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Download PDF Version Here #®πæ∞µ∫ ©∞™¨µª¨µ®π¿ ®π≤∫ªØ¨©∞™¨µª¨µ®π¿∂≠"Ø®π≥¨∫#®πæ∞µ∫©∞πªØ∂µ%¨©πº®π¿®µ´ªØ¨ ªØ ®µµ∞Ω¨π∫®π¿ ∂≠ ªØ¨ ∑º©≥∞™®ª∞∂µ ∂≠ .µ 3ب .π∞Æ∞µ ∂≠ 2∑¨™∞¨∫ ∂µ " -∂Ω¨¥©¨π $ #®πæ∞µ∫ ∫ªº´¨µª ¿¨®π∫ ∞µ $´∞µ©ºπÆØ æ¨π¨ ®µ ∞¥∑∂𪮵ª ∑¨π∞∂´ ∞µ Ø∞∫ ∞µª¨≥≥¨™ªº®≥≠∂𥮪∞∂µ'بπ¨Ø¨¨µ™∂ºµª¨π¨´ªØ¨≠πº∞ª∫∂≠ªØ¨2™∂ªª∞∫Ø$µ≥∞Æت¨µ¥¨µª ≠π∂¥ªØ¨π¨Ω∂≥ºª∞∂µ®π¿Æ¨∂≥∂Æ∞™®≥ªØ¨∂π∞¨∫∂≠)®¥¨∫'ºªª∂µª∂∞¥∑∂𪮵ª®´Ω®µ™¨∫∞µ ¥¨´∞™®≥ ªØ¨∂π¿ ®µ´ ∑𮙪∞™¨ ®µ´ ®´Ω¨µªºπ∂º∫ ´¨Ω¨≥∂∑¥¨µª∫ ∞µ ªØ¨∂≥∂Æ∞™®≥ ®µ´ ∑Ø∞≥∂∫∂∑Ø∞™®≥ªØ∂ºÆت≠∂∫ª¨π¨´∞µªØ¨4µ∞Ω¨π∫∞ª¿®µ´ªØ¨"∞ª¿$ (µ™∂µ±ºµ™ª∞∂µæ∞ªØªØ¨4µ∞Ω¨π∫∞ª¿∂≠$´∞µ©ºπÆØ®µ´∂ªØ¨π2™∂ªª∞∫Ø®µ´4*/æ∞´¨ ®™®´¨¥∞™ ®µ´ ∫™Ø∂≥®π≥¿ ∞µ∫ª∞ªºª∞∂µ∫ ªØ¨ (µ∫ª∞ªºª¨ ≠∂π ´Ω®µ™¨´ 2ªº´∞¨∫ ∞µ ªØ¨ 'º¥®µ∞ª∞¨∫ 1( 2'2 ±∂∞µ¨´ ªØ¨ $´∞µ©ºπÆØ ™¨≥¨©π®ª∞∂µ∫ ≠∂π ªØ¨ ©∞™¨µª¨µ®π¿ ©¿ ∂πÆ®µ∞∫∞µÆ ® ∫¨π∞¨∫ ∂≠ 3#∞®≥∂ƺ¨∫ æ∞ªØ #®πæ∞µ' #®πæ∞µ ®µ´ $´∞µ©ºπÆØ4$ 3ب ≠∞Ω¨ ∫¿¥∑∂∫∞® ب≥´ ∞µ ªØ¨ ∫∑π∞µÆ ∂≠ ¨ø∑≥∂π¨´ ®∫∑¨™ª∫ ∂≠ Ø∞∫ æ∂π≤ ∞µ 2™∂ªª∞∫Ø ™∂µª¨øª∫ ∞µ™≥º´∞µÆ ™∞π™º¥µ®Ω∞Æ®ª∞∂µ ®µ®ª∂¥¿ ªØ¨∂≥∂Æ¿ ®µ´ ¨Ω∂≥ºª∞∂µ ∞ª∫¨≥≠$ 3∂ƨªØ¨π ªØ¨∫¨ ª®≥≤∫ ®µ´ ´∞∫™º∫∫∞∂µ∫ ≥¨´ ©¿ ® ∫¨π∞¨∫ ∂≠ ∞µª¨πµ®ª∞∂µ®≥ ®µ´ ≥∂™®≥ ¨ø∑¨πª∫∂≠≠¨πµ¨æ®µÆ≥¨∫≠∂πºµ´¨π∫ª®µ´∞µÆ#®πæ∞µ®∫©∂ªØ®™®ª®≥¿∫ª∞µªØ¨©π∂®´¨π $µ≥∞Æت¨µ¥¨µª∑π∂±¨™ª®µ´®¥∂´¨≥≠∂π∞ª∫∫º©∫¨∏º¨µª∞¥∑®™ª$%π∂¥/®ªπ∞™≤&¨´´¨∫ ª∂ "Ø®π≥¨∫ !¨≥≥ ª∂ )®¥¨∫ "π∞™Øª∂µ/!π∂浨 ªØ¨ $´∞µ©ºπÆØ ™∂µµ¨™ª∞∂µ ∂≠≠¨π∫ ® π∞™Ø ≤®≥¨∞´∂∫™∂∑¨∂≠Ø∞∫ª∂π∞™®≥®µ´∞µª¨≥≥¨™ªº®≥≥∞µ≤∫$ 3ب ∫∑¨®≤¨π∫ ∞µ ªØ¨ ∫¨π∞¨∫ æ¨π¨ /π∂≠¨∫∫∂π (®µ #ºµ™®µ 14µ∞Ω¨π∫∞ª¿ ∂≠ "®≥∞≠∂πµ∞® !