e PlUriBUs UnUm

THE BRADLEY PROJECT ON AMERICA’S NATIONAL IDENTITY “Citizens“Citizens byby birthbirth oror choice,choice, ofof aa commoncommon country,country, thatthat countrycountry hashas aa rightright toto concentrateconcentrate youryour affections.affections. TheThe namename ofof AMERICAN,AMERICAN, whichwhich belongsbelongs toto you,you, inin youryour nationalnational capacity,capacity, mustmust alwaysalways exaltexalt thethe justjust pridepride ofof PatriotismPatriotism ….”….”

-- GeorgeGeorge Washington,Washington, FarewellFarewell AddressAddress e PlUriBUs UnUm

THE BRADLEY PROJECT ON AMERICA’S NATIONAL IDENTITY

June 2008 Contents

exeCutive summary 1

introduCtion 8

BeinG an ameriCan 9

a nation Based on an idea 16

a shared history 23

BeCominG ameriCans 31 to provide for the Common defense 38

the unum is ameriCa 41

ConClusion 45

aCknowledGments 51 the Bradley projeCt on ameriCa’s national identity I e pluribus unum I 1

exeCutive summary

america is facing an identity crisis. the identity, 63 percent believe this iden- next generation of americans will know tity is weakening. almost a quarter—24 less than their parents know about our percent—believe we are already so di- history and founding ideals. and many vided that a common national identity is americans are more aware of what divides impossible. in their minds, it is already us than of what unites us. we are in danger too late. and young people—on whom our of becoming not “from many, one”— continued national identity depends— e pluribus unum—but its opposite, “from are less likely than older americans to be one, many.” proud of their country or to believe that it the Bradley project on america’s has a unique national identity. this is an national identity was created to initi- identity crisis. ate a national conversation on ameri- can national identity, and to affirm the A Nation Based on an Idea belief that what unites us is far greater america is unique among nations in be- than what divides us. a sense of national ing founded not on a common ethnicity, identity is necessary to enable individuals but on a set of ideas. a nation founded on to transcend self-absorption and commit ethnicity perpetuates itself by the fact to the common good. without it, america of birth. But a nation founded on an idea can neither perpetuate its institutions nor starts anew with each generation and with defend itself. each new group of immigrants. knowing to inform its work, the Bradley proj- what america stands for is not a genetic in- ect asked harrisinteractive to conduct heritance. it must be learned, both by the a study on americans’ views on national next generation and by those who come to identity. while 84 percent of the respon- this country. in this way, a nation founded dents still believe in a unique american on an idea is inherently fragile. and a na- 2 I the Bradley projeCt on ameriCa’s national identity I e pluribus unum

tion that celebrates the many ways we are those “mystic chords of memory” that different from one another must remind abraham lincoln believed held our coun- itself constantly of what we all share. try together. The teaching of American history A Shared History should include America’s great public a history is to a people what a biogra- documents and speeches, and books phy is to an individual. “history,” wrote with compelling narratives. And the president john f. kennedy, “is the means period of the American founding by which a nation establishes its sense should be emphasized at all levels, of identity and purpose.” But america’s including high school, by teachers memory appears to be slipping away. on who have majored in history. students the 2006 national assessment of edu- should first be taught about America’s cational progress (naep) Civics test, great heroes, dramatic achievements the majority of eighth graders could not and high ideals so they can put its explain the purpose of the declaration failings in perspective. meaningful, of independence. only five percent of balanced history best prepares young seniors could accurately describe the way people for informed democratic par- presidential power can be checked by ticipation. Congress and the supreme Court. College does little to close the civic the reasons for this failing are not literacy gap. studies show that large hard to find—boring textbooks that lack numbers of college seniors, even at elite narrative drive, a neglect of america’s universities, cannot correctly identify ma- heroes and dramatic achievements, cur- jor national figures such as james madi- riculum standards that push the found- son or phrases such as “government of the ing period out of high school into the people, by the people, and for the people.” lower grades, and teachers inadequately they are unable to define representative prepared in american history. too often, democracy or the separation of powers. students are taught more about america’s most colleges do not require an ameri- failings than its successes. absent are can history or american government the Bradley projeCt on ameriCa’s national identity I e pluribus unum I 3

course. where history is taught, it is often taught as a fragmented history, a history of this or that group, not of the nation as a whole. Colleges and universities should require for graduation a comprehen- sive course on American national his- tory and government that includes the nation’s great public documents and speeches. the preservation of american memory is not solely the task of our schools and colleges. we all have an obligation to remember what we owe to those who have gone before us. schools used to be named after american heroes such as nathan hale and Clara Barton instead of just east metropolis junior high. that practice should be restored. on the fourth of july, identity and as educational opportuni- we need not only celebrate with fireworks, ties. but also honor that dramatic moment there was a time when all of us, and when the colonists first declared to the especially our nation’s schoolchildren, nations of the world that america was free celebrated George washington’s and and independent. Families, schools and abraham lincoln’s birthdays. today these colleges, businesses and civic organi- great national holidays are collapsed into zations, and government at all levels a generic presidents’ day, as if millard should keep American memory alive fillmore and Chester a. arthur were by treating national holidays and his- being honored. Washington and lin- toric sites such as mount Vernon and coln’s birthdays should be restored as Gettysburg as touchstones of national 4 I the Bradley projeCt on ameriCa’s national identity I e pluribus unum

distinctive celebrations in place of the who come to this country, the more cru- generic presidents’ Day. cial it is that all become americans in the there are dangers to certain kinds of fullest sense. america has successfully patriotism, but there are equal dangers met this challenge in the past and can do to no patriotism at all. there is a middle so again, but it will take effort. newcom- ground, “a patriotism of principles,” to ers to America should be encouraged use the language of the american federa- to participate fully in American social, tion of teachers, based on “a common economic, and civic life. core of history [that] binds us together.” in a nation that celebrates its diver- americans should embrace an informed sity, we need to remind ourselves that we patriotism that expresses our devotion to are also part of “one nation indivisible.” our country and our bond with our fellow americans by a margin of 80 percent to citizens. nine believe that our schools should focus on american citizenship, not ethnic iden- Becoming Americans tity. majorities of latinos (70 percent) from the beginning, america has been, and african-americans (54 percent) among other things, “a nation of immi- agree. parents of schoolchildren, regard- grants,” and today the statue of liberty less of background, also concur. eighty- and ellis island are among our most cher- nine percent of parents overall believe ished national symbols. many americans “there’s too much attention paid these accepted, even welcomed immigrants. days to what separates different ethnic and most immigrants embraced america, and racial groups and not enough to what enjoying its many freedoms and often they have in common.” relishing their newfound identity. they at one time there was an urgent insisted their children learn english and concern for recognizing our differences, quickly became known as among the na- which allowed the contributions of minor- tion’s most patriotic citizens. ities and immigrants to be fully told. But today immigration is at its highest today there is also a yearning for national levels since the 1920s. the more people unity and common purpose, a desire to the Bradley projeCt on ameriCa’s national identity I e pluribus unum I 5

