessary to put a lightly rolled wad of cotton of transporting. under the bait pan or lay a small piece of paper or cloth over the bait pan to keep the material Store traps away from insecticides or other from sifting under the pan and preventing it chemicals that might impart a strong repellent from moving. In other situations it might be odor. Carry them on wires or in boxes where necessary to set taps in groups of three or more they’ll be kept in order rather than carelessly where animals appear to be jumping over a trap tumbled into a heap with resultant damage to set. Tracking patches can be used to locate good trigger mechanisms. trapping areas and activity around an ignored

53 trap. Do not place traps above food handling Trapping Schedules areas. It is better to trap a small area inten­ sively than undertrap a larger one as this In planning a trapping program, it is best to increases the danger of educating a population set a large number of traps at first and then into trap shyness. taper off. Traps should be checked each morning to remove dead rodents from view. If possible, Baiting Traps the trap line should be rechecked in the late afternoon. Clients do not want to see the visual A chapter could be written solely about evidence of a successful catch. baiting and not cover all the circumstances. Different baits for different places seem to be As mentioned before, it is better to trap the story. Some good basic baits for mice are small areas intensively than larger ones exten­ peanut butter, cereal, raisins, nutmeats, bread, sively. It is also better trap intensively for 2 to bacon, gumdrops, strawberry jam, etc, and for 3 weeks and then suspend trapping completely. Norway rats about the same plus meat, fish and If they can be spared, traps should be unsprung pieces of wieners. For roof rats fresh fruit and and left in place. After a couple of weeks trap­ nutmeats seem to be about the best. The best ping can be started up again. One problem with procedure is to use three or more different baits trapping is young rodents being weaned seldom in a given area and keep a record of those that get out of the nest far enough to reach your appear more attractive. traps. This blank period will give you a better If fresh baits like meat or fish are used, chance of getting these animals as they grow replace them often to maintain attractiveness. large enough to find your traps. Baits should be secured to the bait pan by Another argument for keeping close records thread or wire to prevent it from being stolen. It on the catch is that you will be able to pick out is recommended that traps be baited and left unproductive locations. Traps should not be unset for three or more days to accustom the moved about constantly as it may take a while animals to this new source of food; however, this for animals to approach them. Those that are is often economically impractical. With reality in unproductive after seven days should be moved mind, this practice should be used only for the to more fertile hunting grounds. few occasions you encounter a rat population demonstrating a high degree of trap shyness In taking animals out of the traps, do not and “new object” reaction. handle them any more than necessary. You can Runway traps do not normally need to be usually drop them in a paper or plastic sack baited. However, capture can be improved using without having to touch them. If you have to bait. Peanut butter smeared in the center of the pick them up, use gloves or tongs. An insecticide bait pan or cereal sprinkled over the surface are should be sprayed or dusted around the trap good attractants. area and over the trapped animals. A dust like carbaryl is good for this purpose. This practice is It is good practice to bait with attractive essential in areas where vector borne diseases foods not present in the area when there is are prevalent. considerable competition from available food sources. It is not always necessary to use food Rodent Glues materials. Cotton can be tied to the trigger in places where nesting material is apparently at a Rodent glues are sticky chemicals that premium. entangle the victim like flypaper. Ready-to-use The use of odors as attractants to increase glue boards are commercially available from trapping success is not clearly understood. Do various suppliers, or bulk glue can be not pet a dog or cat before handling traps. purchased. The sticky material is spread on Rodents may avoid these odors but they are not heavy craft paper, cardboard, roofing paper, bothered by human scents. Probably odors of boards, etc. Lengths of it are placed in runways. other rodents will attract. Some pest managers When an animal steps on the glue he is unable feel putting traps in cages of rats or mice before to remove his foot. His struggles will eventually exposing them in the field will help condition cause him to end up with more feet and possibly them. Others swear by various chemical odors his nose in the material. Glue boards are used such as cinnamic aldehyde produced by rubbing under most of the same situations as traps and a split red carnation over the bait pan. An are sometimes effective where trap shyness has increased understanding of pheromones may developed. Glues are nontoxic and hold the some day assist in this area, too. animals for disposal the same as traps.

54 Problems with glue boards can occur in they can be used to quickly and safely reduce extremely hot weather when some glues can run mice populations. Unless placed under cover, off the board and cause staining. On the other glue boards should not be used in areas where extreme, in cold weather the material may there is excessive dust. harden too much to be effective. In dusty areas, the surface may coat over so that it is unable to Predators hold the animal. Dogs and cats, particularly certain individual Before handling bulk glue, wet your hands animals, will catch and kill rodents. However, and putty knife with soap and water. Scoop up there are few situations where they do so suffi­ the glue and spread it on a sheet of roofing ciently to control rodent populations. Around paper or other backing material. It is best to most structures, rats and mice can find many keep these separate. However, where necessary, places to hide and rear their young out of the another piece can be squeezed on top of this to reach of such predators. It is not uncommon to form a sandwich. Pry the pieces apart when find rats or mice living in close association with ready to use making sure the glue does not run cats or dogs, relying on pet food for nourishment. out to the edge of the backing material. Rats often live beneath a doghouse and soon Glue boards are more effective for capturing learn they can feed on the dog’s food when he is mice than rats. In severe mouse infestations, asleep or absent.

55 Equipment and Application Techniques It is important to know the characteristics, of this type made by several different compa­ advantages and limitations of various kinds of nies. The pest control operator should choose the control equipment so that you can choose the type best suite to his needs. equipment best suited to each job and use it safely and effectively. Proper maintenance of These types of sprayers are used for a equipment is important to safety, efficiency and variety of insect control by the general pest profitability. control operator, including cockroach, ant, flea, stored product and numerous other types of Along with knowledge of equipment, pests. It is used for applying crack and crevice, pesticides and pests, it is important to be spot and general sprays. It is the workhorse of a familiar with the application techniques suited pest control operation. to a given situation. Many current and all future pesticide product labels will indicate how a A compressed air sprayer consists of (1) a pesticide is to be applied. Application techniques tank for the spray mixture, (2) a hand-operated vary with the equipment used, type of pesticide pump for compressing air in the tank, (3) a applied, target pest involved and size and scope siphon tube to carry the spray mixture to the of the application job involved. Proper applica­ hose, (4) a hose which connects the sprayer tank tion techniques insure effective control and and siphon tube to the valve, (5) a valve to proper use and prevent drift and pesticide loss control the spray flow and (6) a nozzle to into the environment. distribute the spray in the desired application pattern. Use a wand or short piece of curved tubing to extend the distance between the valve Sprayers and nozzle. Compressed air forces the spray material out through the nozzle when the valve Compressed Air Sprayer is open.