¨π≤¨≥¨¿2 ∂µ 3#®πæ∞µ "∞π™º¥µ®Ω∞Æ®ª∞∂µ ®µ´ ªØ¨ ¨∫ªØ¨ª∞™∫ ∂≠ 6∂π≥´ '∞∫ª∂π¿4< /π∂≠¨∫∫∂π#®Ω∞´%¨πƺ∫∫∂µ14µ∞Ω¨π∫∞ª¿∂≠$´∞µ©ºπÆØ2∂µ3#®πæ∞µ∞µ2™∂ª≥®µ´4< #π$6®≥ª¨π,$2ª¨∑بµ1≠∂π¥¨π"Ø®∞π¥®µ∂≠ªØ¨2∞π/®ªπ∞™≤&¨´´¨∫,¨¥∂π∞®≥3πº∫ª2 ∂µ3"Ø®π≥¨∫#®πæ∞µ'2∂¥¨2™∂ªª∞∫Ø"∂µµ¨™ª∞∂µ∫4<#π$&π¨Æ∂π¿1®´∞™≤14µ∞Ω¨π∫∞ª¿ ∂≠+¨¨´∫2∂µ3$´∞µ©ºπÆØ$µ≥∞Æت¨µ¥¨µª®µ´#®πæ∞µ∫ $ø∑π¨∫∫∞∂µ∂≠ªØ¨$¥∂ª∞∂µ∫ 4< ®µ´1¨Ω´$#π$)∂ص/∂≥≤∞µÆØ∂πµ¨12ª$$´¥ºµ´∫"∂≥≥¨Æ¨"®¥©π∞´Æ¨2∂µ3$Ω∂≥Ω∞µÆ "𨮪∞∂µ4$ $®™Ø ∑®∑¨π ∞∫ ∑º©≥∞∫ب´ ∫¨∑®π®ª¨≥¿ ∞µ ªØ∞∫ ∫¨π∞¨∫ ∂≠ ( 2' .™™®∫∞∂µ®≥ /®∑¨π∫$ Charles Darwin – Some Scottish Connections by Walter M. Stephen Institute for Advanced Studies in the Humanities The University of Edinburgh 2009 2ª¨∑بµ6®≥ª¨π "Ø®π≥¨∫#®πæ∞µ/2∂¥¨2™∂ªª∞∫Ø"∂µµ¨™ª∞∂µ∫ 3Ø∞∫∫¨π∞¨∫∂≠∂™™®∫∞∂µ®≥∑®∑¨π∫∞∫∑º©≥∞∫ب´©¿ 3ب(µ∫ª∞ªºª¨≠∂π ´Ω®µ™¨´2ªº´∞¨∫∞µªØ¨'º¥®µ∞ª∞¨∫ 3ب4µ∞Ω¨π %©ºπ& *! 8≤27®π¨ $´∞µ©ºπÆØ$'-6 /º©≥∞∫ب´-∂Ω¨¥©¨π "∂∑¿π∞ÆتA6®≥ª¨π,$2ª¨∑بµ ≥≥π∞Æت∫π¨∫¨πΩ¨´$-∂∑®πª∂≠ªØ∞∫!º©≥∞™®ª∞∂µ¥®¿©¨π¨∑π∂´º™¨´ ∫ª∂π¨´ ∂π ªπ®µ∫¥∞ªª¨´ ∞µ ®µ¿ ≠∂π¥ æ∞ªØ∂ºª ªØ¨ ¨ø∑π¨∫∫ æπ∞ªª¨µ ∑¨π¥∞ $ ,((-"/B (2:-B//CBC/D/ , 2'.™™®∫∞∂µ®≥/®∑¨π∫ About the author Walter M. Stephen, MA, MEd, PhD, FSAScot was, successively, Principal Teacher of Geography in schools in Fife and Edinburgh, Adviser in Social Subjects in Edinburgh and Senior Adviser (Curriculum) in Lothian. He established and operated Castlehill Urban Studies Centre for over twenty years. It was the first successful Urban Studies Centre in Britain and a late 20 th century expression of the ideas and methods of Patrick Geddes. As recreation at this period he led community classes and research groups. His study of the rise and fall of a Fife oil-shale enterprise and community was described as ‘a model of its kind’. Papers were published in journals as