appreciate what is great about america, people,” but “we the peoples.” the new and not just to dwell on its past wrongs. attitude favors dual citizenship, multi- schools and colleges, businesses lingual ballots, and bilingual instruction and civic associations, and all levels rather than english immersion. instead of government should promote of one america, there are voices for many special programs as well as special americas, or even no america at all. few occasions that focus on what unites would intend this result, but it may be the us as Americans. inevitable consequence of citizens not the kind of unity americans celebrate being able to communicate in a common does not demand uniformity. on the language and placing other loyalties above contrary, it provides opportunities within their allegiance “to the flag and the repub- which our distinctive ethnic traditions lic for which it stands.” We should not can flourish. it is fine if we all together adopt policies that perpetuate divi- celebrate our mutual differences—e sion or that compromise our national pluribus unum with the pluribus alive allegiance. and well—but it can be a problem if each the tendency to separatism is some- group just nurtures its own differences— times unintended, the byproduct of pluribus without the unum. america is well-meaning efforts to make minori- enriched by diversity. it is preserved by ties comfortable. some universities, for unity. While appreciating the benefits example, have separate freshmen orien- of diversity, Americans should affirm tations, separate housing, and separate their commitment to national unity, graduation ceremonies for different a shared culture, a common language, ethnic groups. such programs have the and defining ideals. unfortunate consequence of perpetuating today the opposite idea seems to be divisions. universities, businesses, and taking hold. with single-minded em- civic institutions should avoid policies phasis on our differences, every group is and arrangements that may tend to encouraged to retain its separate identity. stereotype and divide Americans. the united states is no longer “we the 6 I the Bradley projeCt on ameriCa’s national identity I e pluribus unum

To Provide for the Common Defense pus and should give the same access to one of the things that unites us as ameri- military recruiters as they do to other cans is that, put simply, we are all in the employers. same boat. we share a common future, we face common dangers, and we must The Unum is America Citizenship is of a nation, and democratic provide a common defense. if the nation citizenship is of a democratic nation. But is threatened, we are all at risk. part of some believe the idea of national citizen- american identity is being a citizen of a ship is outmoded, not in keeping with the strong nation. accompanying and rein- requirements of a global economy or the forcing that identity must be respect for challenges of world peace. soldiers. looking at the global economy, it the solemn rows of silent graves at seems to some that nations pose a bar- arlington national Cemetery are a som- rier to the efficient movement of workers, ber reminder that the blessings of liberty investment, and technology. But there come at a price. a nation cannot long are other values at stake, such as what survive without full respect and support american companies owe to their fellow for those willing to pay that price. Our citizens and to the nation that charters schools and colleges, businesses, and and protects them. as captains of industry civic groups should take time to recog- like howard hughes and henry j. kaiser nize and honor those who are serving proved in world war ii, patriotism and in the armed forces. good business do not have to be adver- the nation benefits from educated saries. American companies should soldiers. unfortunately, many colleges understand that they have special do not have on-campus rotC programs obligations to the united states and to and some vocally oppose military recruit- their fellow citizens at home. ment on campus. this sends the wrong some educators also think the idea of message to young people willing to serve national citizenship is outmoded. phrases their country. Colleges and universities such as “global citizenship” and “citizens should have rOTC programs on cam- the Bradley projeCt on ameriCa’s national identity I e pluribus unum I 7

of the world” are more commonplace franklin said—and it was no metaphor— in educational discussions today than “yes, we must, indeed, all hang together, “patriotism” and “national unity.” as one or most assuredly we shall all hang educator puts it, the unum is not america, separately.” whatever the future may but the globe. hold, america dare not face it divided and these discussions are not merely unsure. academic. they influence what the next A presidential Award for American generation will be taught. since a person Citizenship should be created. The cannot literally be a “citizen” of the world award would provide recognition at or of a continent or any other geographi- the highest level to students and new cal entity, the idea of “global citizenship” citizens who demonstrate exemplary confuses and undermines meaningful understanding of and commitment to civic education. Civic education should American ideals and institutions. be based on the distinctive features of each period of american history citizenship in American democracy, confronts many problems, but only two not on the misleading idea that one or three great issues. the great presidents can be a “citizen” of the world. succeeded because they provided leader- ship on behalf of national unity, common Conclusion purpose, and shared sacrifice.i n short, in 1776, americans put their lives on the they reminded americans of who we are line by declaring independence. they and what unites us. knew that, should they fail, none would survive. from this point on, Benjamin 8 I the Bradley projeCt on ameriCa’s national identity I e pluribus unum

introduCtion America is facing an identity crisis.

the next generation of americans will know and 72 percent are concerned about ethnic, less than their parents about our history and cultural and political divisions. almost a founding ideals. and many americans are quarter—24 percent—believe we are already more aware of what divides us than of what so divided that a common national identity unites us. we are in danger of becoming not is impossible. in their minds, it is already too “from many, one”—e pluribus unum—but late. even more troubling, young people— its opposite, “from one, many.” on whom our continued national identity in a series of working group meet- depends—are less likely than older ameri- ings held in 2007, the Bradley project on cans to believe in a unique national identity america’s national identity brought to- or in a unique american culture.2 gether leading historians, political scientists, all this represents a sea change. un- journalists, public figures, and educators, less these attitudes change, we could face to examine four aspects of american life cru- a future in which most americans will not cial to american identity: historical memory, champion american identity, will not be civic education, immigration, and national proud of their country, and will allow fellow security.1 citizens to have competing allegiances to to inform its work, the Bradley proj- other countries. a nation whose citizens no ect asked harrisinteractive to conduct longer feel national pride or a unique a study on americans’ views on national allegiance to their own country is a nation identity. the good news is that 84 percent that has lost its sense of national identity of the respondents still believe in a unique and perhaps its will to survive. this is an american identity. the bad news is that 63 identity crisis. percent believe this identity is weakening, the Bradley projeCt on ameriCa’s national identity I e pluribus unum I 9