Hand-operated compressed air sprayers are designed to operate with 20 to 50 pounds of air pressure. Usually, pressure of less than 20 pounds is desirable when operating indoors, when making crack and crevice applications and to reduce splashing. Higher pressures of 20 to 50 pounds are necessary when operating Figure 26. Compressed Air Sprayer. outdoors, projecting a spray stream over long distances, spraying large volumes and to develop proper nozzle patterns when using fan or cone nozzles. The tank is made of stainless steel, brass or galvanized steel; however, plastic tanks are coming into greater use. Stainless steel tanks are generally resistant to the corrosive effects of The basic piece of spray equipment used in many pesticides. Some tanks may have an air general pest control is a small, hand-operated release valve and/or a pressure gauge. and hand-carried compressed air sprayer with a capacity in the range of 1/2 to 1 1/2 gallons. Air The air pump is usually mounted in the pressure is supplied by a hand-operated pump cover of the head opening. It consists of a or by an electrically or gasoline-operated air handle, cap, sealing ring, plunger rod and piston compressor. The air pressure is contained in the to force air into the tank through a check valve tank above the surface of the liquid to be in the bottom of the pump and a brass or stain­ dispensed. This air, usually compressed to 20 to less steel cylinder. The piston has a leather or 50 pounds pressure forces the pesticide out synthetic rubber cup that may require mainte­ through a discharge tube to the nozzle when the nance. The check valve at the bottom of the discharge valve is opened. The liquid is not pump cylinder prevents air and spray material mixed with air, but is pushed out as a wet spray from being forced back into the cylinder, and it, without atomization. There are several sprayers too, may require periodic replacement.

56 The nozzle is the most important part of the Sprayer malfunction often occurs within the sprayer because it determines whether the pump assembly. Proper diagnosis will indicate insecticide will be sprayed as a solid stream, flat the problem that may require repair or replace­ spray, hollow cone or solid cone. It also deter­ ment. Frequent replacement of the gaskets is mines the rate of spray output at a given pres­ much less costly, in most instances, than solving sure, the thoroughness of application and the the problems of accidental pesticide discharge. safety with which a spray is applied. Nozzles are available in many types, each designed for a Problem Cause/Answer specific delivery pattern and discharge rate. Base the selection of nozzles on the proper Failure to develop pressure or Worn plunger cup, no back pressure when plunger or plunger cup particle size and application rate. is pushed down. needs oiling. Solid stream nozzles are used in crack and Liquid or air flows into pump, Worn check valve. crevice treatment. Use fan nozzles in making causing liquid to shoot up out of flat surface applications. Solid and hollow cone the cap around the handle or nozzles distribute sprays in a circular pattern handle “creeps” up when not locked down. and are used more often in applications to trees and shrubs. Adjustable nozzles containing a Sprayer loses pressure slowly, Worn sealing ring. even when no spraying is variety of tips are available and useful when being done. varying spray patterns. If a sprayer is used daily, clean it after each Thoroughly inspect, rinse and clean the use. When cleaning the tank, use hot water and sprayer hose once a week. This is most con­ a good detergent, preferably one containing venient when the tank is rinsed with detergent. ammonia. Remove any residue accumulations on After the tank has been washed thoroughly, the inside of the tank by scrubbing the inside pressurize the sprayer and spray the detergent and bottom of the tank with a stiff bristle brush through the hose, shutoff valve and nozzle. until the surface is perfectly clean. Clean and Never let the sprayer hose stand unused for polish the outside of the tank to preserve the more than one day with pressure in the sprayer. surface and to prevent contamination or damage Even the best sprayer hoses show some to other objects. Pressurize the tanks after deterioration if left standing under pressure cleaning to check for small pinhole leaks. when filled with solvents and insecticides. Never leave an unattended sprayer of any kind with Store upside down when the sprayer is not the pressure up. The next person walking by in use. Remove the pump unit and turn the tank may try the shutoff valve and contaminate upside down, lay the pump assembly on a clean himself or the area. Loosen the cap slowly, and surface, hang the shutoff valve on a hook and let after the pressure is released extend the hose the hose extend its full length. Open the shutoff upward full length and depress the valve. This valve so that any liquid trapped in the extension allows spray material accumulated in the hose, can drain out of the hose. Also, sprayers need to valve and wand to drain back into the tank. be protected during freezing weather to prevent damage (e.g., valves may freeze and crack). Occasionally oil the valve plunger and replace the packing around it. When the valve Inspect the pump unit and maintain the fails to feed or stops up when operating, it may three gaskets. At 2- or 3-week intervals, lubri­ be clogged. Also, the valve may fail to shut off cate the cup leather of the pump with a few completely, permitting a continued drip from the drops of neat’s-foot oil. Oiling the cup leather in nozzle. There may be some dirt lodged in the this manner helps retain its shape and keeps it valve seat, or there may be a scratch on the moist for maximum efficiency when pumping. valve surface. When these problems occur, take The sealing ring, in time, becomes worn and the valve apart. The manufacturer can provide needs replacing. When worn out, this gasket can the necessary diagrams and instructions to aid cause severe pressure leaks. in this procedure. Periodically inspect the lip of the pump The strainer assembly of any sprayer is a cylinder for cracks as this causes pressure loss very important part. A properly functioning around the pump cap. Clean and polish the strainer filters out particles that would clog inside of the pump cylinder. Remove the check nozzle tips or interfere with shutoff closure. valve and polish the valve seat with steel wool. Remove the assembly once a week and wash