diverse as The Dominie , Scottish Educational Journal , Scottish Mountaineering Club Journal , The Journal of Industrial Archaeology , The Bulletin of Environmental Education and the Proceedings of the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland . On retirement he spent some time devising curriculum packages linking particular local environments with the teaching of particular sections of national guidelines, for which no provision had been made, locally or nationally. From 2004 onwards he has been responsible, as author or editor/contributor, for a range of publications. As a former Chairman of the Sir Patrick Geddes Memorial Trust he planned, edited and contributed to Think Global, Act Local: The Life and Legacy of Patrick Geddes , A Vigorous Institution: The Living Legacy of Patrick Geddes and Exploration , a field manual inspired by Geddes. Where was Patrick Geddes Born? solved the mystery of his birthhouse. Walter Stephen edited and introduced new editions, in 2006, of Victorian Willie Park Junior’s books The Game of Golf (1896; the first book about golf written by a professional) and The Art of Putting (1920), as well as Willie Park Junior: The Man who took Golf to the World , nominated for the US PGA Book of the Year Award. He also edited and introduced A Herd of Red Deer (Luath Press, 2008), by Frank Fraser Darling, the first naturalist to study large mammals – the Scottish red deer – in their own habitat. Synopsis Darwin did not burst, perfectly formed, from the brow of some goddess. Indeed, if we are to believe Stephen