Chapter 1 BeinG an ameriCan America is unique among nations in being founded not on a common ethnicity, like France or Japan, but on a set of ideas. our first founding document, the declara- cible of our own history, most severely by tion of independence declares, “we hold what lincoln called that “great civil war, these truths .…” these truths include “life, testing whether that nation, or any nation liberty, and the pursuit of happiness,” so conceived … can long endure.”3 ideals that continue to animate the repub- the declaration of independence pro- lic. our governing document, the Consti- claims the preeminent values of liberty, tution, begins, “we the people,” not we the equal rights, and self-government: “gov- states, as some wanted, and certainly not ernments are instituted among men, de- we the partisan factions or ethnic groups. riving their just powers from the consent if we ask what unites us, the first answer of the governed.” the preamble to the is: the ideals announced in the declara- Constitution emphasizes the importance tion of independence and implemented in of unity, justice, national defense, and “the the Constitution. blessings of liberty.” the rights of citi- these ideals are not a set of abstract zens are spelled out in the Bill of rights: propositions. they are embodied in amer- to speak freely, to assemble peaceably, to ican civic life and culture. they are based petition, to have trial by jury, to worship on a history that traces back to magna freely. and on the Great seal the founders Carta and the common law, to athenian inscribed their conviction that america democracy and the hebrew covenant. was to be “a new order for the ages.” we they have been tested again in the cru- were to be an experiment in democratic 10 I the Bradley projeCt on ameriCa’s national identity I e pluribus unum

self-government that would provide an an american, then, is not defined by example for all mankind. race, religion, or ethnicity, but by faith in George washington in his farewell ad- freedom, loyalty to democratic ideals, and dress advised americans to be patriotic, fidelity to theu .s. Constitution. in 1943, moral, and religious. thomas jefferson president franklin d. roosevelt stated: stressed unity in his first inaugural ad- … Americanism is a matter of the mind dress, reminding a divided nation, “we are and heart; Americanism is not, and never all republicans, we are all federalists.”4 was, a matter of race and ancestry. A good Condemning a series of lynchings in the American is one who is loyal to this country 1830s, a young abra- and to our creed of lib- ham lincoln urged that erty and democracy.7 reverence for the law “This American creed “become the political is the cement in the an american religion of the nation.”5 diversified structure pledges allegiance, not of this great nation …. and in 1963 on the steps to his family tree, nor The American Creed of the lincoln memo- to his political party or represents the national rial, martin luther conscience.” country of origin, but king invoked “the to the american repub- – Gunnar Myrdal magnificent words of lic and to “liberty and the Constitution and justice for all.” Com- the declaration … [as] a promissory note” ing from all parts of the world, holding a to all americans.6 vast array of religious and other beliefs, the emancipation proclamation, the competitive in the marketplace and often women’s suffrage amendment, and the partisan in their politics, americans of Civil rights act of 1964 are all landmarks all backgrounds and persuasions are held that emerged from the founding ideals. together, first and foremost, by loyalty to our flag, our pledge, our anthems, our these democratic ideals and a commit- holidays, our monuments, and our coins ment to the nation that upholds them. all reflect this creed. the Bradley projeCt on ameriCa’s national identity I e pluribus unum I 11

What does it mean to be an American? describe what emotions i feel when the when asked in the harris survey, “what national anthem is sung and to say the does it mean to you to be an american?” pledge of allegiance.” respondents, in their own words, reiter- since their beginnings in the eigh- ated the elements of the american found- teenth century, american democratic ing idea, stressing above all freedom: free ideals gradually gained acceptance, then speech, free enterprise, free movement, swept through the world in the late twen- freedom of religion, freedom of opportu- tieth century, allowing some scholars to nity, political freedom, freedom from fear designate america as the fi rst universal and tyranny, freedom to own property, nation. in 1910, ten nations were democ- freedom to get a good education, and racies; by 2005, one hundred nineteen of freedom to pursue happiness. speaking the world’s one hundred ninety countries for many, one respondent wrote, “i am a had become democracies.8 as commenta- member of the only country founded on tor fareed Zakaria notes, “democracy has an ideal.” gone from being a form of government to in addition to freedom, respondents in a way of life.”9 the democratic ethos is the harris survey stressed the importance critical to american identity and, since no of the Constitution, the rule of law, fair- american is a born democrat, democracy ness, patriotism, a common language, and must be taught in families, schools, the american way of life. many mentioned universities, communities, and the pride and gratitude. one wrote, “i cannot workplace. 12 I the Bradley projeCt on ameriCa’s national identity I e pluribus unum

The American Character tive workaholics, skilled capitalists, and america, however, is more than an idea. influential inventors. from the beginning, america is a way of life. early commen- americans had a high degree of literacy tators observed an abundance of land; and respect for education. thomas jeffer- large families, and assertive children; son reminded citizens, “if a nation expects the importance of religion; an astonish- to be ignorant and free … it expects what ing array of voluntary associations; and a never was and never will be.”12 only an hard-working population that was merito- educated population could vote, evaluate cratic, materialistic, competitive, and on legislation, serve in Congress, sit on juries, the move. america was seen, above all, as a and perpetuate democracy. By the end of land of opportunity.10 the nineteenth century, america had cre- many of these characteristics remain ated the most ambitious, comprehensive today. americans work more hours and public school system in the world. a hun- take fewer vacations than do citizens dred years later, it could boast a massive of other countries. they have positive system of public higher education. attitudes towards work. they remain from the beginning, americans also fiercely competitive and achievement- preferred private giving and philanthropy oriented, proudly individualistic, fanati- to government assistance. they have do- cally entrepreneurial. americans lead the nated astonishing sums of money to thou- world in productivity, patents, and nobel sands of voluntary associations, churches, prizes.11 Quintessential capitalists, they art museums, hospitals, and universities. are experts at invention, manufacturing, at the end of the nineteenth century, eng- and marketing. the result is a dynamic lishman james Bryce observed that “there economy in which our richest people are is in the united states a sort of kindliness, self-made billionaires who, imitating a sense of human fellowship, a recognition andrew Carnegie, give most of it away. of the duty of mutual help owed by man america, then, is more than an idea to man, stronger than anything in the old and also more than a nation of competi- world….” 13 the Bradley projeCt on ameriCa’s national identity I e pluribus unum I 13

ladder, for achievement. from humble beginnings, Ben franklin became a phi- lanthropist, abraham lincoln a lawyer, thomas edison an inventor, henry ford a manufacturer, dwight eisenhower a general, harry truman a president. in a letter to john adams, thomas jefferson described his vision of an aristocracy of virtue and talent: “an insurrection has consequently begun, of science, talents, and courage against rank and birth, which have fallen into contempt.”15

