A Review of Grouper {Epinephelus spp.} and Seabass {Lates calcarifer! Culture In Thailand

NtwesRuangpanl and RenusYashh'o National lnstIute ot Coastal Aquaculure Songkhla, Thaland

Abstract

Seabass Lates calcarifer! and grouper Epinephelusspp.! arethe economicallyhigh-value food in Thailand. Seabasshave beenreared in pondsfor more than 60 yearsand groupershave been cultured in cagesfor about20 years. There are two systemsof marinefish culture in Thailand;cage cultureand pond culture. Cageculture is morepopular than pond culture. Theselling price for grouperis higherthan seabass with live grouperselling for $9.01-11.76/kgand seabass selling for $5.10-5.29/kg. The culture methods, nu trition and diseasesof these two fishes are reviewed in this paper. introduction ranging from 12-30ppt. Grouper cageculture is conductedin the coastalprovinces of south- The estuarinegrouper Epinephelusmalabaricus ern and eastern Thailand i.e., Satun, Krabi, Blochand Schneider!is commonly cultured in Trang, Phangnga, Rayong and Chanthaburi! Thailand. In its natural habitat, the is found Ruangpanitet al. 1986!. Themajority of grou- in coastaland marine waters,especially along per seedstock is obtained from the wild due to coral reefs. This fish is easily reared, grows unreliable and limited seedstock production quickly to a large size and provides white, ten- and nursery techniques Chen et al. 1977; der meat, It is currently being consideredfor Sakaresand Sukbantaung 1985; Ruangpanit et commercial production, but until the industry al. 19&8!, becomes reliable, local Thai farmers will remain the primary suppliers. Market demands for Seabass Lates calcarifer Bloch!, in Thai called grouper are high, and its meat is favored by pla-kapong khaw, is an economicallyimportant Asian consumers,especially in Hong Kong, food fish in Thailand and has many favorable Malaysia, Singapore, Taiwan and Thailand. characteristics for coastal . Seabass The market price for grouper is higher than is a euryhaline fish that tolerates changes from seabass.The price for live fish weighing 1.2-1.5 freshwaterto seawaterat salinitiesup to 35ppt. kg is $9.41-10.59each or $7.09-8.24/kg. Live Therefore, it is a suitable fish for aquaculture in fish weighing 500-1,000g cost $5.89-6.67/kg. estuaries,river mouths, inner bays and man- Dead fish at the marketable sizesof 500-800g grove areaswhere salinity conditions are unsta- sell for $3.92-4.13/kg Ruangpanit 1993!.June ble. Seabassis a fast-growing fish that attains 1994information shows that the price for live marketable size within one year or less, when fish weighing 1.2-1.3kg and 500-1,000g has culture conditions are suitable. For many increasedto $13.73-20,78/perfish and $7.84- years, seabasshave been cultured in ponds and 9.&0/kg. cages in the same geographic regions as grou- per i.e., Chachoengsao, Rayong, Nakhon Si Most hsh farmersculture grouper in net cages Thamorat, Songkhla, Pattani, Narathiwat, that are placed in coastal waters in salinities Krabi, Phangnga, Trang and Satun provinces!. Seabasshas a lower market value than grouper, " 25.5baht i US$ @4! but it is still higher than many other freshwater 168 Rvan anN and Yashfro

species. The price of live fish weighing 5C6-KO Table 47. Suitable water quality parameters g is$4.7'l/kg; deadfish of the samesize sell for for culturing grouper and seabass.tTookwinas $2.51-2.75/kg. Fish weighing more than 1 kg 1989!. command the lowest prices.

S1te Se1ect1an Selecting a suitable site is one of the most im- portant factors in successful grouper and seabass culture. Selection criteria are as follows Tookwinas and Charearnrid 1988!:

The water must be clean and clear, and salinity should range from 20-32ppt for grouper, Seabasscan be cultured in the sameconditions as grouper or in river mouths where salinity gradually hung in the natural grouper nursery grounds changesto brackish and even freshwa- along Songkhla and Patanee from October to ter during some parts of the year, For March. Grouper fingerlings hide in the traps, cage culture, water depth should be at and every two to three hours, fishermen lift the least 3 m and the tidal fluctuation traps to collect the fish with a scoop net. Fry should allow the water depth to be at collected by this method are small, about 1-2,5 least 2 m during low spring tides; cm. The fish are then transported to a middle Culture sites should be located in bays, man or broker who sells them to farmers or inlets, sheltered coves and inland seas, international export markets. It is necessaryto which are protected from wind, waves nurse these fry until they reach 7-10 crn, after and currents; which they can be transferred to cages for grow out. The site should be far from water pol- lution sources i.e., domestic, indus- The second grouper fry collection method im- trial and agricultural wastes and other plements a wooden or bamboo frame trap that environmental hazards!; is covered with a 0.5-mm net and set in coastal waters near mangrove areas. Larger wild fry, Water circulation should be suHicient .5-10 cm!, which are suitable for growing out, to improve poor water quality by are usually collected in these traps all year washing away organic waste materi- round; however, the peak collection season is als that often accumulate under net from May to December in the Andaman Sea cages. Minimum water quality pa- Tookwinas 1989!. Fish farmers must collect or rameters for fish culture are shown in buy grouper fry every day until they have Table 47. enough stock to culture. Before stoclang, the fry should be dipped in a 100-250ppm formalin solution for one hour to disinfect for ec- Seed Su 1 toparasites. Most grouper seedstock is obtained from the In 1994, seabassseedstock for growout came wild because hatchery production is still lim- from coastal area hatcheries in Thailand. The ited and unstable. There are two methods of seedstock are reared to 2-2.5 cm in concrete collecting grouper fry. The first method uses tanks and then transferredto ponds or nylon shelters constructed of dried twigs, which are Review of Grou er clnd Seabasa Culture in Ihc3lland 369

net cagesfor the nurserystage until they are Table 48. The composition of ingredients for 7.5-10cm. About two monthslater, the fish are 1 kg of juvenile grouper diet fRuangpanit transferredto growoutponds or cages. 1993!.

Grov er Nurse Methods Beforebeing released to the growoutponds or cages,wild and hatchery-rearedgrouper fry .0-2.5 cm! shouldbe nurseduntil theyreach 7.5-10cm, The nursery stageis done in both cementtanks and nylon net cages,but the cost is much cheaper in nylon net cagesbecause there are no tank construction costs or manual body weight. Formulateddiet ingredientsfor waterexchange efforts. Therefore, grouper fry grouper juveniles are shown in Table 48. are usually nursed in nylon net cages. Net Grouper fry can also be nursed in 2- to 5-ton cages are made of nylon nets that attach to capacitycement tanks in water 0.50cm deep. wooden, galvanized iron or bamboo frames Clean 15-30 ppt seawater is used to nurse the and kept afloat with styrofoam or plastic car- fry, and the water is aeratedthroughout the boys. The sizeof cageis 1 x2 x1 mwith a mesh nurseryperiod. Grouperfry arestocked at 500- size of 0.5 crn. 800fry/m . Food and feedingtn tanksis the Stockingdensity is approximately1,000 fry per samein net cages,and water exchangeis 50- cage,and grading must be done at least once a 100%per day. The bottom must be siphoned week during the nursery period to minimize daily to removeorganic waste and excessfood cannibalism. Graded fish are then stocked ac- from the tanks. The fry are nursedin tanksfor cordingto sizein oneof the threenursery net 40-50days until they are 6.5-7.5cm in length. cages. This method has increased the survival Survival is 61.67% Table 49!, Thesesize finger- rate of nursery-stagegrouper to over 75%.The lingscan be transferredto growoutcages and fry arestocked in nurserycages for abouttwo raised to market size. monthsbefore being transferredto growout cages. Seabass Nurse Methods During the larval and nursery stages,grouper Hatchery fry, 2.5-3.0cm long, are nursed in fry eat live feeds. To wean the fry onto a finely earthenponds, cement tanks or nylonnet cages minced fish or mysid shrimp meatdiet, the fish untilthey reach 7.5-'l0 crn. Then they are trans- are hand fed in the morningwhen they are ferredto cages for growoutto marketablesizes hungry. The idea is that the smell of the fish or Tables50 and 51!. The nurserymethods for shrimp meatwill attract the fry to the feed, On seabassin cementtanks and nylon net cagesis thefirst day,only a fewfish will beginfeeding thesame as for grouperfry. Theamount of feed on the fresh fish diet. However, within threeto varieswith size and ageof the fish Table52!. five days, the fish will become accustomed to the feed and can then be fed fresh fish or a Earthen pond seabassnurseries are concen- formulated diet. About 2-4% of the total diet is trated in the centralpart of Thailand,especially supplementedwith "premix,"which provides in ChachoengsaoProvince where there are both both vitamins and minerals.The supplementis freshwater and brackish water resources. This mixed well and left to sit for ~ minutes province has many salt farms, so it is suitable beforefeeding. The fish arefed twicea day,in for producing adult brine shrimp Artemia!, the morningand afternoon,at 8-10%of their which is the best feed for nursingjuvenile seabass.Freshwater fleas Moina sp.!, which 170 RLran nN and Yashiro

Table 49. Growth, survival and production of nursery-stage juvenile grouper fpinephe/us sp.! in 2 x 4 x 0.5-cm cement tanks Ruangpanit et al. 1988!.

Table 50. The growth and survival rate of nursery-stage seabass Lates caicarifer! fingerlings in 1.2 x 3 x 0.6-m fiberglass tanks Ruangpanit 1985!.

Table 51. Growth and survival rate of nursery-stage seabass in 1 x 2 x 1-m nylon net cages for 10 weeks. Stocking density: 300/m Chungyampin et aL 1983!. Review of Grou er and SeabQ55 Culture in Thaf land

Table 52. Amount of food given to grouper and seabass fry during the nurseryperiod [Ruangpanit 1985!.

are alsoavailable, are a suitablefeed for nursing Cageconstruction costs are lower than seabassinfreshwater pnds. Seabass nursery for ponds; pondsare 800-1,600m and 1 m deep and con- tain sluicegates for water inlet and outlet into Cagesare setm siteswith betterwater the tidal canal. The ponds should be cleaned and environmental conditions, ena- and dried before stockingseabass fry. Water bling farmers to stock fish at higher for the nurseryponds fresh or brackishwater! densitiesthan in ponds; is let in by openingthe sluicegate or by pump- The cageculture systemcan eliminate ing at hightide. All waterpasses through filter water managementproblems and de- nets to prevent fish and other undesirableor- creaseoperational costs. ganismsfrom entering the pond. To stimulate the growth of plankton phyto and zooplank- Floating Cages ton!, pH shouldbe adjustedto 8.0-8.2with lime. There are two types of cagesused for grouper Seabassfry, 1.5-2.5cm long,are stockedat 30-40 and seabassculture in Thailand, floating and fry/m or 50,000fry/1,600 m . The fry are fed stationarycages. Floatmgcages are suitablein live feeds MoirM sp, or adult brine shrimp! areaswhere the water is morethan 2 m deep duringthe firstweek and thereafter are mainly and the tidal fluctuationsare wide. They are fed fresh fish supplementedwith live feed. more popularthan stationarycages because About 10% of the 7-to 9-cm fry canbe harvested floatingcages are usually set in siteswith better 30 daysafter stocking. They will growto 9-11 environmental conditions, such as deeper cm within 60-70days, and the survivalrate is water, Cagespromote rapid water circulation, about 50% . are generallylocated at greater distancesfrom pollutionsources and can be stockedwith more Culture S stems fishthan stationary cages. In Thailand,floating cagesare mostly used on the west coast An- There are two typesof culture systemsused for darnan Sea!;however, they are also found on nurseryand growout of marine fishes.Seabass the east and southeastcoasts. Net cages are are cultured in either net cages or earthen hung on galvanized, wooden or bamboo ponds. Grouper are mostly cultured in cages, frames and kept afloat by styrofoam drums, thoughoccasionally they are culturedin ponds, plastic carboys or bamboo. The cage unit is stabilizedwith concreteweights at eachbottom corner and anchored to the substrate. Ca e Culture 5 stem There are three cage sizes used for brackish At present,brackish water fish are mostly cul- water fish culture: 3 x 3 x 2 m;3. 4 x 4 x 2 m; 3. and tured in cages. The advantagesof cagesover 5 x 5 x 2 m3 . The meshsize depends on the size pondsare as follows: of the cultured fish. A mesh size of 2.5 cm is 172 Ruan a nit and Yashtro