57 thoroughly to remove all sediment and residue from the strainer screen. Otherwise residue builds up on the screen and stops the flow of insecticide. Normally these sediments can be removed by running hot water over the strainer. However, if necessary, soak the strainer a few minutes in a suitable solvent and clean with a soft bristle brush. Nozzle tips occasionally become clogged with extraneous materials that distort the spray pattern or completely prevent liquid passage. There are several remedies for clogged tips. Use compressed air to blow foreign matter Figure 28. out of the tip, and for best results, always force Hand Plunger Duster. Figure 29. Bulb Duster. the air through the front of the orifice. Soaking the tip in a suitable solvent and cleaning with a toothbrush usually cleans out the accumulated sediment. Never use anything more rigid than a toothbrush bristle to clean the spray tip, and never insert any metal object such as a pin, wire, etc., in the end of the tip. The orifice is precision machined and can be marred easily, causing a distortion in the spray pattern. Small Hand Sprayers Figure 30. Bulb Rotary Figure 31. There are uses for even small hand sprayers or Hand-Crank Duster. Portable Power Duster. in public health programs. The “flit gun” type sprayer and the pistol sprayer can be used for treating very small areas when extreme porta­ patches for mice and rats in runs along the bility is important or when only small quantities base of walls or foundations or on beams. of pesticide are needed, as when treating small They maybe used for insects where careful mosquito-breeding areas or wasps’ nests. placement and neatness are not essential. Do not apply too much in one place. If the shaker is fitted with a 16- to 20-mesh screen, over-application is less likely to occur. Hand Bellows Duster A hand bellows duster is a rubber cylinder with a metal or plastic top and bottom. The bottom has an extension tube for delivery of Figure 27. Flit Gun Sprayer. the dust. The top contains an opening for filling and a tight stopper. Inside the rubber cylinder there is also a large coil spring that resumes Dusters its shape after compression. The dust is deliv­ Equipment for applying dusts varies with ered by squeezing the top and bottom of the the use and the type of practice. Some of the bellows together. This duster is used where more common types of dusters are: small quantities are needed, and careful place­ ment and neatness are important. They are Hand Shakers used to apply a thin layer of dust or to force dust into small cracks or voids where insects Hand shakers are available in a wide range may be hiding. They are sometimes used for of sizes or can be homemade. Shakers may be cockroach control or treating and nests in voids used for applying tracking powders and in walls.

58 Bulb Duster and agitators. Small electrically-driven dusters produce a very fine layer of dust and are used A bulb duster is a rubber bulb with a screw effectively to treat small cracks or wherever cap cover fitted with a dust nozzle. Dust is deep penetration is required. Another type of distributed by squeezing the bulb. These power duster is the compressed air duster. It is dusters are used in the same situations as similar to a dry-type fire extinguisher and must hand bellows dusters. be pressurized with air before operation. A mixture of dust and air is discharged when the Hand Plunger Dusters valve handle is depressed. These dusters also would be used to treat attics and crawlspaces to Hand plunger dusters consist of a plunger- control several kinds of insects that may be a type pump and a metal or glass reservoir into problem in these areas. which the airblast goes when the plunger is pushed. The dust is dispersed as a relatively fine Most dust application equipment is cloud or a heavy blast, depending on how the maintained easily, but periodic maintenance is duster is held. They are not suitable for most essential to keep this equipment in effective inside work but are sometimes used for treating working condition. Empty dusters frequently large areas such as crawl spaces or attics when and clean thoroughly to remove all caked or larger rotary or power dusters are not available. hardened dust. Insert a piece of stiff wire in They might be used to apply insecticide dusts the tubes to scrape caked dust from the sides for silverfish and spider control in attics or and tip of the tube. Clean screens and all other crawl spaces. small openings frequently to insure they are not clogged. When storing the duster, first Foot Pump remove all dust and then clean thoroughly. Also, make sure the storage area is dry so that A foot pump is similar to the hand plunger metal parts do not rust. duster but is held down on the ground by placing the foot in a stirrup and pumping with the hands to force the insecticide out through a Space Treating Equipment short, flexible delivery tube. It is useful for Space treatments for quick knockdown and applying dusts to rat burrows. control of flying insects have been used exten­ sively. Any insecticide used to fill a space must Rotary or Hand Crank Dusters first be broken down into fine particles or These dusters have a 5- to 10-pound capacity droplets to allow their suspension in air or to hopper. Some are designed to be carried on the allow the particles to be moved by wind operator’s back. When the crank is turned, a fan currents. Fine-droplet dispensers-foggers, blows air through a long delivery tube. Dust is misters, aerosolizers and ULD-were developed dropped into a mixing chamber or directly into for this purpose. the fan chamber from a hopper which may or Equipment used in dispensing fine may not contain an agitator to fluff the dust and particles comes in a variety of types and sizes, feed it into the fan for dispersion out the tube. each designed to produce particles within a Most have adjustments to regulate the delivery specific range of sizes. At present, there are no rate of the dust. Usually a fan- shaped tip is particular field methods for determining supplied with the duster to produce a broad band droplet size quickly. Many types of equipment of dust. With the fan tip removed, it can be used can be adjusted within certain limits to to treat rodent burrows. These dusters are prima­ produce a wide range of droplet sizes. rily for outdoor use but also are used to treat larger indoor areas such as crawl spaces and It is a common mistake to relate the type of attics and for treating sewers. application specifically to the piece of equip­ ment being used. One should (to be effective, Power Dusters safe and efficient) know fogs, mists, aerosols and ULD in terms of droplets size and their Power dusters vary in size and output. They characteristics and usages in given control are similar in principle to the crank dusters but situations, then use the proper equipment for have a larger capacity and power-driven fans the purpose.