The American Dream jefferson’s vision has become the ameri- can dream—a singular term suggesting optimism and opportunity, reward for hard work, respect for talent, the chance to get ahead and to have a plot of land and america was also the land of equal a home of one’s own. opportunity, shunning titles of nobility, when alexis de tocqueville visited aristocrats and fixed social classes.h ere, america in 1831, he observed religious said j. hector st. john de Crèvecoeur, an fervor, patriotism, and optimism. the early observer of the american character, characteristics tocqueville noted in the “… the idle may be employed, the use- early nineteenth century are now con- less become useful, and the poor become firmed by polls in the twenty-first century. rich.”14 in america, one could find land america is a remarkably religious nation, and jobs and unlimited outlets for ambi- reporting high rates of church attendance, tion, for moving up the socio-economic 14 I the Bradley projeCt on ameriCa’s national identity I e pluribus unum

prayer, and belief in God and an afterlife. a powerful corrective for the mistakes more than europeans, americans connect of history, a beacon for a better future. morality to religion. out of their religious american history abounds with corrective commitment, they give billions of dollars examples. elizabeth Cady stanton quoted to their churches, money that supports from the declaration of independence buildings, but also a staggering array of to secure women’s rights. prisoners in social services spread across the globe. japanese-american internment camps in Gallup polls conducted in thirty cited america’s founding ideals when countries, americans emerged as the they requested an apology and compensa- most optimistic. in America Against the tion from the united states Government. World, andrew kohut and Bruce stokes when martin luther king jr. campaigned write, “americans are more optimistic for civil rights, he turned to the words of and happier than most people….” 16 and in thomas jefferson, who owned slaves but American: Beyond Our Grandest Notions, wrote: “all men are created equal.” Civil Chris matthews observes, “we are both rights leader roger wilkins notes that reluctant warriors and people of action. despite our shortcomings, we lionize heroic losers and champion the … there is also something incredibly underdog. through it all, we remain the right here. This isn’t the country that Wash- most optimistic people on the planet.”17 ington and Adams and Jefferson and Madi- americans fly their flag more often and son and Hamilton and Franklin founded. celebrate more national holidays than It is not the country of Lincoln, of Teddy citizens of other nations. in the harris Roosevelt, or even FDR. It is so much better. survey, 94 percent of the respondents said And it is largely because of the civic ideal- they were proud to be an american. ism and the structure of national ideals .…18 the american creed puts forth lofty ideals and at the same time calls for ongo- in short, being an american involves ing amendment of america’s weaknesses, an ethos as well as ideas, a way of life as the Bradley projeCt on ameriCa’s national identity I e pluribus unum I 15

well as a commitment to common values. ied in distinctive attitudes to everything it is based on a history that stretches into from how we worship to how we make our the ancient past and that has tested us living. Beneath it all is an appreciation of severely on this continent. it is embod- freedom and a respect for one another. 16 I the Bradley projeCt on ameriCa’s national identity I e pluribus unum

Chapter 2 a nation Based on an idea There is a challenge that lies at the heart of what it is to be an American. A nation founded on ethnicity perpetu- ates itself by the fact of birth. But a nation founded on an idea starts anew with each generation and with each new group of immigrants.

in this way, a nation founded on an idea is kennedy, whose forebears came to this inherently fragile. and a nation that not country in the late nineteenth century, as only allows but also celebrates the many to the daughters of the american revolu- ways we are different from one another tion whom franklin roosevelt addressed must constantly remind itself of what we as fellow immigrants.19 new pedigrees are all share. as good as old when it the first challenge “We hold these truths to be comes to being an ameri- self-evident, that all men are is that our founding can. created equal, that they are principles, our demo- our history, institu- endowed by their Creator cratic institutions, and with certain unalienable tions, and ideals must be our common past must Rights, that among these taught not only to those be taught and learned. are Life, Liberty, and the who come here, but also new citizens, who adopt pursuit of Happiness.” to those who are born this country as their – The Declaration of here. american democ- home, are expected to Independence racy presupposes ameri- accept american ideals can national identity. and institutions and its history as their Government by the people requires an own. the history of america belongs as american people who share a civic culture much to irish americans like john f. and commitment to democratic self-gov- the Bradley projeCt on ameriCa’s national identity I e pluribus unum I 17

ernment. Civic education is central to the tional progress Civics test, the majority perpetual renewal of american self-un- of eighth graders could not explain the derstanding. it promotes national identity purpose of the declaration of indepen- and national unity by describing ameri- dence. only five percent of seniors could can democratic institutions, enumerating accurately describe the way presidential the obligations of citizenship, analyzing power can be checked by Congress and the our founding documents, and reminding supreme Court.21 americans not only of their rights but also and college does little to close the civic of their responsibilities—to be informed, literacy gap, even at elite universities. to vote, to serve on juries, to participate in Losing America’s Memory, a landmark voluntary associations. forty of our state study by the american Council of trust- constitutions stress the importance of ees and alumni in cooperation with the civic education. Center for survey research and analysis john adams advised, “Children should at the university of Connecticut, studied be educated and instructed in the princi- the 55 top-ranked colleges and universi- ples of freedom”20—a statement endorsed ties. while 99 percent of the seniors could by all the founders. since democrats are identify Beavis and Butthead and 98 made, not born, public schools in the nine- percent snoop doggy dogg, less than one teenth and twentieth centuries assumed in four could identify the phrase “govern- an obligation to teach principles of free- ment of the people, by the people, and for dom in what came to be called “the civic the people” as coming from the Gettys- mission of schools.” burg address. most were unable to define representative democracy or the separa- Civic Literacy Gap tion of powers. the study also showed that But today american civic identity is none of the colleges required american threatened by a lethal combination of ig- history of their students.22 norance and apathy, and the civic commit- these results have been confirmed re- ment of schools needs to be renewed. on cently by surveys reported in The Coming the 2006 national assessment of educa- Crisis of Citizenship by the intercollegiate 18 I the Bradley projeCt on ameriCa’s national identity I e pluribus unum

studies institute. on a sixty-question test of independence, the Constitution, on basic themes in american history, gov- and the great speeches and debates. ernment, and economics, college seniors The period of the American found- averaged a failing 53.2 percent. more than ing should be emphasized at all levels, half could not identify the opening words including high school. of the declaration of independence, define representative democracy, or Social Fragmentation a related problem is social fragmentation. explain separation of powers.23 a few years ago, harvard political scientist other surveys show that many adults robert putnam wrote a book, Bowling cannot name a member of the supreme Alone, that captured one aspect of the phe- Court or the vice president of the united nomenon—social isolation.25 in his 2007 states and that many citizens have no report, E Pluribus Unum: Diversity and clear understanding of the rights granted Community in the Twenty-first Century, by the first amendment.24 americans he described problems that can result attend schools for more years than ever when people withdraw into their own before, but increased schooling has not neighborhoods. produced higher levels of civic knowledge. [They] tend to withdraw from collective The teaching of American history life, to distrust their neighbors, regardless should be strengthened by includ- of the color of their skin, to withdraw even ing more compelling narratives and from close friends, to expect the worse from primary texts, such as the Declaration the Bradley projeCt on ameriCa’s national identity I e pluribus unum I 19