Table53. Investmentcosts for 5 x 5 x2-m galvanizedpipe frame floating net cages Tookwinas 1989!,

Table 54. Investmentcosts for 3 x 3 x 2-m wooden frame floating net cages Tookwinasand Charearnrid 1988!.

suitablefor initial stockingof9.0-cm fish. Three modifying stationarycages so they canbe setin hundred- to 400-gfish are transferredto a 4.0- deeperwater. The new cageframes are made cm mesh size until harvest. of steelbars covered with nylonnet. Thistype of cageis setunderwater, and the feedis passed The total constructioncost for galvanizedpipe through a 10-cmPVC pipe that is connectedto frame cages is $482.33and for wooden frame the cage.The advantageof this cageis its loca- cagesis $172.52.The construction cost per year tionin areaswith goodwater quality. This type is $147.06and $61.74,respectively Tables53 of cage is currently used on an experimental and 54!. basis. Stationary Cages Stationary cagesare fastened a tthe four corners Ca Culture ot Grou Durin Growout by wooden poles and do not move with tidal fluctuations. Stationarycages are usually setin Most grouper are cultured to marketable sizes in floating cagesranging frotn 3 x 3 x 2 m3 to 4 shallow areas where tidal fluctuations are less x 4 x 2 m . Fish farmers usually stock 9- to than 1 m,such as in SongkhlaLake, the eastern 10-cmgrouper fingerlings at densitiesranging provinces of Rayong,Manthaburi and Trad, 2 and southeastcoastal areas of Songkhla and from 20-30/rn or 10-16/m . The fish are Pattani. Stationarycages are the samesize as rearedin cagesfor sevento eight monthsuntil they reachmarketable sizes of 60CI4l30g and for the floating cages,but the 5 x 5 x 2 m3 size is 12-14mon ths to reach1,200-1,400 g, Presently, most popular. Presently, some fish farmers are Revfew of Grou er and Seabass Cvtfvre in Thailand 173

Tobie55. Resultsof grouperculture in I x l x 1.5-m net cagesat differentstocking densities Sakarasand Kumpang1987a; Sakaras and Sukbantaung1985J.

Theaverage value In the samerow that have a differentsuperscript alphabet are slgniflocmtlycffferent at P < 0.05. theprice for live grouperweighing 1,2-1.4 kg is highstocking densities than at 1owstocking $13.72-19.60each. Live 600- to 800-g fish cost densitiesbecause of thefollowing factors: me- $9.00-9.80/fish.Fish production per cage is 200 tabolicrates decrease at highstocking densities kg for 800-g fish, which is valued at $1,803.92 in cagesbecause fish in big groupsdo nothave and 300 kg per cagefor 1,2-kgfish, which is to swim against a strong current Tookwinas valued at about $3,411.76. 1989!;and high stockingdensity stimulates feedingtherefore, fish appetites are better than Growoutstocking densities depend on water at low stockingdensity Sakaras and Kumpang quality and environmental conditions of the 1988!. culture site. A site with sufficient water circu- lationand high, stable oxygen levels can main- tain stockingdensities up to 75/m Table 55!. Ca e Cuture af Seabass Durh Growout The optimumstocking density for cagedgrou- per is estimatedon the basisof dissolvedoxy- Fish farmersusually purchase9- to 11-cm gen budgets. Resultsshow that at a dissolved seabassfingerlings from nursery pond or cage farmers. The fingerlingsare stockedat 32- oxygencontent of 5.54 mg/L, the optimum 2 3 stockingdensity for grouperat an expected 40/rn in 5 x 5 x 2-m rearingcages with a harvestsize of 500 g is75-457/ rn and for 1,200 2.5am meshsize. After rearing for two or three g grouper it is 40-244/m Nabhitabhataet al. months,the fishreach 300-400 g andare trans- 1988!. ferredto 4-cmmesh cages. Density is adjusted to 500 fish/cage. The fish are reared for six or Trash fish, which includes sardines and other seven months, until they attain marketable small marine fish, is the main feed for cultured sizesof 700-900g, or for 18-20months when grouper in Thailand. The food shouldbe fresh, they reach 1,500-2,000 g Tookwinas and cleanand chopped prior to feeding in themom- Charearnrid1988!, However, 700- to 900-g fish ingand afternoon. The chopped pieces must be are preferred in the local markets, suitably sized to the fish's mouth size and fed slowlyto preventoverfeeding. Feeding should Stockingdensity is alsodependent on water be stoppedwhen the fish stopcoming to the quality and environmental conditions of the surface, which indicates that the fish have been culture site. Floatingcages can be stockedwith fed to satiation. Food conversionratios FCR! more fish than stationarycages if the site has in grouper culture vary with stockingdensity. good water circulationand oxygen levels Ta- FCRs range from 6.0-7.55:1 Thanomkiat 1987; ble 56!. Seabassfeeds and feedingregimes are Sakarasand Kumpang1988!. FCRis lowerat the sameas grouper culture, FCR rangesfrom 174 Rucln a nit end Yashiro

Table 56. Growth of seabass Lates calcarifer! cultured at different stocking densities in 1 x 1 x 1.5-m cages Tookwinas 1989!.

6.7-7.0:1 and survival rates for seabass are about Pond Culture S stem 80-95% in normal conditions. The fish pond culture systembegan 60 years Cage Culture Management ago in Thailand, long before the cageculture Cagesshould be checked once or twice a month system was practiced. Seabasspond culture to ensurethey are not damagedby fouling or- can be done in fresh and brackish water areas, ganisms, such as crabs or flotsam. The mesh but grouper can only be cultured in brackish should be cleanedor changedmonthly, there- water ponds. Some shrimp farmers converted fore, fish farmersshould have sparenylon net their ponds for fish culture, and others made cages. Manging cages also allows farmers to modifications by digging deeper m depth! monitor the fish populations and their health. ponds. In high density grouperand seabasscages, par- Pond Construction and Layout tial harvesting should be done to eliminate Seabassand grouper ponds are constructed the lossesdue to cannibalism.Rotating both stock- same way as shrimp ponds. The size of seabass ing and harvestingtimes can increasegross rearing ponds varies from 0.4-3.0ha and 50-60 production and supply continuousincome. cm deep,but smallerponds are more costly and High levels of organic waste materials Table inhibit fish growth Sirikul 1982!. Thailand's 57! are found in areas where culture activities Department of Fisheries 993! recommends have been going on for three years or more. that suitable fish ponds should have an 800- to Benthic organisms such as polychaetes bloom 1,600-m area and be about 1.5-2.0 m deep be- in these locations. It should be noted that the cause the larger ponds are difficult to stock at decomposition process occurs in bottom sedi- one time with the required number of fish. mentsand decreasesthe dissolved oxygen con- The h& pond should have inlet and outlet tent of thewater column,especially at night and water gates. Presently, some fish farmers use during low tide periods. Fishbecome stressed, 16- to 2&em PVC pipes to fill and drain the weak and susceptible to diseasesor infection. pond. A 3- to 6-m width dike is alsonecessary Therefore,so that polluted sitesmay naturally to retain fish pond water. The pond bottom recover, the cages should be moved to new should be slightly sloped toward the outlet, culture areas every one to two years. which is 30-40cm deeperthan the pond edgeto facilitate drainage, The dike should be com- pacted,strong and large enoughto accommo- date transport vehicles. Review of Grou er and Seaboss Culture in Thailand 175

Table 57. Average sedimentciuality from the groupernet cage culturearea of KhlongPakbara, Langu Dishict,Satun Provinceduring the October 6, 1993 rainyseason. Area 1; outsidecage area n=5!; Area 2: net cage age lessthan 3 years old n=3!; and Area 3: net cage age more than 3 yearsold n=4!. Modifiedfrom: Songsangjindaet al. 1993!.

Parameter Aver SecIrnent Qual from the Substratum

Area 1 Area 2 Area 3 Mean a SD' Mean a SD' Mean x SD'

Nitrite - N 0.01 a 0.008 0,149 + 0.149 0.288 x 0,330 Nitrate - N 0.305*0.117 0.290 *0.290 0.930 a 9.11

Total Ammonia N 2.64 x 0.48 3.80 s 1,87 12,62 + 15.87 Inor anic-N 3.02 a 0.52 4,24 a2.08 13.84 a 17.3 Or anic-N 133.36 a 60,65 206.20+ 53.90 704.87 4 245.93 Total Nit 136,39 + 60,72 210.44 a 55,88 718. 72 *245.58 Reactive - P 0.343 a 0.087 1.24 a 0,45 5.19 x 5.20 Total - P 13,93 R 6.62 32.96 *41,32 72.66 m 7.05

I nition Loss 9L! 0.78 % 0.21 1,83 a1.43 8.04 s 5.65

Total Sul hide 0.19 a 0.17 1.74 11,82 9.55 x 8.16 N = Nitrogen, P = Phosphorus SD = Standard Deviation

Pond Preparation 30% daily water exchange. Partial selection Pondpreparation should be donebefore cultur- and market harvests can be done after six ing any fish. The pond is flooded two to three monthsof growth in the ponds. Yields of 0.88 times before cleaning and then drained at low kg/m ,400 kg/rai ! canbe obtainedwhen tide. During cleaning, mud and other debris the harvestis conductedeight monthsafter areremoved, and the bottom is exposed to sun- pond stocking Department of Fisheries1993!. light for two days to one week. Lime concen- Stockinglarger seabass produces greater quan- trationsof 60-120 g/m 2 areused to disinfect and titiesof fishand decreasesthe cultureperiod. Juvenileseabass weighing 130 g arestocked in kiHpests that may still linger on the bottom. At 2 hightide, water is pumpedinto the pond up to brackish water ponds at 5 individuals/m, the 50-cm level, and chemicaland organicfer- They grow to a marketablesize 00 g! within tilizers are added to promoteplankton growth. four months,yielding 2.2 kg/m at an 84% After the plankton blooms, the water level is survivalrate, The FCRis 7.2:1 Patarapinyoet increasedto 1 m, and juvenile fish are released al. 1987!. into the pond. Freshwater pond culture is also done in the central part of Thailand i.e., Prajoubkirikhan Seabaml Pond Culture and Chachongsaoprovinces!. Juvenile seabass Generally,2,000-4,000 seabass fingerlings rang- 2 weighing 200-300 g are stocked in '1,600-m' 2 in~from '10-15 cmare stocked inprepared 1,600 ponds at a density of 2-5 individuals/m and m ponds. The fingerlings are fed trash fish, rearedfor aboutfive monthsor until they attain such as sardines and other smaH marine fish, a marketablesize, Harvestable yields are 1-1.25 andthe feeding procedure is the same as in cage kg/m . culture. Water exchangeis dependentupon the 1 re > 1600rrr pond water quality, but usuaHythere is a 20- 174 Ruan adult and Yashlro