59 Distribution and effectiveness of insecticides public and industry to the heavier specially in space treatments are dependent on the developed, reusable containers for use by production of very small drops in much larger industry for space, crack and crevice treat­ numbers than with conventional application ments. They are handy and convenient to use methods. These very fine drops, however, are and require no special motors, electrical more subject to drift and tend to deflect around outlets, water or oil, but are more expensive target insects instead of hitting and impinging per unit of insecticide. They are sometimes on them. used for “flushing” or inspection to determine the nature of the problem, such as in cockroach The micron (a unit of measurement) is control. Some are available with long flexible used to measure droplet or particle size. A nozzles for crack and crevice treatments. micron is 1/25,000 of an inch. Other aerosols are used in space treatments for Effectiveness of spray droplets depends on the quick knockdown and control of crawling their size, their ability to penetrate or to reach and flying insects and to increase insect the target area and their ability to impinge on activity to insure contact with deposits of or hit the insect. Research indicates that residual insecticides. droplets in the 5- to 15-micron range (most conventional spray droplets are in the range of 100 to 400 microns) are more efficient for controlling cockroaches and other indoor pests.

Spray droplet size is affected by the pressure or flow rate, the size of the outlet Figure 32. Disposable orifice and the viscosity and physical character­ Aerosol Dispenser. istics of the spray mixture. The higher the air pressure or flow rate or the smaller the orifice outlet, the smaller the droplets produced. Viscosity affects flow rates and evaporation rates; higher viscosities generally reduce both Aerosols may be purchased as timed- rate of flow and evaporation. Penetration of release dispensers with a clock-like mechanism droplets into an area not in direct line with the that releases the spray on a preset schedule. spray outlet is dependent primarily on droplet size, speed or velocity of the droplets, air Total release aerosols are being used currents and gravity. Impingement is affected increasingly. These dispensers contain residual by the same factors affecting penetration plus or nonresidual insecticides or both. They are the size and shape of the target insect. designed so the release valve can be locked in an open position for total release of the contents. Factors influencing the effectiveness of conventional sprays also affect fine particle Pressurized spray applicators are used dispensing, including the insecticide used, concen­ commercially and by the general public. These tration and rate of application, thoroughness of spray applicators differ from aerosols in that application, amount of harborage area (hiding they usually contain a much larger percentage places) and the nature of the treated surfaces. of petroleum and diluent, and the nozzle produces a coarse spray that deposits a thin Aerosols film of insecticide directly on surfaces. Insecticides in extremely fine mists are Pressurized aerosols require some special aerosols. Aerosols used indoors may be gas care. Store them in temperatures between 70°F propelled or thermally released. Gas-propelled and 120°F. Higher temperatures increase the aerosols are insecticides in special containers pressure within the container and can cause it in which a liquefied gas is used to force the to explode. Lower temperatures cause the pres­ contents under pressure out through the nozzle sure to drop, resulting in improper operation in droplets of 0.1 to 50 microns. They are and larger droplets. Store and transport them presently available in a variety of sizes from in such manner that they will not discharge the disposable” soft drink” can size used by the accidentally.

60 Fogs and cause a fire. Know the cubic footage of the area being treated and the amount of fogging Fogs can be produced thermally or mixture to put into the space. Then you must mechanically. A mechanical fog generator is know how fast your fogger puts out the mixture. most often a mist machine adjusted to produce Record the information so that you do not have fog-sized droplets. Most fogs, however, are to recalculate if retreatment is required. produced thermally. Fogs and aerosols technically are Mists dispersions of droplets ranging from 0.1 to Mist particles or droplets range from 10 to 50 microns, with the preferred range of 80 microns in diameter and can be dispersed droplets thought to be five to 10 microns for using oil or water as a base. Since mists are greatest efficiency. Many formulations are generally larger particles than other types of produced for fogs or aerosol applications. Some space treatment, they settle out fairly rapidly. specify the range of particles or droplets to use Use mists in conjunction with a residual treat­ (i.e., none over 50 microns and 80 percent less ment for long-lasting control of crawling insects, than 30 microns). Fogs may be used to treat but apply them following the residual applica­ warehouses for stored product pests, cock­ tion. Mists like fogs are used more frequently roaches or other insects. There are many in warehouses. makes, models and sizes of thermal fog machines available. These machines break the Mist-producing applicators break up the pesticide into fine droplets with hot exhaust insecticide mechanically into fine particles using gases. The oil solution of an insecticide is low pressures and a high volume of air. The vaporized by the hot exhaust gases, and as the smaller units most commonly used inside are vapor is discharged into the cooler outside air, electrically driven at high speeds. Some force air it condenses into very fine droplets producing a and liquid through a hollow shaft and between fog. Some people believe heat causes some pairs of disks by centrifugal force. A blower on insecticide decomposition. This may be mini­ the same shaft blows across the outer edges of mized by using less volatile oils. Thermal fog the disks, shearing droplets off and into the generators sometimes produce a flame when airstream at high speed. Particle size depends started and, thus, should be started outdoors or generally on rotation speed, delivery rate and in a safe area. If a fogger ceases to function, viscosity of the insecticide solution or emulsion. take it outside to restart it. Others produce an airblast that sucks the spray mixture from the tank, shears it into a fine Thermal fogs may be used alone, indoors insecticidal mist and projects it for several feet. or along with residual applications for control­ ling crawling insects. Indoors, fog rarely pene­ Mist applicators are available in a wide trates into cracks and crevices unless air range of sizes and can be used to apply oil-based currents are running into such areas to carry sprays or water emulsions. They have low the fog with it. Fogs usually do not move against manpower requirements and can apply small cold exterior walls. amounts of toxicant to a large area in a short Thermal fogging can cause explosions. time. Oil-based mists can be ignited by an open Usually this is the result of having too high a flame but are generally considered less concentration of fog in the structure and hazardous than thermal fogs. Water-based mists operating near a spark or flame that ignites the have no fire or explosion hazards. When used explosive mixture. Turn off all pilot lights by outside, cars and windows may be spotted by the shutting off the main gas valve rather than indi­ insecticides, and shrubbery may be burned by vidual valves. Wait until the gas in the line has the oil if the machine is not properly operated. been used and the pilot lights go out. Ultra Low Dosage (ULD) The concentration of fog can be too high from overdosing or from pockets or accumulated ULD uses high concentrations of insecti­ fog material. Good practice and most labels call cide (as fine droplets) at reduced application for using 21 gallons of fogging compound per rates. A very high percentage of the droplets 50,000 cubic feet, which is well below the explo­ are produced in the range of one to 30 microns sive limit, but an open flame can ignite the oil with none exceeding 50 microns in size. Also,