Baxter, Darwin was well into adulthood before he could see clearly. In Revolutions in the Earth (2003) Baxter wrote: ‘In the nineteenth century even Charles Darwin would graduate from Cambridge University believing that the world was six thousand years old, give or take.’ Can we believe this? And if we do, how could Darwin have come through two years of the Edinburgh system of his time - still ‘a hotbed of genius’ - untouched by the currents of thought around him? The concept of ‘deep time’ was necessary for evolution and natural selection to work; when did Darwin acquire it? And why did he feel it necessary to conceal its acceptance? Walter Stephen examines the conflicting evidence from Darwin’s student days, and from the Beagle voyage, to reveal a complicated mixture of diffidence, ambiguity and reluctance to offend. In the second half of the paper Walter Stephen considers the case study of Patrick Geddes, a young man from a very modest background in a small provincial city, with the sketchiest of qualifications, who was able to break into the upper echelons of the scientific society of the later nineteenth century, aided in part by Darwin. Geddes later had a role in the dissemination and interpretation of Darwin’s ideas and Stephen shows how the interpretation became more subtle with the passage of time. (µªπ∂´º™ª∞∂µ E, ¨¨µªØ ™¨µªºπ¿ ¨ "Ø®π≥¨∫ #®πæ∞µ æ∂º≥´ Æπ®´º®ª¨ ≠π∂¥ "®¥©π∞´Æ¨ 4µ∞Ω¨π∫∞ª¿ ©¨≥∞¨Ω∞µÆ ªØ®ª ªØ¨ æ∂π≥´ æ®∫ ∫∞6 º ®π ≥´ & $ 5 ( ! :6 1¨Ω∂≥ºª∞∂µ∫∞µªØ¨$®πªØ 1C2$ F0 ®πæ∞µØ® & % & G E & / & F5 !! 6 7 & &$ , ! & 7 E & ! 3 ! 