Seabassare harvested by seine and the largest threadfin bream Nemipterushexodon!, fringe- fish are the first to be selected.Complete pond scale sardinella Sardinellafrmbriata! and round drainage can be done when only a few fish scad Decapterusrusselh!, as feed for seabassand remain in the pond. grouper. The fish are minced,chopped, cut or fed whole, depending on the size of the cul- To obtain good market prices,the fish must be tured fish. Trash fish are nutritionally unbal- as fresh as possible. Usually, pondwultured anced due to high protein levels and vitamin seabassare sold dead and preservedon ice or deficiencies,especially vitamin C. During the in refrigeratedcold-storage trucks. The price nursery period, when only trash fish is fed, for 400- to 800-g seabassvaries from $1.96-3,14, some minerals are also lacking. Sardines,for with both smaller and larger sizes bringing example, generally contain enough essential lower prices. fatty acids, but other fish may not supply Grouper Pond Culture enough, As a result, seabass will show red bodysymptoms. If the trashfish spoils, some Grouperare usuallycultured in cages,but a few proteins may degrade and convert to hista- farmers converted failed shrimp ponds for mines, ammonia and hydrogen sulfide; fat grouper culture. Various pond sizesare used, propertiesalso may decreaseand change the includinq3,200 rn, 6,400m, 8,000m and effectiveness of vitamins and minerals such as 12,800m . Forexample, 2.5-cm grouper fr~ vitamins A, B, C, D, E, choline and niacm. Aside have been nursed in fine mesh ,5 cm! 400-m 2 from theseproblems, spoiled fish may intro- netcages ata density of 25 individuals/m . The duce disease to the cultured fish. Because of 2 nurserycagesaresetin the6,400m pond. The these problems, nutritionists have developed fishare fed live adult brine shrimp and minced ways to increase the efficiency of seabassand fish. After one month in the nurserycages, fish grouper feed. reach4-6 cm. They are releasedinto the bigger pond at an approximate density of I.5 individu- Biologists from the National Institute of Coastal als/m 2 . Partial harvest begins about 14 months Aquaculture NICA! studied seabassnutrition later with 1.2-1.3 kg fish that are selected for from 1988-1993and reported on many nutri- export. They are sold to Taiwan for $14.90- tional requirements. Buranapanidgit et al. 20.39/fish. The FCR is 3.6:1, and the survival 988! reported the need for at least 1.72%n-3- rate is about 40%. Total production can reach HUFAs in the diet for normal growth in juve- 4,608 kg/pond. The income is about nile seabass.Chungyampin et al. 990! showed $68,668.24/pond. various fish oils cod liver, tuna, freshwater ciclid, etc,! combined with soybean oil can be As in seabassculture, stocking larger fish pro- usedin the seabassdiet assupplementary fatty duces greater quantities of meat. Juvenile acids. Boonyaratpalin et al. 993a! demon- grouper, 300-500g, are trapped in the wild and strated that vitamins B1 and B2, pantothenic stocked at 1.5 individuals/m in an 8,000 m acid and inositol deficiencies lead to poor pond. The fish are reared to a marketable size growthand high mortality. .2-1.3 kg! within 10 months. Productioncost is 2,160kg/ rai, and the survival rate is 75%.The Development of a seabassfeed was also done FCR is 3,2:1, and the income is $32,188.24/rai at Rayong Brackish Water Fisheries Station fish farmers personal communication 1994!. from 1987-1990.At first, mixed diet moist pel- lets, comprising fish and soybean meal mixed with moist binders, were compared with trash Feed and Nutrltlon fish Sakaras and Kumpang 1987b!. Results The majority of fish farmers use trash fish, such showedthat due to a lackof essentialfatty acids as yellow stripe trevally Selaroidesleptolepis!, in the prepared diet Table 58!, fresh trash fish was better than moist pellets. Feeding fre- Review of Grou er and Seabass Culture in Thailand

Table. 58. Comparison of production statistics Table 59. Comparison of production statistics for seabass fed trash fsh and prepared moist for seabassfed trash fish and prepared dry pellets Sakarasand Kumpa~ t 987b!. pellets.

quencystudies in cagesshowed that feeding to satiation-7% of total body weight! onceevery other day is better than feeding daily and can extruded, minced, chopped and lower the feed quantity by 31,9% FCR3.06:1! sized as required; Sakarasand Kumpang 1987a!.Dry pelletsare Formulated feed: also acceptedby seabass Sakaras 1990! and The ingredients are the same as haveproven to havebetter overall performance powderedfeed, but alphastarch is than trash fish Table 59!. used as a binder instead of trash Threekinds of feedhave been developed for fish. The formulated feed is a semi- seabassand introduced to farmers, who select moist pellet that should be chilled them dependingon availability Wannagowat and used within two days of pro- 1994!. duction. Dry pelletscan be kept for aboutone month in a dryplace that Trash hsh mixed with vitamins and is safe from and . minerals: Most grouper farmers in Thailand also feed The recommended vitamin/min- their fish trashor fresh fish becauseof the high eral ratio is 20 kg:50 g. Vitamins protem levels that are suitable for cannibalistic and mineralsmust be preparedbe- species. The 50%protein level is reported to fore hand by mixing vitaminswi th give maximumweight gain for E. tauvina Teng rice bran or flour at a ratio of 1:10 et al. 1977;Sukhawongs et al. 1978!. Chua and vitamin.rice bran! for a homoge- Teng 982! also studied feeding frequencyef- nous mixture. If seabassdisplay fects on E. tauvirra. Their results were similar to symptoms such as red fish and de- Sakaras'990! study on seabass.Both studies creasedappetite, it implies a fatty suggestedthat feedingfish onceevery two days acid deficiency.In thiscase,1%cod will maximize feed intake and efficient food liver oil is mixed in the feed for at utilization. Boonyaratpalinet al. 993b! dem- least one week; onstrated the need for vitamin C in E. mala- Trash fish mixed with powdered for- baricus diet and used a formulated seabass feed mula feed: successfully for this species. In general, all Formulated powder is prepared, three kinds of prepared seabassfeeds can be Table 60! kept in plastic bagsand used for grouper Wannagowat1994!. Slow- put in a dry place. Formulated sinking commerciallyextruded feedsare cur- powder is first mixed with vitamin rently available in some Asian countries. These C and then mixed with trash fish at feeds are believed to contain more that 73% the ratio of 3:2. The mixed feeds are crude protein and 6% and fat, and less than 16% Ruan anN and Yashiro

Table 60. Recommended formulated feeds for seabass Department of Fisheries 1993j.

lf fish meal feeds contain 6' protein during the growout period, put only 45'mfish meal in the formula. ash, 3% fiber and 12% moisture Boonyarat- gal diseasewas also reported in freshwater palin 1993!. Panbankaew and Sakaras 990! seabass culture but not in brackish water showed that juvenile grouper 1.7-71.6 g! can Ruangpan 1985!, Various bacterial diseases, feed on dry pellets and that FCR and feeding including Aeromonasspp,, Flexibacferspp., Vi- rates were better than using fresh fish and semi- brio spp. and Streptococcussp. were identified in moist formulated feed, FCRs were 1.22, 5.03 sick fish Danayadol 1984;Ruangpan 1985; Di- and 3.98;and feeding rateswere 2.99%,11,11% rekbusarakom and Danayadol 1987!. Lympho- and 8.81%for 17 dry pellets,semi-moist formu- cystis and kidney disease,which are caused by lated feeds and fresh fish, respectively. The feeding spoiled trash fish, were also docu- FCRof trashfish for six months of groupercage mented Limsuwan et al. 1983;Danayadol and culture has been reported as high as 8.82:1at Direkbusarakom 1987!. In 1993, a new viral stocking densitiesof 30, 45 and 60 individu- diseaseappeared in 5-7 kg seabassbroodstock als/m Sakarasand Sukbuntaung1985! and as in Southern Thailand Danayadol et aL 1994!. low as 4.8:1 when stocking density was in- The fish were pale, lethargic and anorexic. creased to 125 individuals/m Sakaras et al Some had excess abdominal fluid and some 1990!. Resultsshow no differencesin growth rested at the surface and died within two or and survival rate, but production yields were three days of infection. Presentknowledge and higher with increased stocking densities Table experience in viral diseasetreatments for grou- 6'I!, per and seabassare varied and fragmented. Ruangpan 985! reported that ciliate protozo- Diseases and Parasites ans are the most offensive parasites that cause high mortality in juvenile and adult seabass. Diseases are a major cause of nursery and These protozoans always attack 10- to 20-day- growout mortality and pose the principal con- old fry and two-to three-month-oldjuvenile straint to the future developmentof grouper seabass.There are five groups of protozoans: and seabassculture. About 10 yearsafter suc- cessful seabassseedstock production began in 1974, many diseaseswere reported in juvenile seabassweighing more than 200 g. Some fun- Review ot Grou er chnci Seabasa Culture in ThaBand 119

Table61, Groupercage cultureat variousstocking densities over a six-monthperiod.

Sakaras and Sukbuntaung 1985 Sakaras and Kumpang 1987a Sakaras et al. 1990

IcthyoPthiriohhs; genic trematode. It attaches to the gills and sucks blood from the host. Parasitic crusta- CryptoCaryorh- Occurs in fresh and ceans sometimes cause more than 70% mortal- brackish water and causes "white ity in small cage culture. Seabassin Chant- spoY' or "ich". Fishattacked by cryp- aburi, Rayong,Prajoubkirikhan and Songkhla tocaryon parasites will have small were reported to be attachedby the copepods white spotson theskin, fin and tail tips Cahgussp. and Ergasilhhssp. in the beginningof and along the body surface. In some the rainy season.The isopod, Aeghh sp., was also cases, fins rot and scales become de- reported to causehuge cage culture lossesdur- formed. Weakened fish are infected ing the rainy season Ruangpan1985!. by bacteriaand die soon. The proto- zoa will also attach to gill filaments, which disrupts normal respiration Prodvctlon and Marketin function. To compensate,sometimes the fish have to swim to the surface for Grouper and seabassare more expensivethan air; other cultured marine fish species;therefore, the demand is rather limited. However, Trichodina- This protozoan attacks fin- seabassis usually sold in local markets, and the gerling and juvenile hsh gilis, Af- supply is adequate.Seabass is alsoexported to fectedfish will have pale gills and ex- neighboring countries such as Malaysia and cess mucus; Singapore.Live grouper is mostly exportedto Hong Kong and Taiwan by air. The income Epistylis- This protozoanattacks fresh- from grouper culture is much higher than from waterwultured seabassby attaching seabassculture. The net income of grouper and its stalks to the hosts' skin, gills and seabassculture per cage and per year under eyes; normal conditions is presented in Table 62!. 00Ckhhihhm- This flagellatedprOtozoan The production of grouper and seabassfrom causesa yeUowish velvet skin disease. seven principal fish culture provinces is Infected gills become swollen and fuse 2,952.25 tons worth about 504.45 million baht togethercreating a darkreddish color. about US$19.78million! Table 63!. The nonprotozoan parasite that causesthe most juvenile and fingerling mortality is a mono- 180 Ruan anN and Yashiro

Tabie 62. Annual production costs and economics of grouper and seabass culture in Thailand.

Table 63. Estimated production and value of grouper and seabasscage culture May-June 1994 in seven principle fish culture provinces!,

- Groupercage culture x 3x 2 m ! production250 kg/cage: Price$9.80/kg. Seabasscage culture x 5x 2 m ! production500 kg/cage: PriceS3.13/kg.

Marine Fish Culture Constraints of seabassis ratherhigh. Thesefactors prevent expansion into international Marine fish culture in Thailand is hindered by markets, and limit seabass culture in a numberof constraintsincluding, insufficient Thailand. grouper seedstocksupplies, seabass prices on international markets, feed costs and diseases. Feed is another major constraint to seabassand grouper culture. At pre- Though propagatio~is successful,fry senttrash fish is stiHthe only feedstuff production is limited due to low sur- used in large-scaleculture operations, vival rates. Becausecollecting seed- but the supply is insufficient and un- stockfrom the wild is expensiveand stable. Though the artificial feed does not provide stable supplies, study on seabassand grouper has large-scalegrouper culture is notpos- been successful, the cost of artificial sible. Seabass seedstock are abundant feed is rather high especially for because hatcheries can produce seabass culture. The use of commer- enoughfry for culturing. cial and artificial feeds has not been The price of seabasson the interna- adopted by the average farmer, so the tional market is low and the demand demand for its production is still low, is ratherlimited, while productioncost Review of Grou er and Seabass CMNvreln Thailand 1BI

Diseasesconstrain the developmentof Mua, T.E. and S.K.Teng. 1982. Effectof food grouper and seabassculture. Because ration on growth, condition factor, food con- the samecage culture areasare used versionefficiency and net yield of estuary for manyyears at a time,organic waste grouper E. salrnonoidesMaxwell! cultured in accumulatesunder the cageand pol- floating net cages.Aquaculture. 27: 273-283. lutesthe surroundingarea. As a result of environmental problems, the fish Chungyampin, S., M. Boonyaratpalinand S. are subjected to stress and decreased Ronra. 1990. Experiment on various disease resistance. Diseases, there- sourcesof lipid in seabasspellets. Proceed- fore, may result in significant eco- ing the seminaron Fisheries1990, Depart- nomic and production losses. mentof Fisheries,Bangkok, Thailand. pp. 308-316, In Thaiwith Englishabstract!.