their communities and its leaders, to vol- schools require one government course, unteer less, give less to charity and work on compared with three before the 1960s.28 community projects less often, to register to Growing up in the 1950s, new york mayor vote less, to agitate for social reform more, michael Bloomberg remembers learning but have less faith that they can actually about america by reading Johnny Tremain make a difference, and to huddle unhappily and reciting longfellow’s “paul revere’s in front of the television ….26 ride.” Bloomberg told a Newsweek re- porter “i am a believer in what i learned in this social fragmentation, putnam seventh-grade civics.”29 believes, “seems to bring out the turtle when loosely defined college require- in all of us.”27 ments are no longer driven by students’ paralleling social fragmentation is intellectual needs, civic education is the diminished trust in political leaders, the loser. as professor harry lewis, former media, the professions, business, unions, dean of harvard College, explains, and universities. in the harris survey, … students are much more interested in more than half said that political leaders, taking courses on the American Republic media and entertainment figures do not than professors are in teaching them. At share their values. it is true that young research universities, especially, where the people are realistic, tolerant, and inclined rewards come for creativity and novelty, to volunteer; however, some are turned the subject is not trendy enough for most off by partisan strife and the tendency to professors.30 divide america into political camps. and young americans skeptical about public this, says lewis, explains the mas- life will not likely develop a strong civic sive decline in broad american history identity. courses at the college level documented by historically, schools promoted our aCta and isi. Civic education, instead, is unity; today they emphasize differences. increasingly replaced by “service learn- in the past, schools required an ex- ing” and related programs that engage tended study of government. today, high students in community service but cannot 20 I the Bradley projeCt on ameriCa’s national identity I e pluribus unum

substitute for an understanding of this sandel reminds his colleagues that “… nation’s founding ideals of liberty, equality good citizenship also requires a certain and self-government, or its long struggle moral disposition—or orientation to com- to live up to them. mon purposes rather than simply to my the founders emphasized a connec- own individual interests.”31 tion between character and citizenship. in the 1776 virginia Bill of rights, james Informed Patriotism william damon, professor of education at madison wrote that a free government stanford university, argues forcefully that could be preserved only by “a firm adher- rather than assuming from the outset a ence to justice, moderation, temperance, failed america, “students need to be given frugality and virtue,” the essential traits of a sympathetic introduction to the work- democratic character. today many politi- ings of a democracy if they are to become cal philosophers concur with madison’s good critics of the democracy.”32 they insight. harvard professor michael the Bradley projeCt on ameriCa’s national identity I e pluribus unum I 21

need to see first whata merica does well professor john patrick warns that the before they see where america falls short. civic mission of schools is being eclipsed Patriotism, damon notes, has become a by an emphasis on group identities.35 in forbidden word in academic circles. when a diverse nation that celebrates ethnic it comes up, “the goal is usually to find pride, american students need to under- ways to guard against its dangers.”33 stand that they also are part of “one nation there are dangers to certain kinds of indivisible.” our shared allegiance to patriotism, but there are equal dangers america and its principles is the founda- to no patriotism at all. there is a middle tion of civic education. ground, a higher ground, that the ameri- the harris survey found that ameri- can federation of teachers calls “a com- cans by a margin of 80 percent to nine mon civic identity based on a patriotism believe that our schools should focus on of principles” grounded in “a common american citizenship, not ethnic identity. core of history [that] binds us together” majorities of latinos (70 percent) and and “unites us in a shared undertaking african-americans (54 percent) agree. that is both our past and our future.”34 the parents of schoolchildren, regardless of aft report, Education for Democracy, was background, also concur. according to a signed by a wide range of americans, from yankelovich/public agenda survey, 89 Bill Clinton and ted kennedy to jeane percent of parents overall, 88 percent of kirkpatrick and thomas kean. Ameri- african-american parents, and 80 per- cans should embrace an informed pa- cent of latino parents believe “there’s triotism that expresses our devotion too much attention paid these days to to our country and our bond with our what separates different ethnic and racial fellow citizens. groups and not enough to what they have in common.” moreover, 84 percent of par- Teaching that Unites ents overall, 81 percent of african-amer- a narrow emphasis on the ways we are dif- icans, and 80 percent of latino parents ferent also endangers american citizen- would be “upset or somewhat concerned” ship. in a recent essay, indiana university if their child were “taught that america 22 I the Bradley projeCt on ameriCa’s national identity I e pluribus unum

was, and still is, a fundamentally racist appreciate what is great about america country.”36 and not to dwell on its past wrongs. at one time there was an urgent schools and colleges, businesses concern for recognizing our differences, and civic associations, and all levels of which allowed the contributions of mi- government should promote special norities and immigrants to be told. there programs as well as special occasions has been great progress on that front. But that focus on our national ideals and today there is also a yearning for national what unites us as Americans. unity and common purpose, a desire to the Bradley projeCt on ameriCa’s national identity I e pluribus unum I 23

Chapter 3 a shared history A history is to a people what a biography is to an individual. What amnesia is to an individual, loss of civic and historical memory is to a nation. we need to know who we have been to describes only 14 percent of seniors at or understand who we are. historian Gordon above “proficient” in historical knowl- wood explains: edge and understanding and 53 percent We Americans have a special need to as “below basic.” moreover, the numbers understand that our history is what makes of those “proficient” among children of us a nation and gives us a sense of our na- recent immigrants is considerably lower, tionality. A people like us, made up of every indicating a special challenge if we are to conceivable race, ethnicity, and religion in prepare these newcomers for informed the world, can never be a nation in the usual participation in democratic institutions.38 sense of the term. It’s our history, our heri- at the college level, students are tage, that makes us a single people…. Up equally ignorant. the american Council until recently almost every American, even of trustees and alumni study found that, those who are new immigrants, possessed even at elite universities, only a third of some sense of America’s past, however graduating seniors knew that washing- rudimentary and unsophisticated. Without ton—not ulysses s. Grant—commanded some such sense of history, the citizens of at the battle of yorktown, the culminating the United States can scarcely long exist as battle of the american revolution. only a united people.37 one in four knew that james madison was known as “the father of the Constitution” today there is a drumbeat of evidence or that the Battle of the Bulge took place that our national memory is ebbing away. in world war ii. most could not identify the most recent naep report Card 24 I the Bradley projeCt on ameriCa’s national identity I e pluribus unum