4 ! & ! & % & , ! & 6! E5 = : E( !! $5 7 ' & & ! 7 !! F + & E 8 9 , 6 &8 9 $5 E8 9 ≥≥ ´¨ ™π∞©¨ ®µ´ ®µ®≥¿∫¨ &¨´´¨∫∫π∂≥¨∞µªØ¨´∞∫ ®µ´∞µª¨π∑𨪮ª∞∂µ∂≠#®πæ∞µ∫ ∞´¨®∫$ /®πª ( ( 3Ø𨨠,¨µ ∞µ ® !∂®ª ,) 8®¿≠®∞π´¨∫™π∞©¨´®∫Ø∂πª±∂ºπµ¨¿©¿©∂®ª™®ππ∞¨´∂ºª ©¿ªØ𨨥¨µ∂≠ªØ¨$µ≥∞Æت¨µ¥¨µª<ªØ¨¿æ¨π¨)∂ص/≥®¿≠®∞π)®¥¨∫ 'ºªª∂µ®µ´2∞π)®¥¨∫'®≥≥æØ∂∞µBØ®´∫®∞≥¨´≠π∂¥#ºµÆ≥®∫∫ π∂ºµ´ ªØ¨ !¨πæ∞™≤∫Ø∞π¨ ™∂®∫ª ª∂ 2∞™™®π /∂∞µª$ ∫ /π∂≠¨∫∫∂π ∂≠ -®ªºπ®≥/Ø∞≥∂∫∂∑Ø¿/≥®¿≠®∞π1B"/2æ®∫' ™®∫ª∞µµ®ªºπ¨∫Ø®∑∑∞¨∫ª¥∂º≥´®™ºª¨™≥¨®π™∂¥∑π¨Ø¨µ∫∞Ω¨ ®µ´Ø®Ω∞µÆ®≥≥ªØ¨Ø∞Æبπ∏º®≥∞ª∞¨∫∂≠∞µª¨≥≥¨™ª™∂¥©∞µ¨´®µ´ π¨Æº≥®ª¨´ ©¿ ªØ¨ ¥∂∫ª ∑¨π≠¨™ª Æ∂∂´ ª®∫ª¨ ©¨∞µÆ µ∂ª ≥¨∫∫ ∑¨π≠¨™ª∞µØ∞∫¥∂π®≥ªØ®µ∞µØ∞∫∞µª¨≥≥¨™ªº®≥µ®ªºπ¨$'¨æ®∫® ¥®µ¨Ω¨π¿æ®¿´∞∫ª∞µÆº∞∫ب´π¨∫∑¨™ª¨´®µ´©¨≥∂Ω¨´$ 2∞π )®¥¨∫ '®≥≥ æ®∫ ªØ¨ ≠∞π∫ª ª∂ ´¨¥∂µ∫ªπ®ª¨ ¨ø∑¨π∞¥¨µª®≥≥¿ Ø∂æ ≥∞¥¨∫ª∂µ¨ æ®∫ ¥¨ª®¥∂π∑Ø∂∫¨´ ∞µª∂ ¥®π©≥¨ æØ∞≥¨ 'ºªª∂µ 1BD/ BB2æ®∫®´∂™ª∂πæØ∂Ø®´∫ªº´∞¨´®Æπ∞™º≥ªºπ¨®µ´ª®≤¨µº∑ªØ¨ ∑𮙪∞™®≥ ®∑∑≥∞™®ª∞∂µ∫ ∂≠ ™Ø¨¥∞∫ªπ¿ ¥∂Ω∞µÆ ∞µª∂ ƨ∂≥∂Æ¿ ∞µ BD$ 3ب¿≥®µ´¨´®ª2∞™™®π/∂∞µª®µ´®∫/≥®¿≠®∞πæπ∂ª¨3æ¨≠∂ºµ´ªØ®ª 樮™ªº®≥≥¿ªπ∂´¨∂µªØ¨∑π∞¥¨Ω®≥π∂™≤4$3بÆπ∂º∑∑π∂™¨¨´¨´ª∂ ®µ®≥¿∫¨ ªØ¨ ∑®≥∑®©≥¨ ¨Ω∞´¨µ™¨ ∂≠ ƨ∂≥∂Æ∞™®≥ ´¨∑∂∫∞ª∞∂µ$ 6¨ ¥¿ ∫º¥¥®π∞∫¨ ∞ª ®∫ ≠∂≥≥∂æ∫$ (µ æØ®ª º∫¨´ ª∂ ©¨ ≤µ∂æµ ®∫ 2∞≥ºπ∞®µ ª∞¥¨∫∫Ø®≥¨∫®µ´∂ªØ¨ππ∂™≤∫æ¨π¨≥®∞´´∂浺µ´¨π殪¨π$ 2 %∞ƺπ¨2∞™™®π/∂∞µª/Ø®∫¨ . ! ! ®≥≥¿æ∂πµ®æ®¿©¿æ∞µ´®µ´æ®ª¨π$ %∞ƺπ¨2∞™™®π/∂∞µª/Ø®∫¨ (µ ªØ¨ ∫º©∫¨∏º¨µª .≥´ 1¨´ 2®µ´∫ª∂µ¨ ∑¨π∞∂´ ªØ¨ 2∞≥ºπ∞®µ π∂™≤∫ æ¨π¨™∂Ω¨π¨´©¿æ®ª¨π®µ´¥∂π¨∫¨´∞¥¨µª∫æ¨π¨≥®∞´´∂æµ$3ب∫¨ 3 ™≥º´¨´ ∫®µ´∫ª∂µ¨ ® π∂™≤/≥∞≤¨ ∫®µ´∫ª∂µ¨ æØ∞™Ø ™∂µª®∞µ¨´ ≠π®Æ¥¨µª∫≠π∂¥ªØ¨2∞≥ºπ∞®µπ∂™≤∫$ %∞ƺπ¨ 2∞™™®π/∂∞µª/Ø®∫¨ 3ب ≥∞µ¨ ∫¨∑®π®ª∞µÆ ªØ¨ 2∞≥ºπ∞®µ π∂™≤∫ ≠π∂¥ ªØ¨ µ¨æ¨π ∫¨´∞¥¨µª∫ ®©∂Ω¨ ∞∫ ™®≥≥¨´ ®µ Eºµ™∂µ≠∂π¥∞ª¿ ®µ´ π¨∑π¨∫¨µª∫ ªØ¨ ¨®π≥∞¨π ¨øª¨µ´¨´ ∑¨π∞∂´ ∂≠ º∑≥∞≠ª ®µ´ ¨π∂∫∞∂µ ≠∂≥≥∂樴 ©¿ ∫º©¥¨πƨµ™¨ ®µ´´¨∑∂∫∞ª∞∂µ∂≠ªØ¨∫®µ´∫ª∂µ¨$ %∞ƺπ¨!2∞™™®π/∂∞µª/Ø®∫¨! 