Nerature Cited Chungyampin,S., C. Chanchuglin,B. Sirikul, S. Boonyaratpalin,M. 1993. Nutritional require- Techanarawongand W. Watanakul. 1983. ment of grouper Epinephelussp.!. In: Pro- Experimenton rearing 2- to 4-inch seabass ceeding of Grouper Culture, November Latescalcarifer! at differentdensities. In: 30-Dec.1, 1993. Songkhla, Thailand. p. 50-55. Annual Report 1983. National Institute of Coastal Aquaculture, Songkhla, Depart- Boonyaratpalin, M., J. Wannagowat and C. ment of Fisheries,Thailand. pp. 72-80. In Borisut.1993a, Effect of vitamin Bl, B2,pan- Thai!. tothenicacid and inositol deficienciesin ju- venile seabass Lates calavifer!. Technical Chungyampin,S., B. Sirikul, C. Chanchuglin,S. Paper No. 1/1993. National Institute of Techanarawong and W, Watanakul. 1983. CoastalAquaculture, Department of Fisher- Nursing seabasslarvae in net cagesfrom ies,Thailand. pp. 12. In Thaiwith English 1.5-5cm with different initial stockingden- Abstract!. sity. In: Annual Report1983, National In- stitute of Coastal Aquaculture, Songkhla, Boonyaratpalin, M., J. Wannagowat and C. Department of Fisheries. p. 54-71. In Thai!. Borisut. 1993b.L-ascorbyl 1-2 phosphate- Mg as a dietary vitamin C sourcefor grou- Danayadol,Y. 1984.Study on preventionpro- per. Presented at the Seminar on Fisheries, phylactics and treatment of diseases in 1993,Depot of Fisheries,Thailand. 16- seabass. Annual Report, 1984. Songkhla 17Sept. 1993. In Thaiwith Englishabstract!, FisheriesStation, Departmentof Fisheries, Thailand, pp. 143-152. In Thai . Buranapanidgit, J., M. Boonyaratpalin, T. Watanabe, T. Pechmance and R, Yashiro. Danayadol, Y. and S. Direkbusarakom,1987. 1988. Essentialfatty acid requirementsof The diseasesof grouper Epinephehcsmala- juvenile seabass Lates calcarifer!. Technical baricus Bloch & Schneider!. Contribution paper No. 3/1988. National Institute of No. 1/1987. National Institute of Coastal CoastalAquaculture, Songkhla Thailand. Aquaculture,Kao Saen Soi 1 MuangDistrict, pp. 21. In Thaiwith Englishabstract!. Songkhla, Thailand. 6 pp. In Ttuu!.

Chen, F.Y., M. Chow, T.M. Chao and R. Lirn. Danayadol, Y., S. Direkbusarakom and S. Boon- 1977.Artificial spawningand larval rearing yaratpalin.1994. Epizootichaematopoietic of grouper Epinephelusbmvina Forskal! in necrosis, a new viral disease in seabass Singapore.J. Pri. Ind. 5: 1-21. spawner Lates calcarifer! cultured in Thai- land. Technical Paper No. 6/1994. National 182 Rvan anit and Yashiro

Institute of Coastal Aquaculture, Songkhla. Ruangpan, L. 1985. Diseasesand parasites 12 pp. In Thai with English abstract! found in seabasscage culture. Technical Pa- per No. 1/85 January 1985, Coastal Department of Fisheries. 1993. Manual for Aquaculture Research Subdivision, Brack- brackish water fish culture. Department of ish Water Fisheries Division, Department of Fisheries, Ministry of Agriculture and Coop- Fisheries,Thailand. 16 pp. In That!. erative, Thailand. 38 pp. In That'!. Ruangpanit, N. 1985. Final report Besut inte- Direkbusarakom, S. and Y. Danayadol. 1987. grated fisheries development project Malay- Diseases of seabass caused by non- sia, Tanjong Demong Hatchery-Besut, haemolyticStreptococcus sp. Technical Paper Ma la ysia. Consultant,FI: No. 6/1987. National Institute of Coastal GCP/MAL/009/CAN. pp. 11-17. Aquaculture, Songkhla, Department of Fisheries,Thailand. 11 pp. In Thaiwith Eng- Ruangpanit, N. 1993. Technical manual for lish abstract!. seed production of grouper Epinephelus malabaricus!. National Institute of Coastal Limsuwan, C., S. Chinabhu t and Y. Danayad ol. Aquaculture, Songkhla, Department of 1983, Lymphocystis in seabass Lates cal- Fisheries,Thailand, 46 pp, carifer!. TechnicalPaper No. 21. National Institute of Freshwater Aquaculture, De- Ruangpanit, N., P. Bunliptanon, T. Pechmanee, partment of Fisheries, Bangkhen, Bangkok, P. Arkayanont and J. Wannakowat. 1988, Thailand.6 pp. In Thaiwith Enghshabstract!. Propagation of grouper Epinephelusnrala- baricus! at National Institute of Coastal Nabhitabhata, J., R. Prempiyawat, K. Klaok- Aquaculture, Songkhla. Technical Paper liang and S. Kabinrum. 1988. Estimation on No. 5/1988, National Institute of Coastal optimum stocking density of grouper Aquaculture, Songkhla, Department of Epinephelustauvina Forskal! in cageson the Fisheries,Thailand. 16 pp. In Thaiwith Eng- basis of dissolved oxygen budget Pang-rat lish abstract!. River. Rayong Brackish Water FisheriesSta- tion, Brackish Water Fisheries Division, De- Ruangpanit,N., S.Maneewong, T. Tattanon,P. partment of Fisheries,Thailand. 27 pp. In Kraisingdecha,P. Arkayanont and S. Ro- Thai with English abstract!. janapitayangul. 1986. Preliminary study on rearing grouper fry Epinephelus rnala- Panbankaew, S. and W, Sakaras,1990. Experi- baricus!. In.' Report of Thailand and Japan rnent on sea grouper Epinephelusmala- Joint CoastalAquaculture Research Project, baricus!with dry pellet. Technical Paper No. No. 2. National Institute of Coastal 38/1990. Rayong Brackish Water Fisheries Aquaculture, Songkhla, Thailand. pp. 35- Station, Brackish Water Fisheries Division, 38. Department of Fisheries, Thailand. 17 pp. In Thai with English abstract!. Sakaras,W. 1990. Experiment on seabass Lates calcarrferBloch! cultured in cageswith dry Patarapinyo, W., K. Silapajarn and J. Nugranad. pellet TechnicalPaper No. 5/1990. Rayong 1987, Experiment on rearing of seabass Brackish Water Fisheries Station, Coastal Lates calcariferBloch! in earthen ponds. Aquaculture Division, Department of Fish- TechnicalPaper No. 44/1987. Prachuabk- eries, Thailand. 15 pp. In Thai with English hirikhan Brackish Water Fisheries Station, abstract!. Brackish Water Fisheries Division, Depart- ment of Fisheries, Thailand. 7 pp. In Thai Sakaras,W. and P. Kumpang.1987a. Effect of with Englishabstract!. stockingdensity on growth and production Review of Grov er and Seabass Culture in Tholland

of estuarygrouper Epinephelustauvina For- Songsangjinda, P,, P. Na-anan and D. Tanvilai. skal!,cultured in cages.Technical Paper No, 1993. Water and sediinentquality in grou- 3/1987. Rayong Brackish Water Fisheries per cageculture areaat Klong Pakbara, La Station Brackish Water Fisheries Division, ngu District, Satul Province. In: The Pro- Departmentof Fisheries,Thailand. 24 pp. In ceedingof GrouperCulture, Nov. 30to Dec. Thai with English abstract!. 1, 1993. National Institute of Coastal Aquaculture,Songkhla, Thailand and Japan Sakaras,W. and P. Kumpang. 1987b. Com- InternationalCooperation Agency. p. 112- parativestudy on growth and productionof 119. seabass Lates calcarifer Bloch! cultured in net cageswith freshwater and mixed diet. Tech- Sukhawongs, S., N, Tanakumchep and S. nical PaperNo. 14/1987. RayongBrackish Chungyainpin. 1978. Feedingexperiment Water Fisheries Station Brackish Water Fish- on artificial diet for grouper Epinephelustau- eries Division, Department of Fisheries, vina! in nylon cages. Annual Report, Thailand. 14 pp. In Thai with Englishab- SongkhIaFisheries Station, Departmentof stract!. Fisheries,Thailand. pp. 103-117 In Thai!.

SakarasW. and P, Kumpang. 1988. Growth Teng, S.K., T.E. Chua and P.E. Lim. 1977. Pre- and production of brown-spotted grouper liminary observationon the dietary protein Epinephelus tauviria Forskal! cultured in requirementof estuarygrouper Epinephelus cages. Rayong Brackish Water FisheriesSta- tauvina Forskal! cultured in floating net tion Brackish Water Fisheries Division De- cages. In: Grouper Abstracts, Brackish partment of Fisheries,Thailand. 17 pp. In water Aquaculture Information System, Thai!. SEAFDEC,Philippines, 1988. 60 pp.

Sakaras,W. and S.Sukbuntaung. 1985. Experi- Thanomkiat, T, 1987. Culture of grouper in ment on grouper Epinephelustauvina For- floating net cage with artificial diets. Tech- skal! in cages with different stocking nical Paper No. 26/'1987, Phuket Brackish densities. Technical Paper No. 1/1985. water FisheriesStation. pp. 17. In Thai!, Rayong Brackish Water Fisheries Station, BrackishWater FisheriesDivision, Depart- Tookwinas,S. 1989. Review of growout tech- ment of Fisheries,Thailand, 28 pp. In Thai niques under tropical conditions: experi- with Englishabstract!. enceof Thailand on seabass Lutes calcarifer! and grouper Epinephelusmalabaricus!. Ad- Sakaras, W., S. Sangpradab and Y. Soodmee, vancesin Tropical Aquaculture, Aquacop, 1990.Experiment on increasingproduction IFEMER. pp. 737-750. of brown-spottedgrouper Epinephelustau- vina Forskal! by using artificial hides to in- Tookwinas,S. and B. Charearnrid.1988. Cage creasestocking density. Rayong Coastal culture of seabass Lates calcarifer! in Thai- Aquacu!ture Station Coastal Aquaculture land. In: Culture of the Seabass Lates cal- Division Department of Fisheries,Thailand. carifer! in Thailand, NACA Training 24 pp. Iri Thaiwith Englishabstract!. Manual, UNDP/FAO Bangkok,Thailand. pp. 50-58. Sirikul, B.1982. Stocking and rearingof seabass in growout ponds and cages. Lecture notes. Wannagowat, J, 1994. Seabassfeed, Extension 15 pp. Paper, National Institute of Coastal Aquaculture, Songkhla, Department of Fisheries. 14 pp. In That!. Aquaculture of the Florida and other Jacks {Family } in the Western Atlantic, and Caribbean Basin: Status and Potential

Wade O. Watanabe Caribbean Marine Research Center Vero Seach, Florida

Abstract

Three speciesof jacks family Carangidae;genus Trachinotus!that inhabit coastalwaters of the western Atlantic, the Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbeanare potential candidatesfor commercial aquaculture:the T. mrolinus!, the Atlantic T.falcahcs! and the palometa T.goodet'!. In theUnited States, the Florida pompano conUnands a wholesaleprice of $4. &S.00/ib roundweight!, among the highest of any marinefood hsh. Spurredby high-marketvalue and wild fry availability,commercial Florida pompano farms were established in Floridain the1960s andin theDominican Republic in 1972.However, an inadequate knowledge of thepompano's biologicalrequirements caused these enterprises to fail. In the1970s, the technical feasibility of rearingFlorida pompano in floatingcages and brackish water pondswas demonstrated in the southeastern United States. Juveniles avg, wt. = 7g! stockedin 1-m3 floatingcages at densitiesof 100-250fish/m averaged1M214 g in272 days on a 40%protein pellet, with yieldsof 17.9-115 kg/ m . In brackishwater ponds .08 ha!,juveniles avg. wt. = 5.1g! stockedat a densityof 10,000 fish/haaveraged 106 g after106 days on a 40%protein pelleted diet, with a yieldof 741kg/ha. The inefficientconversion FCR = 2.7-4.45:1!of prepareddiets is an importantconstraint to commercialpompano farming.