the opening words of the declaration of had, and more distractions: one hundred independence.39 tests sponsored by the channels, the internet, video games, intercollegiate studies institute showed sports events, ipods, cell phones, and that seniors, even at elite universities, movies that all banish history from our did not have any more historical and civic attention. knowledge than when they entered as and our schools do not compensate for freshmen. they had forgotten as much as these distractions. Group-produced text- they had learned.40 books are poorly written “The mystic chords of and lack narrative drive. Lost Memory memory, stretching at the k-5 level, history where history is taught, it from every battlefield takes a back seat to math- is often taught as a frag- and patriot grave to ematics and reading. in every living heart and mented history, a history hearthstone all over this grades 6-12, history teach- of this or that group, not of broad land, will yet swell ers in many states are not the nation as a whole. and the course of the Union, required to major in their it is often taught with a when again touched, as subject. one-sided emphasis on the surely they will be, by the teachers must depend failings of america to the better angels of on state curriculum frame- neglect of our successes, as our nature.” works that are wary of if the aim of civic educa- – Abraham Lincoln facts and chronology, and tion were to make students that tend to push the foun- ashamed of their country instead of dational period of american history out of committed to its ideals. absent are those high school into the lower grades. histo- “mystic chords of memory” that lincoln rian sheldon stern recently analyzed the believed held our country together. advanced placement u.s. history curricu- in a sense, it may not be natural for lum and praised it for the rigor of its test americans to connect to history. we are but concluded, “almost completely miss- present-minded and future-oriented. we ing is the story of the origins of american have more leisure time than our ancestors liberty and equality, the common civic the Bradley projeCt on ameriCa’s national identity I e pluribus unum I 25

in American history should be major components of the social studies and reading curricula in K-5. The founding period should be covered at all levels, including the senior year. And teach- ers of history should be required to major in history. at the college level, students are rarely required to take an american history or american government course.42 Business majors have increased; history majors have declined. increasingly, students report that the goal of a liberal arts educa- tion is to get a good job, rather than to reflect on life’s meaning or to prepare for a life of active civic participation. professors core that became our nation’s defining prefer to teach their specialty rather than characteristic.”41 introductory courses. and social history, Textbooks should be supplemented which focuses often on the history of par- with primary documents and books ticular groups, is displacing the political, by authors such as David mcCullough diplomatic, and military history that tends and Doris Kearns Goodwin that tell to present the larger national narrative about the lives and events that con- that unites all americans. as Gordon stitute the drama of American his- wood comments, tory. A foundation for understand- For much of the academy, constitu- ing American history should be laid tional history, with its concentration on the in the primary grades by including actions of dead white males, is much too national holidays, heroes, songs, and old-fashioned, and not to be compared in poems. stories of heroes and heroines importance with cultural and social history, 26 I the Bradley projeCt on ameriCa’s national identity I e pluribus unum

especially of the sort focusing on issues of Constitution, and other primary texts race and gender …. An understanding of such as great speeches, the Federalist our constitutional past would seem to be an papers, and landmark supreme Court integral part of a liberal-arts education, but decisions. Faculty should be hired who few of our undergraduates have an oppor- are prepared to teach these subjects, tunity to gain such an understanding.43 not just narrower specialties. not only do students know less his- the same could be said for other as- tory, the history they know is grim: the pects of national history. historian robert puritans banished roger williams, the david johnson has documented a star- Constitution ignored women, thomas tling decline of new faculty positions in jefferson owned slaves, andrew jackson political, military, diplomatic, and consti- caused the trail of tears, nativism tar- tutional history. he concludes, “there are nished immigration, andrew Carnegie whole segments of the american past that fought with workers. while all these state- are simply being eliminated through staff- ments are true, they need to be balanced ing decisions.”44 by competing truths: puritan strength in some universities, courses on the of purpose, the Constitution’s wisdom, american political tradition have been de- thomas jefferson’s genius, andrew veloped in the government departments. jackson’s courage, immigrant gratitude, these courses also make an important andrew Carnegie’s generosity. contribution to civic education, but they a 2000 report from the american are rarely required for graduation. textbook Council concludes, “the Colleges and universities should old master narratives in yesteryear’s require knowledge of America’s textbooks—faith in progress and patri- national history and its democratic otic pride—have vanished, too rosy and political tradition as a condition of innocent in view. what has replaced them graduation. Courses in American his- is too often a nation that has repeatedly tory and government should include fallen short of its ideals ….” instead, young the Declaration of independence, the people “learn about a nation’s shame- the Bradley projeCt on ameriCa’s national identity I e pluribus unum I 27

ful past, learning about events in such a the seneca falls declaration of senti- way as to undercut civic confidence and ments; the emancipation proclamation; trust.”45 as Chester finn, former assis- jim thorpe’s triumph at the olympics; tant secretary of education, notes, the Charles lindbergh’s flight over the at- grim and gloomy school is ascendant and lantic; american troops on normandy social studies teachers are “inclined to beach; martin luther king jr.’s “i have view america’s evolution as a problem a dream”; and ronald reagan’s “mr. for humanity rather than mankind’s last, Gorbachev, tear down this wall.” momen- best hope.”46 american history properly tous events—battles, speeches, heroes and taught improves judgment and increases monuments—evoke gratitude, pride, and wisdom. it also promotes national iden- sorrow. tity and national unity by recalling to our mind stirring events and phrases such The Mirror of History “history,” wrote president john f. kennedy, as daniel webster’s “liberty and union, “is the means by which a nation establishes now and forever, one and inseparable”; its sense of identity and purpose.”47 we see 28 I the Bradley projeCt on ameriCa’s national identity I e pluribus unum

who we are, walter lippmann once wrote, ber what we owe to those who have gone in “the mirror of history.” before us. Businesses and civic groups, to the credit of contemporary ameri- neighborhoods and families should all can historians, our portrait of the ameri- take pride in our heritage and create op- can past is more realistic and complex portunities to honor it. schools used to than those of triumphalist historians and be named after american heroes such as includes coverage of groups previously nathan hale and Clara Barton instead of marginalized. and an inevitable tension just east metropolis junior high. that exists between the desire to confront practice should be restored. on the fourth the harsher side of reality, which often of july, we need not only celebrate with intrigues historians, and the need to in- fireworks, but also honor that dramatic spire students with the nation’s ideals and moment when the colonists first declared struggles, which remind us of our com- to the nations of the world that america mon cause. was free and independent. there was a schools should not slight their civic time when all of us, and especially our na- mission by giving students the impres- tion’s schoolchildren, celebrated George sion that America’s failures are more washington’s and abraham lincoln’s noteworthy than America’s achieve- birthdays. we looked with awe and ap- ments. They should begin with the preciation at the enormous accomplish- study of America’s great ideals, heroes, ments of these two great leaders without and achievements, so that its struggles whom we might not be a nation. today can be put in perspective. A broad- these great national holidays are collapsed minded, balanced approach to the into a generic presidents’ day, as if mil- American story best prepares young lard fillmore and Chester a. arthur were people for informed democratic being honored. participation. Washington’s and lincoln’s birth- the preservation of american memory days should be restored as distinctive is not solely the task of our schools and celebrations in place of the generic colleges. it is fitting that all of us remem- presidents’ Day. the Bradley projeCt on ameriCa’s national identity I e pluribus unum I 29