61 the droplet size appears fairly uniform. tions for using fine droplet-dispensing machines Distribution and effectiveness depend on the may also be useful. production of very fine drops in much larger numbers than with conventional application • Maintain the equipment well. The engine methods. These very fine drops, however, are should run evenly at the proper speed, and more subject to drift and tend to deflect around keep it well tuned. The flow rate or pressure target insects instead of hitting and impinging must be correct. (sticking) on them. • Allow use only by an experienced operator trained in safe and effective use. There are many makes, models and sizes of • Keep insecticides and solvents at room ULD applicators available. Some have fixed temperature. Low temperatures increase nozzles while others have remote nozzle hose viscosity and cause larger droplets to form assemblies. They may be powered by electric resulting in poorer control and a tendency to motors, gasoline engines or by compressed create oil slicks on horizontal, hard-finished gases (pressurized aerosols). In the electric- surfaces. and gas-powered units, the insecticide is drawn • Keep temperatures of the area to be treated into the nozzle and forced out at high speed, above 50ºF. producing small droplets. Pressure in these • Direct the insecticide into harborage areas units usually is produced by a supercharger. for maximum penetration and greatest Follow the manufacturer’s directions to obtain contact (impingement) with the pests. the desired range of droplet size. Both oil- and • Reduce airflow and air currents in water-based formulations are available for use treatments area by closing doors and in this equipment. windows to allow droplets to stay in ULD treatments provide good flushing suspension longer. action for cockroaches but should be used after • Shut off the ventilating system. first making a residual treatment. • Turn off smoke alarms. • Do not use more than one gallon of oil Since ULD involves the use of higher than solution to 50,000 cubic feet of space. If normal concentrations and lower than normal using gasoline engines: Start engines and application rates, this information must appear generators outside if possible. Keep engine as a part of the labeling to avoid misuse of the mufflers, exhaust pipes and the hot tip of product. At this time, the number of insecticides the generator away from combustible mate­ registered for ULD use is limited. rials and items that might be damaged. The disadvantages of ULD in comparison to • If using oil-based materials: Extinguish all conventional space sprays are poor residual life, flames and pilot lights. Use only those dilu­ chemical slick if oversprayed, poor results in ents approved by the machine manufac­ ventilated areas, the necessity of wearing turer. Notify local fire authorities. Have a protective equipment, a certain degree of fire fire extinguisher handy. and explosion hazard compared to conventional • Use only materials and formulations space sprays and the necessity of applying at a registered for use in your application time when the area is unoccupied. If a gasoline- equipment. powered spray unit is used, the additional dis­ • Keep the treated area closed and secured for advantages of carbon monoxide and noise may as long as specified on the label. After the be a factor. Because droplet size is critical, main­ treatment and exposure period has been tain the equipment and operate at specific pres­ completed: sures and flow rates. ✓ Open doors and windows. ✓ The advantages of ULD include shorter Remove any seals. ✓ treatment time and lower fire and explosion Ventilate thoroughly (30 minutes or hazard than with foggers. Other more debatable longer) as specified on the label. advantages include deeper penetration, more ✓ Inspect and clean up. thorough flushing action and more effective use ✓ Remove warning signs. of the insecticide. Information provided by the ✓ Turn on utilities that were shut off, manufacturer for care and maintenance of making sure that all pilots are relit. equipment should be consulted. The following • Use after residual treatment if for crawling general considerations and safety recommenda­ insects.

62 • Follow label instructions. readily available. Consult this literature for • Follow safety precautions: instructions when you disassemble equipment ✓ Remove occupants, pets and birds. during maintenance or repair. ✓ Cover or remove plants and aquariums. ✓ Remove food or place it in tight All moving parts of fine droplet-dispensing containers. equipment should be routinely inspected, ✓ Cover food preparation surfaces or clean cleaned and lubricated if necessary. Give after treatment. particular attention to those parts that regulate ✓ Wear an approved respirator and calibration or droplet sizes to insure they are in goggles. good working order. ✓ Applicators should work in pairs and in Foggers and heat generators require special sight of one another in large buildings if attention. The high degree of heat in these the machine is operated indoors. machines causes a carbon formation from the ✓ Post warning signs at all entrances. insecticide formulation that must be removed Fine droplet-dispensing equipment requires regularly to prevent interference with the continuous maintenance, because the equip­ normal flow of insecticide through the machine. ment is costly and because it will not dispense Remove carbon immediately after each use correct particle sizes and dosages unless before it hardens or builds up into a thick layer. properly maintained. Heated carbon particles could dislodge and start a fire. It is especially important not to damage Keep instructional materials, diagrams and any portion of the heat chambers or any small other information supplied by the manufacturer orifices that may be present.