4 3ب .≥´ 1¨´ 2®µ´∫ª∂µ¨ æ®∫ Ø∂π∞¡∂µª®≥ ®µ´ ºµ´¨π 殪¨π æبµ ∞ª∫ ∫¨´∞¥¨µª∫ æ¨π¨ ®™™º¥º≥®ª∞µÆ$ -∂æ ∞ª ∞∫ ∫≥∞Æت≥¿ ª∞≥ª¨´ ®µ´®©∂Ω¨∫¨®≥¨Ω¨≥$3Ø∞∫ª∞≥ª∞µÆ®µ´º∑≥∞≠ª¥º∫ª®≥∫∂Ø®Ω¨ª®≤¨µ® ≥∂µÆ ª∞¥¨$ /≥®¿≠®∞π æ®∫ ™≥¨®π≥¿ ¥∂Ω¨´ ©¿ ªØ¨ ∑π∂™¨∫∫¨∫ ©¨∞µÆ π¨Ω¨®≥¨´ª∂Ø∞¥∫∂™≥¨®π≥¿' 6¨∂≠ª¨µ∫®∞´ª∂∂ºπ∫¨≥Ω¨∫6Ø®ª™≥¨®π¨π¨Ω∞´¨µ™¨™∂º≥´æ¨ Ø®Ω¨Ø®´∂≠ªØ¨´∞≠≠¨π¨µª≠∂𥮪∞∂µ∂≠ªØ¨∫¨π∂™≤∫®µ´∂≠ªØ¨ ≥∂µÆ ∞µª¨πΩ®≥ æØ∞™Ø ∫¨∑®π®ª¨´ ªØ¨∞π ≠∂𥮪∞∂µ Ø®´ æ¨ ®™ªº®≥≥¿ ∫¨¨µ ªØ¨¥ ¨¥¨πÆ∞µÆ ≠π∂¥ ªØ¨ ©∂∫∂¥ ∂≠ ªØ¨ ´¨¨∑F 6¨≠¨≥ª∂ºπ∫¨≥Ω¨∫™®ππ∞¨´©®™≤ª∂ªØ¨ª∞¥¨æبµªØ¨∫™Ø∞∫ªº∫ æ®∫ ∫ª∞≥≥ ®ª ªØ¨ ©∂ªª∂¥ ∂≠ ªØ¨ ∫¨®I µ ¨∑∂™Ø ∫ª∞≥≥ ¥∂π¨ π¨¥∂ª¨ ∑π¨∫¨µª¨´ ∞ª∫¨≥≠I 1¨Ω∂≥ºª∞∂µ∫ ∫ª∞≥≥ ¥∂π¨ π¨¥∂ª¨ ®∑∑¨®π¨´∞µªØ¨´∞∫ª®µ™¨∂≠ªØ∞∫¨øªπ®∂π´∞µ®π¿∑¨π∫∑¨™ª∞Ω¨$ 3ب¥∞µ´∫¨¨¥¨´ª∂Æπ∂æÆ∞´´¿©¿≥∂∂≤∞µÆ∫∂≠®π∞µª∂ªØ¨ ®©¿∫∫∂≠ª∞¥¨$ /≥®¿≠®∞π∫ ™∂¥∑®µ∞∂µ )®¥¨∫ 'ºªª∂µ æ®∫ µ∂ª ®≥∂µ¨ µ∂π ªØ¨ ≠∞π∫ª∞µØ∞∫ ! º≥®ª∞∂µ®©∂ºªªØ¨Ω¨π¿≠ºµ´®¥¨µª®≥∂π∞Æ∞µ∫∂≠ªØ¨ ∑≥®µ¨ª$%∂πØ∞¥EªØ¨∑π¨∫¨µªæ®∫ªØ¨≤¨¿ª∂ªØ¨∑®∫ª®µ´ªØ¨π¨≠∂π¨ ªØ¨π¨ æ®∫ µ∂ µ¨¨´ ≠∂π ∫º∑¨πµ®ªºπ®≥ ¨ø∑≥®µ®ª∞∂µ∫$ 6Ø®ª æ®∫ ∫®∞´ ©¿ Ø∞¥ ∞µ ªØ¨ E(µªπ∂´º™ª∞∂µ ª∂ Ø∞∫ 3ب∂π¿ ∂≠ ªØ¨ $®πªØ 1B2 ∞∫ æ∂πªØπ¨∑¨®ª∞µÆ'E6¨≠∞µ´µ∂Ω¨ & ¨&&! ! 5 ®µ¨µ´/®µºµ™∂¥≠∂𪮩≥¨ªØ∂ºÆتæØ∞™Ø¥®µ¿®ªªØ¨ª∞¥¨®µ´ ≥®ª¨πØ®Ω¨™Ø∂∫¨µª∂¥∞∫ºµ´¨π∫ª®µ´$ 'ºªª∂µ∫ ®™™∂ºµª ∂≠ E´¨¨∑ ª∞¥¨ æ®∫ ∞µ≠≥®¥¥®ª∂π¿ ∞µ ∞ª∫ ™∂µª¨øª$ !∞∫Ø∂∑ )®¥¨∫ 4∫∫بπ ∞µ D º∫¨´ ªØ¨ .≥´ 3¨∫ª®¥¨µª ª∂ ∫®¿ ªØ®ª ªØ¨ æ∂π≥´ æ®∫ ™π¨®ª¨´ ∂µ ªØ¨ .™ª∂©¨π "" !" ® 2®ªºπ´®¿ ®©∂ºª ∫∞ø ∞µ ªØ¨ ¨Ω¨µ∞µÆ$ 3ب )¨æ∫ ≤¨∑ª ∞µ ∫ª¨∑ ¨∫ª∞¥®ª∞µÆ
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