Introduction In the United States,interest in pompano aquaculturehas waned since1980, but excep- Preliminarystudies on growoutof Trachirrotustional market value and recent advances in spp.in tankswere conductedfrom 1977to 1982 hatchery and growout technologiesfor other in Venezuela.Juvenile palometa avg. wt = 5 marine finfish speciessuggest that a re-exami- g! were stocked in 28-m3 concretetanks at a 3 nation of theFlorida pompano and other Trachi- densityof 2.14 fish/m and reached469 g in400 nofus spp. for aquaculture is warranted. Re- days on a trash fish diet. searchin offshorecages or in intensive,recircu- Althoughlaboratory spawning of Floridapom- lating systemsthat mitigateenvironmental per- pano and rearing of larvae to metamorphosis mittingproblems will be important. were achieved in the United Statesin the 1970s, a paucityof scientihcdata indicates that reliable Commerclai im ortance ot S ecies hatcherymethods have not beendeveloped. Knowledge, presumably held by early com- Fivespecies of the Carangidgenus Trachinotus mercial culturists, could significantly advance occur in the coastal waters of the western Atlan- hatcherytechnology. tic, Caribbeanand Gulf of Mexico Berry and lversen1967!. Threeof thesespecies, the Flor- ida pompano T. carolirtus! Figure 37!, the At- 184 Watanabe lantic permit T. falcatus!and the palometa T. mercial landings in the southeasternUnited goodei!,are potentiallyimportant candidates for Statesranged from 288,005493,000kg avg. = aquaculture.The Florida pompano and the At- 355,000! with an average dockside value of lanticpermit range from Massachusetts to Bra- US$2.3million Figure38!. zil, whilethe palometa ranges from Massachu- settsto Argentina and alsooccurs in . Commerciallandings of Atlanticpermit are ln this report,the name"pompano," which is comparativelysmall, and no data is available sometimesused to includeall Trachinotusspp., for the palometa. From 1984to 1993,annual will referspecifically to the Floridapompano, landings of permit in the southeasternUnited T. caroHnus. Statesranged from 18,274-89,519kg avg. = 45,145 kg! with an average docksidevalue of Although all three speciesoccur in the United US$85,249Q. Bennett,NMFS personal commu- States,the Floridapompano plays the largest nication!.Because of theirsimilarity in appear- economicrole, supportinga significantsport anceand taste, small Atlantic permit .45-.90kg! and commercialfishery along the southAt!an- areoften sold as Florida pompano Gilbert and tic and gulf coastsof the United States from Parsons1986!. The Atlanticpermit may share Virginia to Texas. However, 83-92% of porn- biological and culture characteristicswith the pano is landed in Florida J. Bennett,National Floridapompano, but scientificdata is lacking. Marine FisheriesService personal conununica- tion!. An attractive,silvery species,the Florida pompano is consideredamong the finest and life Hllta mosthighly-valued table fish from tropical U.S. Life history and ecologicalrequirements of the waters,commanding a wholesaleprice of $4.00- Floridapompano, based mainly on populations 8.00/lb in the round $8.00-16.00 for fillets! in U.S.coastal waters, are not completelyun- gory et al. 1985; Gilbert and Parsons 1986; derstood. Spawning probably occurs in the Mc Master 1988!. Dress-out headed and evis- oceanic waters of the southeastern United cerated!percentage in the Floridapompano States beginning in February and continues averages62.4% Marcello and Strawn 1972! to through August or September Fields 1962; 80.8% Cuevas 1978!. Berry and Iversen 1967; lversen and Berry Despitea high demand and value, commercial 1969!,but it mayalso occur throughout the year catchesof pompanoare relativelysmall and in the tropical Gulf of Mexico and Caribbean unpredictable.From 1984to 1993,annual com-

Figure 38. Annual commercial landings and value ex-vessel! of Florida pompano in the Figure 37. The Florida pompano Trachinofus southeastern U.S. 984-1993! J. Bennett, carolinus!t Goode 1884!. NMFS, Florida!. A uacuifure of Florida Pom no and other Jacks 187

Sea Berry and Iversen'1967!. Finucane 969! Louisiana, polychaetes,bivalves, amphipods estimatedthat adult females76 g! producean and penaeidshrimp were important Bellinger averageof 600,000-800,000eggs per year. and Avault 1971!. After hatching, older larvaeand juveniles 12-20 Adult pompanoconsume a greatervariety of mm totallength TL! moveinshore, using the foods,including shrimp, crabs, mussels, clams surfzone of sandybeaches as a nurseryarea and fish Iversen and Berry 1969;Finucane Idyll et al. 1969;Rupple 1984;Peters and Nel- 1969!. In Mississippi, copepodsbecame less son1987!, On the eastcoast of Florida,juveniles important to 30- to 41-mm fish, while poly- appearnear beachesfrom mid-April to Novem- chaetesand Donar siphons increased in impor- ber and aremost abundantduring May and tance Modde and Ross1983!, In largerfish, June Idyll et aL 1969;Peters and Nelson1987!. small shrimp were major food items, as were The majorityof surf-zonefry remain in the small fish and Emerita. northernFlorida area, moving out of the surf zonewhen about150 mm TL Iversenand Berry Growth 1969;Modde and Ross1981!. However, part of Informationon naturalgrowth rates of Trachi- the populationmoves northward along the notusspp. is fragmentary.In Louisiana,juve- southeasternU.S. coast in springand summer, nilepompano in the surf zonegrew an average appearingoff theNew Englandstates from July of 36 mm per month range of 2742 mm! at throughOctober and presumablyreturnmg water temperatures ranging from 17.5-34 C southduring winter Berry and Iversen1967!. and salinities ranging from 12.5-32.6 ppt Bellinger and Avault 1970!. According to Hatural Biolo Fields 962!, pompano live for three to four years and reach 45-60 cm 8-20 in! and 2.2-3.6 Food and Feeding Behavior kg -8 lb! under natural conditions. Pompano have a blunt head with subterminal, TheAtlantic permit attains a muchlarger adult protrusible mouthparts, small juvenile teeth size than the Florida pompano, reaching a that disappearin the adult, and short, widely length of 1'14cm 5 in! and a weightof 21.4kg spacedgill rakers Bellinger and Avault 1971!. 7 lbs! Berry and Iversen 1967; Bohlke and Thesefeatures adapt them to root for food or- Chaplin 1968!. ganisms in sand Bellinger and Avault 1971!. Adults also have well-developedpharyngeal The palometa is a relatively small species, plates enabling them to feed on hard-shelled growing to total length of 33 cm 3 in! Bohlke organisms,such as clams and crabs Bellinger andChaplin 1968! and around 1.36-1.81 kg -4 and A vault 1971!or conch Jory 1986!. lb!. Juvenile pompano are diurnal feeders and feed Environmental Requirements opportunisticallyon a wide varietyof plank- Information on envirorunental tolerances and tonic and benthic organisms Bellinger and optimum conditions for Florida pompano, A vault1971!. In Mississippi,juveniles from the based on conditions in natural habitats and a surf zone were planktivores,feeding primarily few experimental studies, is limited. on calanoid copepodsbut also eating benthic organismssuch as polychaetes,coquina clam ~ $alinNy siphons Donux variabilis! and mole crabs Available data sujet that temperatureand Emerita talpoida! Modde and Ross 1983!. In salinity toleranceranges of Florida pompano Florida,surf-zone juveniles were mainlybot- are relatively wide and that thesefactors are not tom feeders,consuming primarily Donax and critical in limiting distribution of juveniles in Emerita Armitage and Alevizon 1980!, while in nature. Adults prefer28-37 ppt, while juveniles 188 Watanabe arefound over wider ranges,sometimes as high high salinities Figure 39!. Thesedata suggest as 50 ppt and as low as 9 ppt Gilbert and that optimum salinity and temperature for Parsons1986; Finucane 1969!. Laboratory stud- growth may be between30 and 35 ppt and 25 iesby Kumpf 972! showedthat at a salinityof and 30 C. 32-33ppt, juvenilestolerate a salinity increase of 12ppt up to 44-45ppt! anda decreaseof 30 ~ Other Environmental Factors ppt down to 2-3 ppt! at temperaturesof 22- Preliminary studiesby Moe et al. 968! indi- 27.5 C. This is similar to results reported by cated that at 33 ppt and 24 C, stressduring Allen and Avault 970! who showed a lower oxygen depletion from 5.5 ppm! occurred at 3 salinity tolerancelevel of 3.5 ppt from 23 ppt! ppm, while the lower lethal limit was 2.5 ppm. and 1.0 ppt from 5 ppt! at 25 C. Other studies showed that these fish tolerated extreme turbidity resulting from suspended ~ Temperature pond mud and a widevariation in pH from 4-12 TheFlorida pompanois a thermophilicspecies, Moe et al. 1968!. Gilbert and Parsons986! reportedthat Gunter 9G! collected pompano from Texas beaches where salinitiesranged from 28.1-36.7ppt and Mlsto of A uaculture temperatures ranged from 19.0-30.7C. Labo- The history of Florida pompano aquaculture ratory studies by Moe et al. 968! showed that has been reviewed by a number of authors cold-stresssymptoms were evidentat12"C and Berry and Iversen 1967; Bardach et al. 1972; 33 ppt in pond-raised pompano, while mortal- Cuevas 1978; Jory et al. 1985; McMaster 1988! ity was almost complete at 10 C, Under con- and is summarized here in light of recent infor- trolled laboratory conditions, Kumpf 972! mation Figure 40!. showed that juveniles tolerated a temperature decreaseof 2 f'C to 8.5-9.5C! at a salinityof High-market value, inadequate marine catches 32-33 ppt and temperature of 28,5-29.5 C, and and wild fry availability along east Florida and an increase of 8-10 C to 36.5-39.5 C!. The tem- Gulf beaches were primary factors that ap- perature tolerance range decreased at low or pealed to early researchersand commercial in- vestors. The first documentedattempts to cul-