university of Chicago professor amy director at mount vernon, confirms this kass suggests the creation of an american impression: “families no longer know the Calendar that marks through the course of significance of mount vernon or monti- the year those individuals and events that cello or Bunker hill. yet these are the only have defined the nation. these days pres- places our history becomes literally visible ent opportunities for schools and civic and tangible.” organizations, not only to honor those organizations are already beginning who gave us the nation we inherited, but to address the problem. the Bill of rights also to enhance the civic education of all institute produces extensive classroom of us. in a similar vein, Gordon wood ad- materials incorporating the use of amer- vocates the concept of “sites of memory” ica’s founding documents. the national developed by pierre nora in france. he endowment for the humanities funds points out that young people no longer seminars for school teachers to study with know what fort sumter is, or appomat- scholars at historical sites of national sig- tox, or yorktown. james rees, executive nificance. neh chairman Bruce Cole also 30 I the Bradley projeCt on ameriCa’s national identity I e pluribus unum

recently announced a new program being at least one trip annually to a national sent to libraries and schools around the landmark to feel and live the history that country: “picturing america,” a presenta- is america. tion of forty dramatic images that tell the Families, schools and colleges, busi- story of our nation. nesses and civic organizations, and teachers and students can mark governments at all levels should keep washington’s birthday by restoring his American memory alive by treating portrait to a place of honor and celebrat- national holidays and historic sites as ing his character, leadership, and accom- touchstones of national identity and plishments. and families can schedule as educational opportunities. the Bradley projeCt on ameriCa’s national identity I e pluribus unum I 31

Chapter 4 BeCominG ameriCans Early poets and writers celebrated America as a refuge, a fresh start, and a land of freedom, opportunity and wealth. among those who signed the declaration came the Catholic Church’s patron saint of independence were eight first-gener- of immigrants. from all over the world, ation immigrants; among those who led america lured the ambitious, talented and americans in the revolutionary war were enterprising. from the beginning, ameri- john paul jones, born in scotland, and ca has been, among other things, “a nation alexander hamilton, born in the west in- of immigrants,” and today the statue of dies. americans welcomed immigrants— liberty and ellis island are some of our and immigrants came by the millions: most cherished national symbols. before and after the revolution, during this large-scale immigration was not the irish potato famine and the european without friction. new england protes- revolutions of 1848, during the period of tants shunned Catholics and claimed european population growth in the late immigrants brought diseases and crime. 1800s, and when steamships shortened workers in California said the Chinese the passage to america. immigrants built were the wrong color and worked for low the erie Canal and the transcontinental wages. at the same time, some immigrants railroad. they fought in union armies. a found it difficult to adjust to the norms hungarian immigrant, joseph pulitzer, and mores of their new home. prejudice founded the St. Louis Post-Dispatch; a and strife are clearly part of the historical scottish immigrant, alexander Graham record. equally important—and astonish- Bell, invented the telephone. frances ing from an historical perspective—was Cabrini came to america from italy to that prejudice did not lead to ethnic wars, organize schools and orphanages and be- that toleration prevailed over bigotry, 32 I the Bradley projeCt on ameriCa’s national identity I e pluribus unum

and that the overwhelming number of also loyal to the ideals of democracy— immigrants, a short-time removed from political equality, private property, and their native countries, became identified religious freedom—and eagerly embracing with america’s culture and institutions. the american proposition. German-speaking soldiers fought on the union side in the Civil war, japanese- First-Generation Americans those who arrived in the early decades american units had exemplary com- of the twentieth century were intensely bat records in world war ii, and today committed to becoming americans. americans whose ethnic heritages span when one immigrant wrote the globe are defending his autobiography, he america abroad. “You can go to live in proudly titled it The many americans ac- Turkey but you can’t Americanization of Ed- cepted, even welcomed become a Turk. You can’t go ward Bok, and his story immigrants. and most to live in Japan and become mirrored that of many immigrants embraced Japanese. But … anyone of his fellow immigrants. america, enjoying its from any corner of the world in the open response many freedoms and can come to America and be section of the harris often relishing their an American.” survey, one respondent newfound identity. what – Ronald Reagan wrote, “i am told that my made relative harmony great-great grandfather possible was the com- said the proudest day of his life was when bination of economic opportunity and a he legally became a united states citizen.” self-conscious effort to become ameri- these newcomers insisted their children cans. not merely a nation of immigrants, learn english and they quickly became america was a nation of immigrants who known as among the nation’s most patri- were expected to—and usually did—fully otic citizens. embrace their new country. assimilated new immigrants and citizens alike immigrants rapidly became americans, understood that a common language and not only grateful for land and jobs, but the Bradley projeCt on ameriCa’s national identity I e pluribus unum I 33

common loyalties promoted social peace, immigrant. this change requires not only facilitated commerce, grounded civic par- passing a naturalization examination to ticipation, and mitigated social conflict. qualify, but learning a new language, navi- their insight is still valid as our newspa- gating a new culture, and obeying unfa- pers attest today. divided societies—ser- miliar laws. “this is what we as a country bia, lebanon, and kenya, for example— did a century ago with eastern european are fraught with tragic conflict. no nation immigrants,” former cabinet member is immune from such divisions; it requires henry Cisneros explains. “americans in effort to avoid them. and in an era of ter- the early 1900s were not shy about asking rorism, national unity is not just desirable, the new immigrants to learn to speak eng- it may be a condition of survival. lish and commit to their new country.”49 “america’s genius has always been it may not be easy, but full involvement assimilation, taking immigrants and in american life can offer enormous ad- turning them into americans,” observes vantages: upward mobility and economic journalist Charles krauthammer, himself opportunity. while immigrants often start a Canadian immigrant.48 Becoming a full at the bottom of the economic ladder, they partner in a new country is not easy on the tend not to stay there for long. “perhaps 34 I the Bradley projeCt on ameriCa’s national identity I e pluribus unum

the most striking pattern among american to ensure new citizens learn english, ethnic groups,” notes economist thomas understand democratic institutions, sowell, “is their general rise in economic and participate fully in the American conditions with the passage of time.”50 way of life. americans rightly prize their pluralism, The Challenge Today but pluralism presents a challenge as well today, it is estimated that one in eight as a blessing. harvard sociologist orlando people living in the united states is an im- patterson warns that, for all its benefits, migrant, the highest level since the 1920s. “… pluralism is socially divisive. no society the more people who come to this coun- can survive for long without a common set try, the more crucial it is that all become of values whereby other members can be full participants in american civic life and judged and consensus can be achieved.”51 culture. this goal is supported by 89 per- walter lippmann spoke of “the public cent of the public, according to the harris philosophy” as that framework of values survey. america has successfully met this and ideas that, broadly speaking, ameri- challenge in the past and can do so again, cans hold in common, and which provides but it will take effort. a reference point for resolving our debates in new york City the Gilder-lehrman and disagreements.52 institute of american history welcomes today a new philosophy, almost the new citizens with a compilation of histori- opposite of lippmann’s, seems to be taking cal documents and images as a tribute to hold. with single-minded emphasis on their new status. similar programs should our differences, every group is encouraged be established across the country. to retain its separate identity. the united newcomers to America should states is no longer “we the people,” but be encouraged to participate fully in “we the peoples.” to this way of thinking, American social, economic, and civic loyalty to one’s native land is as important life. efforts by government, as well as as loyalty to america, and the rewards of schools and colleges, businesses, and being in this country need not be repaid in civic organizations should be promoted undivided allegiance. the Bradley projeCt on ameriCa’s national identity I e pluribus unum I 35