63 Respiratory Protection

Most applicators do not feel that inhalation (invisible to the naked eye), and their toxic of pesticides is a serious hazard, but it is next effects can be severe or harmless. Mechanical in importance to skin contact as a cause of filters are classified according to the protection pesticide accidents. Because the lungs have they provide. Most particulate filters are such a large (about 40 times larger than the approved only for dusts and/or mists. The skin) and highly absorptive surface area, even filters have an efficiency of 80 to 90 percent for small amounts of pesticide are hazardous 0.6-millimeter (mm) particles. Respirators because they are almost completely absorbed. approved for fumes are more efficient, The respiratory system does have defenses, but removing 90 to 99 percent of 0.6 mm particles. they are not 100 percent effective against toxic Mechanical filters load up with particulates as gases, vapors or particulates. Toxic vapors, they are used. As they do, they become more poisonous gases, dusts and mists that are efficient, but also become more difficult to extremely small in particle size (10 microns or breathe through. When a mechanical filter smaller) are a particular hazard as they are becomes difficult to breath through, it should easily inhaled. Application of insecticide be replaced. Respirators with mechanical filters sprays, dusts, mists or fogs in attics, crawl are commonly referred to as mechanical spaces, warehouses or other similar enclosed filter respirators or dust respirators. These situations can expose the lungs to small respirators may be desirable even though not particle sizes and vapors and, thus, require the required by the label if work is being done with use of some form of respiratory protection. mist and dust applications in attics, crawl Respirators should be worn as indicated on the spaces or other similar areas. pesticide label and whenever the application Sorbents are manufactured to remove a situation calls for it. specific chemical or group of chemicals. In Respiratory protective devices are of two contrast, particulate-removing filters remove basic types: (1) air-purifying or (2) air- particulates regardless of their composition. supplying. The pest control operator most Sorbents are available to remove specific commonly uses air-purifying respirators when organic vapors, acid gases and ammonia, protective devices are needed. However, some among others. These sorbents are used in individuals have difficulty breathing with air- chemical cartridge respirators. These respira­ purifying respirators. These individuals should tors, in addition to being equipped with filters use a respirator which supplies air from its to remove particulate matter, also have one or own supply or from outside. two chemical cartridges that remove toxic gasses and vapors by absorption. Each sorbent used in the cartridge has a maximum concen­ Air-Purifying Respirators tration use limit for that specific contaminant. Once the sorbent has been filled up with the Basically respiratory hazards can be contaminant, it will break through – that is, it broken down into two classes: particulates will allow the full ambient concentration of the (dusts and droplets) and vapors/gases. contaminant to enter the facepiece. This is in Particulates are filtered by mechanical contrast to the particulate-removing filters that means while vapors and gases are removed become more efficient as they fill up but harder by sorbents that react chemically with them. to breathe through. The sorbent volume in the Respirators using a combination of mechanical cartridges for these respirators is small and its and chemical sorbent will effectively remove lifetime is generally short. Chemical cartridge both hazards. These respirators are limited respirators are used for low concentrations and in their capacity to purify air by the size of short exposure periods. Some pesticide labels the cartridge or canister to remove the may specify on the label the need to wear a toxic substance. respirator of this type. Cartridge respirators Particulates can occur as dusts, fumes or are not suitable for use with fumigants. mists. The particle size can range from macro­ The cartridges are too small and they tend to scopic (visible to the naked eye) to microscopic leak around the face piece.

64 Gas mask or canister respirators are breathing apparatus. A full mask is attached equipped with canisters containing the sorbent to an air tank or to an oxygen-generating for removal of the toxic gasses and a filter. canister. Besides protecting the face from absorption, they contain more sorbent than cartridge Fitting Your Respiratory respirators so they may be used for higher Protection Equipment concentrations of toxicant and/or longer periods of exposure. These respirators are suitable for The most important factor in respirator use with fumigants. The canister or, more safety is that the unit fits correctly on the specifically, the sorbent in the canister must wearer’s face. If a respirator does not fit prop­ be specific for the type of fumigant being erly, then toxins are entering the lungs. A used. The canisters are color coded for the respirator should have a good, even seal and various fumigants. inhalation and exhalation valves that are func­ Cartridges and canisters have an expiration tioning correctly (see next section on care and date. They can be used up to that date as long as use for problem solving). they were not opened previously. Once opened, There are two types of fit tests: qualitative they begin to absorb humidity and air contami­ and quantitative. A qualitative fit test requires nants whether or not they are in use, and their a personal response from the individual being efficiency and service life decrease. tested. A test agent, such as isoamyl acetate (banana oil), saccharin aerosol or an irritant Approval of Air-Purifying smoke is used. Proper fit is evident when the wearer cannot smell the test agent. This test Respirators for Pesticides should take place during the training program and not at the work location. All respirators intended for use with pesticides must be approved jointly by the A qualitative test is easy to perform, Mine Safety and Health Administration requires little equipment, can be administered (MSHA) and the National Institute for by an inexperienced person and is relatively Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH). The low in cost. However, the test requires some Mining Enforcement and Safety Administration subjective response from the wearer. In addi­ (MESA) preceded MSHA, so approved respira­ tion, employers must maintain their own docu­ tors available today will have approval mentation on each employee’s test results numbers issued by MESA or MSHA. The because no other record of the test, such as a approval numbers beginning with the letters strip chart, is available. TC are assigned to all respirators approved by the agency. This number must be on the box The second type of fit test, the quantita­ containing the facepiece. Cartridges and filters tive, uses a test aerosol and an analytical approved for pesticides are necessary and must instrument to measure the amount of aerosol have the TC number affixed to them, also. that seeps into the mask. The facemask’s respi­ rator is fitted with a probe that allows a small air sample to be continually taken from the Air-Supplying Respirators interior of the mask. The air sample is then fed to an instrument that detects the amount of These respirators supply fresh, clean air test aerosol present. Particulate aerosol, which from an outside source or cylinder rather than is found in the facemask, is called leakage or purifying air at the location of use and may be penetration. Any leakage is indicated on a useful for pest control operators who have diffi­ strip chart. culty breathing with air-purifying respirators. This type of respirator is more frequently used A quantitative test is more precise than a with fumigants. There are two basic types. qualitative test and provides documentation of There are the airline masks, which supply air a good respirator fit; however, this test can be from the outdoors through a hose, using a expensive and uneconomical. The test also pump to pump the air through the hose to the requires an experienced operator and about mask. The other type is the self-contained 15 minutes.