Figure 40. Aquaculture history of the Florida Figure 39. Temperature/salinity tolerance pompano and other jacks in the western At- polygon for Florida pompano, Outer curve lantic. Gulf of Mexico and Caribbean: Florida indicates LD-50, while inner curve indicates Fl.!, Alabama Ala.!, Texas Tx.!, Dominican where feeding was reduced Kumpf 1972!. Republic D.R.!, Venezuela Ven.! and Martinique, French West Indies Mar.! . A uacrrlfure of Florida Porn ano and other Jacks 189 ture Florida pompanowere madebetween 1952 were conducted at the University of Miami and 1955at Marineland,Florida Fielding 1966 Kumpf 1972!. in Cuevas 1978, Berry and Iversen 1967!. Juve- niles .5-9.4 g! stocked in brackish water In the early 1970s,the technicalfeasibility for earthen ponds .02-0.05 ha! at rates of 1,298- rearing pompanoin floating cageswas demon- 4,950/ha and fed ground trash fish reached strated by researchers in Texas Marcello and 99.8-268g after 65-133days with a yield of Strawn 1972!, Florida Smith 1973! and Ala- 270-438kg/ha. From 1957 through 1960,a bama Taturn 1972, 1973!. number of attempts to raise pompano fry in In 1972,Oceanography Mariculture Industries, 0.05%.2ha ponds near St. Augustine,Florida, Inc.' OMI!, a commercialorganization based in failed for different reasons,including winter West Palm Beach, Florida, constructed an inten- kill, flooding, pond damageand escapement sive pompano tank farm in the Dominican Re- and oxygendepletion caused by over-stocking public McMaster 1988!. Although preliminary Berryand Iversen 1967!. In 1961,a 0.2-hapond successin hormone-inducedspawning of Flor- stockedwith 1,500juveniles gave better results, ida pompanoand rearingof larvaeto metamor- producing 700 500-g fish avg. wt.! after 15 phosiswere first achievedin the laboratoryin months. Additional experimentswere stopped the 1970s Hoff et al. 1972,1978a, b; Kloth 1980!, in 1962 after another die-off Berry and Iversen OMI had apparentlydeveloped reliable hatch- '1967!. ery methodsby 1974,producing an averageof 37,539fry/month. Nursery culture was con- As government agencies and universities be- 3 gan researchingpompano in the early to mid- ducteddin 2 5-m tanks,where postlarvaewere 1960s,interest in pompanoaquaculture intensi- grown fram 1-10 g in six to eight weeks. fied. Commercial farms were established in Growout, conducted in three 17.8-m shallow various areasof Florida, including the Florida tanks.1-m diameterx 0.61-rndeep tanks!, was Keys, Pensacola Beach,West Palm Beach and problematic. Fingerlings0 g! weregrown to Bradenton Berry and Iversen 1967!. Minorcan 150200 g on an OMI-formulated diet when SeafoodCompany production records,dating growth slowed and feed conversion ratios in- back to 1963 near Marineland, Florida, are the creasedfrom 3.5:1 to 6:1,causing termination of mostwell-documented Moe et al. 1968!of any the project by the end of 1974. commercial company to date. From 1965 In 1975, Farming Systems, Inc., an off- through 1966,ponds .2-0.6 ha! supplied with shootof OMI, begana pilot projectin the Flor- tidal water were stockedwith wild-caught ju- ida Keysto evaluatethe hypothesis that growth veniles that were fed ground trash fish. Al- depression observed in small shallow tanks though up to 100,000large pompanowere be- could be alleviated with use of large ocean lieved to be in the pond, only 1,781 were har- cages. Results of these trials have not been vested in 1967, causing rearing activities to publicized. cease Moe et al. 1968!. From 1975-1979, studies were conducted at In 1967, the Bureau of Commercial Fisheries Claude Peteet Mariculture Center in Alabama Biological Laboratoryin St. PetersburgBeach, where thetechnical feasibility of raising Florida Florida, began to evaluate juvenile Florida pompano in brackish water ponds in monocul- pompano growth under semi-natural condi- ture or in polyculture with shrimp was demon- tions in a six-acre impoundment located near strated Tatum and Trirnble 1978; Trimble the mouth of Tampa Bay Finucane '1970ab, 1980!. 1971!. Florida pompano growth studies were also conducted at Miami Seaquarium lversen Since 1977, experimental culture of Florida and Berry 1969!. To determine salinity and pompano, Atlantic permit and palometa has temperature tolerances of juveniles, studies beenconducted at the Centro de Investigacio- 190 Watanabe nes Cientificas Universite de Oriente! CI- to 38 hours, at temperatures ranging from 23.3- UCO! in Isla Margarita, Venezuela Gomez and 28 C Hoff et al. 1978b!. Fertilization success Cervigon 1987!. Between 1981 and 1987, ex- varied from 0-76%,with the majority of spawn- perimental culture of the palometa in floating ings resulting in poor .05-18%! fertilization cages was conducted by Institut Francais de success Hoff et al. 1978b!. They noted abnor- RecherchePour L'exploitation de la Mer IFRE- mal developmentin many eggs,further sug- MER! in Martinique, French West Indies gesting that egg quality was generally poor. Soletchnik et al. 1987,1988; Suquet et al. 1988; Thouard et al, 1990!. Interest in pompano Hoff et al. 972, 1978a!reported preliminary aquaculture in this country has waned as evi- success in out-of-season gonadal maturation denced by a lack of scientific studies or com- and spawning by exposing adults to artificial mercial activity in the United Statessince 1980. photoperiod and light regimes coupled with This is probably due to early commercial fail- hormone treatment. As preliminary successes ures, as well as environmental, legal and eco- in maturation and spawnmg of Florida pom- nornic factors that constrain coastal marine fin- pano were achieved by researchers, rapid ad- fish aquaculture development in the United vances were apparently made by commercial States National ResearchCouncil 1992!. culturists at OMI's DominicanRepublic hatch- ery McMaster 1988!. Manipulation of day length and temperature was used to induce Biotechnical Status of Pompano gonadal maturation in broodstock. Mature fe- A uaculture rnales were injected with gonadotropins and strip-spawned around 32 hours after the first Controlled Breeding injection, producing around 114,000 eggs/fe- male. A total of 10.4 million fertilized eggs ~ Florida Pompano were producedat OMI's hatcheryin 1974,and Fluctuations in availability of wild pompano second generation pompano were spawned fry, both seasonaland otherwise, high transpor- McMaster 1988!. tation costs to growout facilities, and govern- ment catch limits were recognized early as con- e Paiometa straints to large-scale farming Idyll et al. 1969; In Martinique, male palometa held in floating Finucane 1971!. Moe et al. 968! observed cagesreached sexual maturity at seven months ovarian maturity in Florida pompano grown in 00 g! and females mature at 15 months 50- dirt ponds at 20-24 months age and suggested 400g! Soletchniket al. 1988!. Periodicbiopsy that hormone induction would be required for showed that mature females are found spawning. Hoff et al. 972, 1978a,b! first re- throughout the year, although sexual maturity ported successfulhormone-induced spawning appears to peak in August and February of pompano using both strip-spawning and Thouard et al. 1990!. voluntary spawning methods. They obtained In Martinique, either natural or hormone in- the best results when females with oocytes duced spawningin palometahas proven diffi- ranging from 580-718 pan were injected with cult. Of 88 females injected over a two-year human chorionic gonadotropin HCG! at dose period, 33 spawnings were obtained, but only levels of 0.551U/g and 0.275IU/ g administered seven had viable eggs Thouard et al. 1990!. 24-48hours apart Hoff et al. 1978b!.Spawning Fecundity did not exceed 45,000 eggs/kg fe- occurred30-40 hours after the initial injectionat male body weight avg, = 26,000!. Hatching 32.5 ppt salinity and 23.3 C. Eggs measured 1 rates ranged from 16-62%giving only 43,000 hour post-fertilization were 0.87-1,00mm with viable eggs. Most spawns were nonviable, de- a single oil globule. Incubation time was di- spite variations in hormones HCG or LHRH-a! rectly related to temperature, ranging from 25 A uacutture ot F}ortda Pom ano and other jacks 191 or broodstock diet commercial pellets or fish, jacks are available. This lack of scientific stud- squid and shrimp!, One natural spawning ies indicates that reliable methods for control- without hormone treatmentproduced a hatch- led breeding and larval culture for thesespe- ing successrate of 70%. Controlled breeding is cies are still not generally known,except for clearlya researchpriority with the Floridaporn- those held by commercial culturists McMaster pano and related jacks. Other types of hor- 1988!. Comprehensive studies are needed to mones,including gonadotropinreleasing hor- determine the environmental and nutritional mones LH RH-a!,should be tested as spawning requirements of larvae. Advances in marine agents.A clearerunderstanding of the female finfish larval nutrition made during the last maturation cycle is needed to determine the decade,such as the "enrichment" of live prey optimum mode of hormone administration with essential fatty acids, have not been tested i,e,, injection or intramuscular implant! Kelley in the Florida pompano. et al. 1994!. Nursery Culture and Growout Larval CuNure Mc Master 988! described general larval rear- e Cage Culture ing methods for Florida pompano used by OMI Experimental culture of Florida pompano in at its DominicanRepublic hatchery from 1973- floating cagesin brackish water was initiated at 3 1974. Larvae were cultured in a 75.6-rn hatch- Dauphin Island, Alabama, in 1969 by the Ala- ery system using rotifers and Artemia as hve barna Marine ResourcesDivision Tatum '1972, feeds. They reached metamorphosis at a sizeof 1973!, Juveniles avg. wt. = 4 g! were stocked 3 15 nun and 1 g in 22 days, Based on total in 0.76-m cylindrical cages .91-m diameter, fertilized egg 0.4 million! and fry 1.22-mheight, 1.27-cmmesh! at densitiesrang- 3 7,539/month! production in 1974,survival to ing from 392-654 fish/m . Growth was com- metamorphosis was approximately 4.3%. Juve- pared for 92-113days on a floating, commer- niles accepted an artificial diet supplemented cially prepared 40% protein Purina TroutChow with livebrine shrimp at 20%of the daily ration. PTC! diet or a feed consisting of ground fish mixed with 30% soybean meal Table 64!. Hoff et al. 978b! reared Florida pompano lar- Growth, survival and feed conversion were far vae produced by hormone-induced spawning superior on the trout chow compared to the to thejuvenile stage and described larval devel- ground fish/soybean meal diet Tatum 1972! opment. Larvae measuring 1.98-2.4 mm at Table 64!. hatchwere rearedin silos unspecifiedvolume! and fed a mixed diet of natural plankton, pro- ln a subsequent103-day study, Tatum 973! tozoans,rotifers and copepodnauplii Oithona comparedjuvenile avg. wt. = 12.0g! growth in sp.!, followed by Artemiunauplii. The first live cages stocked at densitiesof 263-657 fish/rn food acceptedwas copepod nauplii on Day 3, Table 64! and fed PTC. Final weights ranged while Artemia nauplii were acceptedby Day 14. from 87-120 g and high survival rates 9.8- High mortalities were noted 8-10 days after 88%! and yields 7.8-46.1 kg/m ! were at- hatching. During the third week, blended and tained, although feed conversion ratios FCR! screened shrimp and fish were offered. Devel- were poor .7-3.6!. opment of scales,fin rays and juvenile colora- Concurrent with work in Alabama, cageculture tion occurred by Day 24 and a total of 300 of Florida pompano in influent and effluent juveniles were produced. Postlarvae and juve- canals of fossfl-fuel power plants was studied niles accepted flake and crumble foods. in Texas Marcello and Strawn 1972! and in No reports on experimental culture of the early Florida Smith 1973!. At Houston Power and life stages of the Florida pompano or related Lighting Company's generating station in Galveston Bay, juveniles avg. wt. = 57.5-74.9g! ~OP% a Q 0 N A c9 c9 Z Z

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0 p g> C II 0 S 0 zz 194 Watanabe were stocked at a moderate density of 25 Experimentalculture trials with Florida porn- fish/m into 1.0-m3 rectangularfloating cages pano,Atlantic permit and palometain floating ,92 x 1.22 x 0.92 m!; 1,27 x 2.54 rnm mesh cages have been conducted since 1978 at Isla locatedin the intake canaland grown for either Margarita, Venezuela by the Centro de Investi- 85 or 107 days on PTC Table 64!. Salinity gacionesCientificas de la Universidad de Ori- ranged from 2.6-23 ppt, water temperature ente CICUO!. Florida pompano were raised in ranged from 5,5-31 C, dissolved oxygen 100-m3 floating cagesfrom 1.37-391g in 365 ranged from 4.0-17.5ppm and current velocity days Table 64!. Palorneta were raised from ranged from 0.047-0.335m/sec. Final average 31-42 g to 240-315g and permit from 14.~.5 weights rangedfrom 119-198g. Survival rates g to 3~14 g in 365 days Table 64! Gomez and were high 85-100%!,yields were low ,14-3.98 Cervigon 1987!. These workers concluded that kg/rn ! and FCR was poor .33-5.91!. becauseof its high early growth rates, the palometais the preferred speciesfor growout Smith 973! studied growth of juvenile pom- periods of less than one year. Permit, which pano reared in 1-m3 cage .9 x 0,9 x 1.0 m! grows rapidly from five months of age, is better 6.4-rnmmesh loca ted in a man-madelake avg. for growout over longer periods. In Venezuela, depth = 9 m! receiving heated effluent from floating cagesare also recommendedfor cul- Florida Power and Light Company'sgenerat- ture of Trachinotusspp., since fish areless prone ing station near Miami Table 64!. Growth of to diseasein cages than in tanks or ponds juveniles avg. wt. = 7 g! stocked at densities of Gomez and Cervigon 1987!. 100-900fis/m 3 werecomparedfor 272dayson a 40% protein trout pellet diet supplemented In Martinique, experimental culture of once a week with squid or fish. Fina] weights palometa in 15-m cylindroconical floating ranged from 160.214g, with high survi val rates cages4-mm mesh! was conducted in the Bay 9.7-84%! and exceptional yields 7.9-115 of Robert beginning in 1981 Soletchnik et al. kg/m ! Figure41!, but with poor feedconver- 1987,1988; Thouard et al. 1990!. Cageswere sion FCR = 4.45!. Based on the absence of cleanedin the water by rotating them on their significant diseaseproblems during the study, horizontalaxis. Wildwaught juveniles,stocked Smith 973! suggestedthat cageculture may at a low density,reached 400 g in 218days on a be advantageousto ponds or tanks. dietof mixed trash fish Table 64!. Survival was 91%,andtheyieldwas2.9kg/m . FCRwasless than two Soletchnik et al. 1988!, In another study Thouard et al. 1990! in Martinique, growth of juvenile palometa in 30- to 120-m floating cagesat an unspecifiedden- sity was compared on a sinking 50% protein pellet for European seabass Dirzntrarchsds labrax!, and on trash fish Table 64! Soletchnik et al. 1987!. Fish fed commercialpellets were grown from 15-300 g in 180 days, while on a trash fish diet, they reached260 g in 150days. Survival from juvenile to market size ~l00-400 g! averaged83 and 90%,respectively, on these Figure 41. Final weights and biomass yields of diets. While FCRon pelletswas not reported, Florida pompano ave. Initial wt. = 7 g! grown FCR on a trash fish diet was 2.3. for 272 days at different stocking densities in 1-m floating cages situated in a power plant Available studies have demonstrated good effluent lake, Miami, Florida Smith 1973j. growth, high yields and resistance to disease A vacvttvre ot Florida Porn ano and other Jacks 195 duringculture of Trachinohcsspecies in floating pond stockedwith juvenilesat a densityof cages. Sincedegree of growth inhibition from 165,025fish/ha produceda pompanocrop of crowdingin Floridapompano may depend on 601 kg/ha. Pompanoaveraged 5.l g after55 totalrearing space as well as the rateof water dayswith71% survival and a FCRof3.0 Table exchange Moe et al. 1968;Berry and Iversen 65!, In rnonoculture,pompano yields from 1967!,large cages may be betterthan small at pondsstocked with 5,1-g fry at a densityof identicaldensities Smith 1973!. Large,off- 10,000fish/ha averaged741 kg/ha after 106 shorecages maybe effective rearing systems for days. Survival was 67%, FCR was 3.9 and the Florida pompanoand relatedjacks in areas finalweight was 'l06 g. In polyculture, juvenile where ambient water temperaturespermit blue shrimpand pompanowere stockedinto e,g., Bahamas,Florida Keys, Gulf of Mexico growout ponds at densitiesof S2,813/ha and and Caribbean! . 10,000/ha,respectively. After 105days pom- pano!and 14S days shrimp!,average pompano ~ Pond CuNure andshrimp production were 549 and 736 kg/ha To evaluategrowout, juvenile Florida porn- total = 1,285kg/ha!. Survival rateswere 74% panowere stockedat ratesof 8,750or 10,412/ha and 63%, the combined FCR was 3.0 and the in 0.08-ha brackishwater ponds .5-1.0 m final weightsaveraged 75 and 14.1g, respec- depth!and fed PTC, After95-191 days, produc- tively Table 65!. Basedon theseresults, Trim- tion averaged 564 kg/ha, with a survival of ble 980! updated Cuevas' 978! economic 42N!t,feed conversion of 3.0 and mean weight of analysisand concluded that althoughpolycul- '156 g Table 65!. Tatum and Trimble 978! turewas profitable,pompano monocuIture was hypothesizedthat polyculture of Floridapom- not. panoand shrimp could boost total yields if the The technicalfeasibility of Florida pompano pompanoare unable to consumeshrimp due to growoutin brackishwater earthenponds in their small mouth size, bothmono- and polyculturewith shrimpwas To testthe feasibilityof polyculture,juveniles demonstratedin thesestudies. Due to high were first stockedat a rate of 10,412/ha. Post- costsof coastal land and a shortgrowing season larval brown shrimp P. aztecus!were then in the southeasternUnited States, pond-based stockedat a densityof 31,250/ha.After 146-151 growoutmay be moreeconomical in tropical days,average pompano and shrimpproduc- regions of the Caribbean where land for tionwas 593 and 222 kg/ha, respectively,Sur- aquacultureis relativelyinexpensive and tem- vival rates were 30% and 53%, the combined peratures are favorable for year-round feedconversion ratio was 2.6 and final average growout. weightwas 185 and 13.5g for pompanoand shrimp, respectively Table 65! Tatum and ~ Tank Culture Trimble1978!. An economicanalysis based on Relatively little information is available on these trials showed that pompano break-even Trachinotussp. culture in tanks. Growth of Flor- priceswere higher than market prices Cuevas ida pompanoin tankswas firststudied at Mi- 1978!. ami Seaquariumin 1968 Iversenand Berry 1969! Table 66!. Wild-caught hywere stocked Additional studies were conducted in 1979 on at a density of 23,8 fish/m into a 42-m3 tank pompanomonoculture and polyculturewith supplied with seawater at a rate of 10-14 ex- nonindigenouswhite shrimp P. vannamei!and changes/day. Fry were fed a mixture of blue shrimp P. stylirostris! Trimble 'l980!, To ground fish and a 40%protein trout diet, After improvefish survival, juveniles were grown in 137days, fish averaged 203.4q at a survivalrate nurseryponds prior to stockingin growout of 60%and yieldof 2.9kg/m . pondsto reducebird predation. A nursery 4:C0 Ol

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In Venezuela, palometa tank culture was stud- palometa on a 50% protein diet has been re- ied by CIUCO Gomez1977!. Wildwaught fry ported Soletchnik et al, 1987; Thouard et aL ofthree size groups were stocked atlow densi- 1990!. Additional work is neededto compare ties into 28-m circular concretetanks supplied conversion efficiency on commercially pre- with seawater and aeration. Fish were fed an- pared diets formulated for various carnivorous chovies Engraulidae!.Palorneta reached aver- marinefinfish, suchas seabass Lates calcariPr!, age weights of 455-526g after 400 days, but seabream Pagrus major!, turbot and yellowtail survival rates2-50%! were impaired by para- Seriolaquinqueradiata!. sitic protozoans. In the only basicnutritional study to date,Wil- Polycultureof Florida pompanoand shrimp P, liams et al. 985! comparedgrowth of juvenile brasiliensis! in tanks has also been studied at Florida pompano on experimental diets con- CI UCO Gomez and Scelzo 1982!. Juvenile hsh taining 42% crude 4% digestible! protein con- and shrimp were stocked in 28-m3 tanks at a sisting of a lipid-extracted,fish meal/soybean density of 10/m and fed "guacuco" Tivela meal basal diet supplemented with 0, 4, 8 and rnactroides! Mollusca, Pelecypoda! pellets con- 12%menhaden oil. Fish fed the lipid-deficient taining 60%crude protein. After 75 days,pom- diet developedgill deformities,including atro- pano reached 40.6 g, with a survival of 17,1% phied operculaand clubbedgill filaments.Op- and a FCRof 6.59;shrimp reached5.7 g, with a timum level of fish oil was between 4 and 8%, survival of 2.68%.Overall FCRfor both species providing a digestible energy level between 2.5 was 7.57. and 2.8kcal/g of diet or a digestibleenergy/di- gestible protein ratio between 7,4 and 8.1 In another experiment,pompano and shrimp kcal/g of protein. Excessenergy in the 12%oil were stocked at densities of 5 and 10/rn 2 and diet reducedfeed consumption and growth. fed a laboratory-preparedpelleted diet contain- ing 43% crude protein, with guacucoand sar- Additional studies are needed to determine the dines as protein sources. After 75 days, pom- optimal energy,protein, amino acid, fatty acid, pano reached 62.1 g, with a survival of 64.3% carbohydrate, vitamin and mineral require- and a food conversionof 3.1; shrimp reached mentsof theFlorida pompanoand relatedjacks 8,9 g, with 54% survival and a FCR of 10.7. asa basisfor formulating practicalfeeds. Overall FCR for both specieswas 6.6.

Studiesare neededto demonstrategrowout of Parasites arid Diseases Florida pompano and other jacks in tanks on commercially-prepared feeds under high Monogertetic trematodes stockingdensities. Monogenetictrematodes are a commonpatho- logical agentobserved in Trachinotusspp. un- Nutrit1on der culture conditions. Trematodesdamaged Lackof a nutritionallycomplete pelleted ration gills and interferedwith respirationin juvenile is a major obstacleto commercial pompano pompano rearedin tanks Iversen and Berry farming. Diets of codfish, shrimp meal Finu- 1969!. Moderate numbers of a monogenetic cane 1970a! and ground fish mixed with soy- trematode probably Bicotylophoratrachinoti! bean meal Taturn 1972! have been shown to be were observed on the gills of Florida pompano inadequate.Trout feedcontaining 40% protein rearedin floating cages Smith 1973!. Placing supplementedwith ground fish has been the infected fish in a tank of 250ppm of formalin most practical diet Marcelio and Strawn 1972; for 35 minutes was an effective treatment The Ta turn 1972, 1973; Smith 1973; Tatum and Trim- monogenetic trematode, Neobenedeniamelleni, ble 1978;Trimble 1980!, but FCR .7-5.9:1! has was observed in pompano broodstock main- beenpoor Tables64 and 65!. Good growth of tained in recirculating seawatertanks in the U0 C

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United States Hoff et al. 1978ain Mueller et al. Pretazoans 1994!. B. trachinotiand N. mellenicommonly ln Alabama,Florida pompano reared in float- infect pompanogrown in concretetanks in ing cagessuffered heavy branchial infestation Venezuela Gomez and Scelzo 1982; Gomez andmortality resulting from a parasiticproto- 1987!. zoan Trichodinasp.! Tatum1972!, Treatment Duringgrowout of palometain floatingcages with formalinat 100 ppm for 20-30minutes, in Martinique,infection by N. metleniwas com- followedby a secondtreatment at 250 ppm for monly observedand was prominentin high 7-13minutes stopped mortalities after two days densityand poor food quality situations Tatum1973!. A canvassleeve placed around Thouardet al. 1990!.Symptoms included rub- the cagewas usedto preventwater exchange bing againstthe cagenetting, jumping, ano- during treatment. rexia, hyperproductionof skin mucus,hemor- In Venezuela,F1orida pompano grown in con- rhagiculcers, fin rot andopacification of eye cretetanks were commonly infected by thepro- cornea Soletchniket al. 1988!. Ulcerswere sec- tozoanAmyloodinium ocellatsrtrr, causing high ondarily invaded by bacteria Vibrio,Aeromonas mortality Gomez and Scelzo 1982!. Other pro- and Pseudomorras!,eventually leading to death. tozoanscausing mortality in pompanoculture In cages,early treatmentwith Trichlorfon0 in aquariaand tanksinclude Cryptocaryon sp., mg/kg livewt,, fourtimes every 72 hours! was Henneguyasp. and Costiasp. Gomez 1987!. recommended, while in tanks, a five-minute dip in freshwaterfollowed by an antiseptic bath Bacteria was effective Soletchniket al. 1988;Thouard et al, 1990;Gallet de SaintAurin et aL1990!, Bacterialinfection by Vibrioanguillarium has beenfrequently observed in Floridapompano Kumpf972! foundthat salinity extremes had cultured in tanks in the United States Hoff et a controllingeffect on B. frachirrotion gills of al. 1978a!and in Venezuela Gomez and Scelzo Floridapompano. Given the tolerance of pom- 1982!. In Venezuela,Florida pompano, AtIan- panoto low salinities Moe et al. 1968;Allen and tic permit and palometacultured in floating Avault 1970;Kumpf 1972!,hyposalinity was cageswere also affected by Vibriospp, causing suggestedas a practicalmethod for controlin highmortality. Useof oxytetracyclinein food large-scaleoperations Smith 1973!. Recent laboratory studies have shown that extended hyposalinetreatments5 ppt for hvedays!are effectivein killingboth egg and adult stages of N. rrrelleni Mueller et al. 1992;Ellis and Watan- abe1993! Figure42!, and hyposalinity 8 ppt for sevendays! has been used successfully as a therapeutantfor N. rnelleniparasitosis during seawaterculture of tilapia under commercial- scaleconditions Ellis and Watanabe1993!. Preliminarystudies Cowell et al. 1993!suggest thatcleaning symbiosis may be a usefulmethod of biologicalcontrol when chemicalor hy- posalinetreatments are impractical i.e., in ma- Figure 42. Hatching success of marine mono- rine cages!. genean eggs Neobenedenra mellenr'j in 36- 38 ppt seawater after two to nine days of exposure to different salinities. Eggswere col- lected from adult N, melleni living in 36-38 ppt seawater Ellisand Watanabe 1993!. Watanobe at a doseof 8 g/100 kg live weight/day over a chemicalscommonly usedin freshwaterpond 10-day period was found effective in control- culture, including acriflavin LC~96 hours = ling infection Cairoli and Conroy 1987!.Since 114.3 ppm!, copper sulfate LC50-96 hours = the defrosted food fish, was determined to be 1.4-2.0 ppm!, formalin LC50-96 hours = 69.l- the source of infection, pasteurization of trash 74,9ppm! and potassium permanganate LC~ fish prior to feeding was recommended. 96 hours = 1.6-2.9 ppm!. These tests showed Gomez and Cervigon 987! recommended that that juvenile pompano are tolerant of thosecon- cage culture sites with high temperaturebe centrationsused in freshwater pond culture, avoided, since these conditions promote vi- with the possibleexception of potassiumper- briosis. manganate. Monroe 971! suggested that bacterial infec- tions of the digestivetract and kidneys were a Summar and Conclusions principal causeof mortalities of Florida pom- pano reared in ponds, raceways,aquaria and Three species of the Carangid genus Trachino- floatingcages. Post-mortem examinations typi- tus, the Florida pompano T. mrolinus!, the At- cally showed a tucked-up belly line viewed lantic permit T. falcatus!and the palometa T. laterally! and a razor-blade thin abdomen seen goode