65 There are also two tests that should be When you inhale, you create a partial performed daily to check for a proper respirator vacuum inside your respirator. This pulls air fit. These are tests of negative pressure and through your filter. It also pulls the exhaust positive pressure. These should be performed valve closed, preventing dirty air from several times daily after finding a properly entering there. fitting respirator by the quantitative or quali­ This exhaust valve(s) is mounted over an tative methods. According to Occupational opening(s) in the lower respirator body. As you Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) exhale, a pressure is created inside your respi­ regulations, the respirator should be worn for rator. This pushes the intake valve(s) shut and 10 minutes prior to performing any fit test. forces the exhaust valve(s) open, letting the The negative pressure fit check requires air escape. the wearer to inhale and hold his breath for Several conditions can create problems in 10 seconds, while the palms of the hands are using your respirator. If material builds up on placed over the inhalation valve openings. If the filter surface, the plugging will create a there are no leaks, the facemask should resistance as you try to breathe in. To correct collapse. If there is a leak, the mask’s position this problem, take a new filter from the supply can be shifted and the headband straps read­ package. Fold the filter carefully over the filter justed. If no air is leaking and the mask still fork, and insert the fork into the filter holder. does not collapse, the exhalation valve should Be sure that the edges of the filter are not be inspected. creased. The filter is held in place with a spring retaining clip. The positive pressure fit check requires the wearer to place the palm of the hand against The second problem is caused by a missing the opening of the exhalation valve. When intake valve. This will cause you to breathe in gently exhaling, the mask should bulge slightly and out through the filter, and the exhaled indicating no leaks. If there are noticeable moisture will cause the filter to plug quickly. leaks, and the mask still does not bulge, then Spare valves are available from the respirator the inhalation valves should be inspected for manufacturer. Clip a new valve onto the raised distortion and the facemask readjusted. retaining posts to solve this problem. This area of your respirator is usually wet from exhaled Care and Use of Respiratory moisture and sweat. Dust will collect here and Protection Equipment Filter and block a valve open, especially during below freezing weather. An exhaust valve could also Chemical Cartridge Respirators be blocked open by having an edge tucked into There are only three moving parts in many the valve opening. Correct this problem by respirators. These include a pair of soft rubber lifting the valve out of the opening. intake valves and a clear plastic or rubber Occasionally, a valve will become stiff and exhaust valve. allow dust to enter your mask. Obtain a spare A dust filter respirator is nothing more exhaust valve. It is installed by pushing out on than a mechanical filter. As air enters the unit a spring-loaded pin that raises the valve laden with dust, the dust is deposited on the retaining post. The rubber valve is then outer surface of the filter. The clean air passes stretched over the post. Inspect this part of through the filter and into your lungs. your respirator carefully, several times each day. Chemical cartridge respirators contain one or two cartridges with a filter on the outside to The facepiece cushion, made of soft, spongy remove dust and droplets. The cartridge rubber, is stretched over the respirator body. contains an absorbent to remove low concentra­ You can bend the body to adjust the fit for a tions of toxicants in the air. Cartridges should good seal against your face. Should you be be used that are designed for the chemicals you unable to get a good, comfortable fit with the are using. one type of respirator, then other types of respi­ rators are available. Most have soft rubber The intake valve is hinged on one side. It bodies that tend to mold easily against your swings in as you inhale and flaps shut upon face. Beards and long sideburns can interfere exhalation. with getting a tight facial seal.

66 In order for all these parts to function hanging on a hook somewhere to be contami­ properly, it is necessary for you to regularly nated. All respirators used with pesticides wash them in plain, warm water. Do not be must be approved jointly by MSHA and afraid to take your respirator apart for NIOSH. Make sure that your respirator has cleaning, and be sure to remove any dust build­ been approved by these government agencies. up you find around the exhaust valves. After All respirators have limitations. They do each use, taking five minutes for this washing not supply oxygen. All they do is filter particles will assure you that your respirator will do its or vapors out of the available air. job. When you have finished washing your respirator, it belongs in your locker, if you have Leave the area at once if you get dizzy, one, or it should be stored in its own box near become ill, or smell any contaminant. Follow this your working area. Respirators must not be left rule anytime you wear respirator protection.

67 Selected References and Study Material

Code of Federal Register 40 Parts 150 to 189.

List of Proprietary Substances and Nonfood Compounds: Authorized for use under USDA Inspection and Grading Programs. USDA-FSIS, Miscellaneous Publication Number 1419.

Insect and Mite Pests in Food: An Illustrated Key. Volumes 1 and 2. Agricultural Handbook No. 655. Superintendent of Documents U.S. Government Printing Office 1100 Commerce Street, Rm. 1 C46 Dallas, TX 75242

PCT DATA TRIO PCT 4012 Bridge Avenue Cleveland, OH 42113 800-456-0707 216-961-0364 FAX

American Institute of Baking 1213 Bakers Way Manhattan, KS 66502 913-537-4750

National Pest Control Association 8150 Leesburg Pike Suite 1100 Vienna, VA 22180 703-790-8300

Arkansas State Plant Board 1 Natural Resource Drive Little Rock, AR 72205 501-225-1598 Pesticide Laws and Regulations – http://www.plantboard.org/pesticides_laws.html

Oklahoma Cooperative Extension Service, 1995. Stored Product Management, Circular Number E-912.

Truman’s Scientific Guide to Pest Control Operations. Bennett, G.W., J.M. Owens, and R.M. Corrigan. 1997. Advanstar Communications, Inc. Cleveland, OH.

Handbook of Pest Control. Arnold Mallis. Insects Limited, Inc. Indianapolis, IN.

Pest Control Magazine Advanstar Communications, Inc. P.O. Box 6215 Duluth, MN 55806-9833