Bellinger, J.W. and J.W. Avault, Jr. 1970. Sea- Ellis, E,P.and W.O. Watanabe, 1993.The effects sonaloccurrence, growth and length-weight of hyposalinity on eggs,juveniles and adults relationshipof juvenile pompano Trachino- of the marine monogenean, Neobenedenia tus carolinus! in Louisiana. Trans. Amer. Fish. rnelleni, Treatment of ectoparasitosis in Soc. 99!:353-358. seawater-cultured tilapia. Aquaculture. 117:15-27. Bennett, J. personal communication National Marine Fisheries Service, Miami, Florida. Fielding,J.R. 1966. New systemsand new fishes for culture in the United States. FAO World Berry, F. and E.S.Iversen. 1967. Pompano:bi- Symposium on Warm-water Pond Fish Cul- ology, fisheriesand farming potential. In: ture. FR:VIII/RZ. 19 p. min~!, Proceedingsof the Gulf and CaribbeanFish- eries Institute. 19:116-128. Fields,H.M. 1962. Trachinotus spp.! of south Atlantic coast of the United States, Birdsong, C.L and J.W. Avault, Jr. 1971.Toxic- U.S.Fish and Wildlife Service Fishery Bulletin. ity of certainchemicals to juvenile pompano 207. 62:189-222. Trachinotuscarolinus!. Prog. Fish. Cult. 33!:76-80, Finucane, J.H. 1971. Progress in pompano mariculture in the United States. In: Pro- Bohlke, J.E.and C.C.G. Chaplin. 1968.Fishes of ceedingsof the World MaricultureSociety, the Bahamasand AdjacentTropical Waters. 1st Annual Workshop. pp. 69-72. Second Edition. University of Texas Press, Austin. 771 pp. Finucane, J.H. 1970b.Pompano mariculture in Florida. Contribution No. 54, Bureau of Brown, R.J. 1971. Pathology of pompano with Commercial Fisheries Biological Labora- whirling diseaseand Spanish mackerel with tory. St. Petersburg Beach, Florida. enteric cestodiasis. In: Proceedings World A uacutfvre of Rorlda Pom ano and other Jacks

Finucane,J.H. 1970a.Pompano mariculture in Gunter, G. 1945. Studies on marine fishes of Florida. Amer. Fish Farmer.1!:5-10. Texas. Publ. Inst. Mar. Sci. Univ. Tex. 1 l!:1- 90. Finucane,J.H. 1969.Ecology of the pompano Trachinotuscarolinus! and the permit T.fal- Hoff, J. Mountain, T. Frakes and K. Halcott. catus! in Florida. Trans, Amer. Fish, Soc, 1978b.Spawning, oocyte development and 98!:478-486. larvae rearing of the Florida pompano Trachinotus carolinus!. Proc. World Marie. Galletde SaintAurin, D., J.C.Raymond and V. Soc. 9:279-297. Vianas.1990. Marine finfish pathology:Spe- cific problems and research in the French Hoff, F., T. Pulver and J. Mountain. 1978a.Con- West Indies. Irr. Advances in Tropical ditioning Florida pompano Trachinotus Aquaculture. Tahiti, February20-March 4, carolinus!for continuous spawning, Proc. 1989. 9:143-160, World Marie. Soc. 9:299-309.

Gilbert,C. andJ. Parsons. 1986. Species profiles: Hoff, F., C. Rowell and T. Pulver. 1972, Artifi- life histories and environmental require- ciallyinduced spawning of theFlorida pom- ments of coastal fishes and invertebrates pano under controlled conditions. Proc. South Florida!: Rorida pompano. Biologi- World Marie. Soc, 3:53-64. cal Report82 1.42!, 14 pp. Idyll, C.P,, D,C, Tabb, W.T. Yang and E.S. Gomez,A. 1987.Some diseases of experirnen- Iversen.1969. Shrimp and pompano culture tallywultured pompano in Venezuela.Rev. facilities at the University of Miami. Univer- Latinoam. Acuicult,, 33.26-34. sity of Miami, Institute of Marine Science, SeaGrant Inf. Bull. No. 2. 18 p. Gomez,A. 1977.Growth, conversion,efficiency and mortality of the palometapompano Iversen,E.S, and F.H, Berry.1969. Fish maricul- Trachinotusgoodei!, confined in concrete ture:progress and potential.Proceedings of tanks.BoL Inst, Oceanogr. Univ. Oriente, Cu- the Gulf and Caribbean Fisheries Institute. mana. 16-2!:141-152. 21:163-176.

Gomez,A. and F. Cervigon.1987. Perspectives Jory, D.E. 1986.An incident of predationon of culture af marine fishes from South Car- queenconch Strombusgigas L.! Mollusca, ibbean Sea and northeastern South America. Strombidae!,by Atlantic permit Trachinotus Rev. Latinoam. Acuicult. 34:40-50 falcatus L!. Pisces,Carangidae!. J. FishBiol. 28!:129-131. Gomez, A. and M. Scelzo. 1982. Polyculture experiments of pompano Trachinotus Jory, D.E., E.S. Iversen and R.H. Lewis. 1985. carolinus Carangidae! and red spotted Culture of fishesof the genusTrachinotus shrimp Penaeusbrasiliensis! Penaeidae! in Carangidae!in the western Atlantic. Pros- concreteponds, Margarita Islands,Vene- pects and problems. j. World Marie. Soc. zuela, I, World Marie. Soc. 13:146-153, 16:87-94.

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Kloth, T.C.1980. Observations on the spawning Mueller, K.W,, W.O. Watanabe, and W.D. behaviorof captive Florida pompano Head. 1992.Effect of salinity on hatching Trachinotus!.Copeia. 1980!.884-886. Neobenedeniamelleni, a monogenean ec- toparasite of seawater-culturedtilapia. j. Kumpf, H.E. 1972.Temperature-salinity toler- WorM Aquacult. Soc, 23!:199-204. ance of the Florida pompano Trachinotus carolinusLinnaeus!. University of Miami, National Research Council. 1992. Marine Florida. Ph.D.dissertation. 102 p. aquaculture. opportunities for growth, re- port of the Committee on Assessment of Marcello Jr., R.A. and RK. Strawn. 1972. The Technologyand Opportunities for Marine cage culture of some marine fishes in the Aquaculture in the United States, Marine intake and discharge canals of a semiwlec- Board, Commission on Engineering and tric generating station, Galveston Bay, Technical Systems, National Research Texas. Texas A&M Univ., Sea Grant Publica- Council. National Academy of Sciences, tion, 72-20b.267 pp, Washington,D.C. 290pp.

McMaster, M.F. 1988.Pompano aquaculture: Peters, D.J. and W.G. Nelson. 1987. The season- past success and present opportunities. ality and spatial patterns of juveniIe surf Aquacult. Mag. 14!:28,30-34. zone fishes of the Florida east coast. Florida Scientist. 50!:85-99. Modde,T. andS.T. Ross. 1983. Trophic relation- shipsof fishesoccurring within a surf zone Rupple, D.L. 1984, Occurrence of larval fishes habitat in the northern Gulf of Mexico. in the surf zone of a northern Gulf of Mexico NortheastGulf Science.6!:109-120. barrierisland. Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Sci- ence. 18;19'1-208. Modde, T. and S.T. Ross.1981. Seasonality of fishes occupying a surf zone habitat in the Smith,T.I.J. 1973. The commercialfeasibility of northern Gulf of Mexico. Fish. Bull. rearing pompano Trachinotuscarolinus Lin- 78!:911-922. naeus!, in cages,Florida SeaGrant Technical Bulletin No. 26,Coral Gables,FL: University Moe,Jr., M.A., R.H. Lewisand R, M, Ingle.1968. of Miami SeaGrant CollegeProgram. Janu- Pompanomariculture: preliminary data and ary 1973. NOAA 2-35147. basic considerations. Florida Board Conser- vation, TechnicalSeries. 55, 65 pp. Soletchnik, P., E. Thouard, D. Gallet de Saint- Aurin, M. Suquet,P. Hurtaud and J.P.Mes- Monroe Jr., S.R. 1971. Use of antibiotic sensitiv- douze. 1988. Overview of the studies ity tests in controlling diseases of tank- conductedon thefinfish palometa Trachino- reared pompano, ln: Proceedingsof the tus gooder!in Martinique French West In- World Mariculture Society, 1st Annual dies!. Doc. Sci. Pole Rech, Oceanol. Halieut. Workshop. pp. 137-140. Caraibe. 18:1-1 8.

Mueller, K.W., W.O. Watanabe, and W.D. Soletchnik,P., E. Thouard and M. Suquet.1987. Head. 1994. Occurrence and control of Summaryof dataon therearing of two tropi- Neobenedeniamelleni Monogenea:Capsali- cal fishesin Martinique: The yellowtail dae!in cultured tropical marinefish, includ- snapper Ocyurus chrysurus! and the uacuNure of Florfda Porn ano and other Jacks

palometa Trachinotusgooder!. Doc. Sci. Pole Tatum, W.M. 1972.Comparative growth, rnor- Rech,Oceanol. Halieut. Caraibe.9:1-69 pp. tality and efficiency of pompano Trachino- tus carolinus! receiving a diet of ground Suquet, M,, P, Soletchnik, E. Thouard and J,P, industrial fish with those receiving a diet of Mesdouze. 1988. Spawning of palometa trout chow. In: Proceedings of the 3rd An- Tra&jnotusgooder! m captivity Doc.Sci. Pole nual World Mariculture Society Workshop. Rech. Oceanol. Halieut, Caraibe. 18:1-18. pp. 65-74.

Tatum, W.M. and W.C. Trimble. 1978 Thouard, E., P. Soletchnik and J.P. Marion. Monoculture and polyculture ponds studies 1990.Selection of finfish speciesfor aquacul- with pompano Trachinotus carolinus! and ture development in Martinique French shrimp Penaeusaztecus, P. duorarum,and P. West Indies!. Aquaculture. 89!:193-197. setiferus!in Alabama, 1975-1977.Proc. World Maricult. Soc. 9:433-446. Trimble, W.C. 1980. Production trials for monoculture and polyculture of white Tatum, W.M. 1973. Comparative growth of shrimp Penaeusvannamer! or blue shrimp pompano Trachinotus carolinus! in sus- P. stylirostris! with Florida pompano pended net cages receiving diets of a float- Trachinotus carolinus! in Alabama, 1978- ing trout chow with those receiving a 1979. Proc. World Maricult. Soc. 11:44-59. mixture of 50% trout chow and 50% sinking ration. In: Proceedings 4th Annual World Williams, S., R.T. Lovell and J.P. Hawke. 1985. Mariculture Society Workshop. 125-141. Value of menhaden oil in diets of Florida pompano. Prog.Fish Cult. 47!:159-165.