68 Glossary

Absorption: The process by which a chemical is Dermal Toxicity: Ability of a chemical to cause taken into plants, animals or minerals. injury when absorbed through the skin. Compare with adsorption. Diluent: Any liquid or solid material used to Adherence: Sticking to a surface. dilute or carry an active ingredient. Adsorption: The process by which chemicals Dilute: To make thinner by adding water, are held on the surface of a mineral or soil another liquid or a solid. particle. Compare with absorption. Directed: Aiming the pesticide at a portion of a Adulterated: Any pesticide whose strength or plant, animal or structure. purity falls below the quality stated on its Dose, Dosage: Quantity of a pesticide applied. label. Also, a food, feed or product that contains illegal pesticide residues. Emulsifier: A chemical that aids in suspending one liquid in another. Aerosol: An extremely fine mist or fog consisting of solid or liquid particles Emulsion: A mixture in which one liquid is suspended in air. Also, certain formulations suspended as tiny drops in another liquid, used to produce a fine mist or smoke. such as oil in water. Aggregation Pheromone: Chemical Exuvia(e): The cast skin of an arthropod. substances released to attract members of Excreta: Insect fecal matter (frass). the same species. The most commonly used Gregarious: Living in groups. is the confused flour beetle pheromone. Gradual Metamorphosis: development in Agitation: The process of stirring or mixing in which there are three life stages (egg, a sprayer. nymph and adult) and the nymphs resemble Anaerobic: Living in the absence of air. The the adults, live in the same environment and opposite of aerobic. have similar food .preferences. Animal Sign: The evidences of an animal’s Harborage: living areas for pests. presence in an area. Hard (water): Water containing soluble salts Aqueous: A term used to indicate the presence of calcium and magnesium and sometimes of water in a solution. iron. Bait Shyness: The tendency for rodents, birds Hydrogen-Ion Concentration: A measure of or other pests to avoid a poisoned bait. acidity or alkalinity, expressed in terms of Broadcast: Uniform application to an entire, the pH of the solution. For example, a pH of specific area. 7 is neutral, from 1 to 7 is acid and from 7 to 14 is alkaline. Carcinogenic: Can cause cancer. Immune: Not susceptible to a disease or poison. Concentration: The amount of active ingredient Impermeable: Cannot be penetrated. Semi­ in a given volume or weight of formulation. permeable means that some substances can Contaminate: To make impure or to pollute. pass through and others cannot. Complete Metamorphosis: Development Kairomone: chemicals involved in interspecific where there are four life stages (egg, larva, communication that is adaptively favorable pupa and adult). The immatures and adults, for the receiving organism and not the besides having different appearances, have emitting organism. different habitats and food preferences. LC50: The concentration of an active ingredient Corrosion: The process of wearing away by in air, which is expected to cause death in chemical means. 50 percent of the test animals so treated. A Crack and Crevice: Application in structures means of expressing the toxicity of a to cracks and crevices where pests may live. compound present in air as dust, mist, gas or vapor. It is generally expressed as micro­ Degradation: The process by which a chemical grams per liter as a dust or mist but, in the is reduced to a less complex form. case of gas or vapor, as parts per million Dermal: Of the skin; through or by the skin. (ppm).

69 LD50: The dose of an active ingredient taken by Soil Application: Application to the soil rather mouth or absorbed by the skin, which is than to vegetation. expected to cause death in 50 percent of the Soil Sterilant: A chemical that prevents the test animals so treated. If a chemical has an growth of all plants and animals in the soil. LD of 10 milligrams per kilogram (mg/kg), 50 Soil sterilization may be temporary or it is more toxic than one having an LD of 50 permanent, depending on the chemical. 100 mg/kg. Soluble: Will dissolve in a liquid. Life Cycle: The chain or sequence of events that occurs during the developmental life­ Solution: Mixture of one or more substances in time of an individual organism. another in which all ingredients are Mammals: Warm-blooded animals that nourish completely dissolved. their young with milk. Their skin is more or Solvent: A liquid that will dissolve a substance less covered with hair. to form a solution. Metamorphosis: Changes that occur during Spreader: A chemical that increases the area growth or development to the adult stage. that a given volume of liquid will cover on a Miscible Liquids: Two or more liquids that can solid or on another liquid. be mixed and will remain mixed under Spot Treatment: Application to a small area. normal conditions. Sticker: A material added to a pesticide to Mutagenic: Can produce genetic change. increase its adherence. Nocturnal: Performs most activity at night. Surfactant: A chemical that increases the Nymph: The immature stage in insects with emulsifying, dispersing, spreading and gradual metamorphosis. wetting properties of a pesticide product. Oral: Of the mouth; through or by the mouth. Suspension: Finely divided solid particles mixed in a liquid. Oral Toxicity: Ability of a pesticide to cause injury when taken by mouth. Synergism: The joint action of two or more Organic Compounds: Chemicals that pesticides that is greater than the sum of contain carbon. their activity when used alone. Organophosphate: A synthetic organic Target Pest: The pest at which a particular pesticide containing carbon, hydrogen and pesticide or other control method is directed. phosphorus; parathion and malathion are Tolerance: (1) The ability of a living thing to two examples. withstand adverse conditions, such as pest Pollutant: An agent or chemical that makes attacks, weather extremes or pesticides. something impure or dirty. (2) The amount of pesticide that may safely remain in or on raw farm products at time PPB: Parts per billion. A way to express the of sale. concentration of chemicals in foods, plants and animals. One part per billion equals Toxicant: A poisonous chemical. 1 pound in 500,000 tons. Trade Name: Same as brand name. PPM: Parts per million. A way to express the Vapor Pressure: The property that causes a concentration of chemicals in foods, plants chemical to evaporate. The lower the vapor and animals. One part per million equals pressure, the more easily it will evaporate. 1 pound in 500 tons. Vector: A carrier, such as an insect, that Predator: Any animal that destroys or eats transmits a pathogen. other animals. Viscosity: A property of liquids that determines Propellant: Liquid in self-pressurized pesticide whether they flow readily. Viscosity usually products that forces the active ingredient increases when temperature decreases. from the container. Volatile: Evaporates at ordinary temperatures Sex Pheromone: Chemical substances used to when exposed to air. facilitate mate location and mating. Most commonly used is the Indianmeal moth Wetting Agent: A chemical that causes a liquid pheromone. to contact surfaces more thoroughly.

70

Issued in furtherance of Cooperative Extension work, Acts of May 8 and June 30, 1914, in cooperation with the U.S. Department of Agriculture, Director, Cooperative Extension Service, University of Arkansas. The Arkansas Cooperative Extension Service offers its programs to all eligible persons regardless of race, color, national origin, religion, gender, age, disability, marital or veteran status, or any other legally protected status, and is an Affirmative Action/Equal Opportunity Employer.

AG1157-2-13RV