the new attitude sanctions dual Overcoming Separatism citizenship, multilingual ballots, and we look to the public schools to fulfill bilingual instruction rather than eng- their civic mission. in 2001, sociologists lish immersion. instead of one america, alejandro portes and ruben rumbaut there are voices for many americas, or published a massive longitudinal study of even no america at all. few would intend 5,000 students with immigrant parents this result, but it may be the inevitable from all over the world. their study reveals consequence of citizens not being able an astounding fact: after four years in an to communicate in a common language american high school, immigrant youths and placing other loyalties above their were not more but less likely to consider allegiance “to the flag and the republic for themselves americans.54 this is not their which it stands.” fault; it is ours. according to various studies, social the tendency to separatism is some- fragmentation results in recent immi- times unintended, the by-product of grants more likely to date and marry only well-meaning efforts to make minori- within their own community, more likely ties comfortable. some universities, for to have divided loyalties, and more often example, have separate freshmen orien- indifferent to becoming full partners in tations for different ethnic groups. Col- american society.53 leges, in turn, set aside separate housing historical ignorance, civic neglect, and for students of various backgrounds. one social fragmentation might achieve what a university, for example, boasts four such foreign invader could not. dorms: Casa Zapata (Chicano, mexican- As we celebrate our diversity, we american), muwekma-tah-ruk (american should not adopt policies that perpetu- indian/alaska native american), okada ate division or that compromise our (asian-american), and ujamaa (Black/ pledge of allegiance to “one nation african-american).55 and, as their farewell indivisible.” to campus life, students now participate in separate graduation ceremonies at many 36 I the Bradley projeCt on ameriCa’s national identity I e pluribus unum

universities, receiving ethnic symbols as citizen and a good american citizen and their parting gift.56 students often report not have that be a conflict of interest. sov- warm bonds with their fellow ethnics, in ereignty is flexible.”58 part because of these experiences, but one for the late Congresswoman Barbara wonders how well they prepare the stu- jordan, sovereignty was not flexible, nor dents to think of themselves as americans. was being an american optional if you university of California linguistics profes- wanted to be a citizen. in 1995 she wrote a sor john mcwhorter, himself an african- powerful essay in the New York Times that american, is concerned: “Campuses are addressed the question head-on, not afraid precisely where many black students learn to use a now unfashionable term. “there’s a new separatist conception of being ‘black’ a word for all this,” she said, “it’s ameri- that they didn’t have.”57 canization. it’s the process of becoming universities, businesses, and american.”59 she understood that becom- civic associations should avoid poli- ing an american is not just a matter of cies and arrangements that may tend having your paperwork in order. it is also a to stereotype and divide Americans. matter of head and heart. instead, they should encourage pro- while public policy may sometimes be grams and practices that emphasize muddled on these issues, public opinion what unites us. is not. in the harris survey, respondents overwhelmingly supported assimilation “The Process of Becoming American” and americanization. eighty-nine percent reflecting the new way of thinking, the agreed that “americanization, including head of the office of new americans in learning english and embracing american illinois—the official in charge of drawing culture and values is important in order new citizens into american culture—was for immigrants to successfully fulfill their quoted in the Chicago Tribune as saying, duties as u.s. citizens.” the same poll “the nation-state concept is changing. revealed that 73 percent of respondents you don’t have to say, ‘i am mexican,’ or, ‘i agreed that individuals should be required am american.’ you can be a good mexican to give up loyalty to their former country the Bradley projeCt on ameriCa’s national identity I e pluribus unum I 37

when they become american citizens, and within which our distinctive family tradi- 84 percent believed that english should be tions can flourish. from st. patrick’s day the official language of the united states. to Cinco de mayo, americans are proud of in a recent rasmussen poll, 77 percent ethnic festivals, food, parades, and news- of americans said that those who move papers. it is fine if we all together celebrate to america from other countries should our mutual differences—e pluribus unum adopt american culture. only 13 percent with the pluribus alive and well—but it can indicated they believe immigrants should be a problem if each group just celebrates maintain the culture of their home coun- its own differences—pluribus without the try. most significantly, the rasmussen re- unum. whatever our attachments may port noted that these figures have changed be to family, neighborhood, or heritage, little over time.60 our allegiance must be to the nation that unlike europe, america welcomes and protects us and our freedoms. america is integrates immigrants who fully identify enriched by diversity. it is preserved by with their new country. this does not unity. require that they give up customs their While appreciating the benefits of families may have brought with them from diversity, Americans should affirm other lands. the kind of unity americans their commitment to national unity, celebrate does not demand uniformity. a shared culture, a common language, on the contrary, it provides opportunities and defining ideals. 38 I the Bradley projeCt on ameriCa’s national identity I e pluribus unum

Chapter 5 to provide for the Common defense One of the things that most unites Americans is that, put simply, we are all in the same boat.

we share a common future, we face solemn rows of silent graves at arlington common dangers, and we must provide national Cemetery are a somber reminder a common defense. if the economy that the blessings of liberty come at a weakens, we all suffer. if rights are not price. respected, no one’s rights are safe. if the a nation cannot long survive without nation is threatened, we are all at risk. But full respect and support for those willing we can defend only what to pay that price. as for- we believe in and, since “Our chief usefulness to mer harvard university the principles of this humanity rests on our president and secretary nation are not inherited, combining power with of the treasury lawrence they must be taught. high purpose.” summers has said, “we to provide for a com- – Theodore Roosevelt may wish that it were oth- mon defense, we must erwise, but in this world— have a commitment to one another, based at this time—we are free because we are on a common understanding of what it strong. and we must be grateful to those means to be an american. But intellectual who support the strength of our country: assent is not enough. our dedication to the men and women of the u.s. military.”61 america—as a land, as a people, and as a after vietnam, some americans lost set of ideals—must be passionate enough faith in a military that was accused not to fight for and, if necessary, to die for. the only of losing the war, but also of commit- the Bradley projeCt on ameriCa’s national identity I e pluribus unum I 39

ting atrocities. in the intervening years, Court to prevent it. whatever reasons americans’ lack of respect for our soldiers colleges may have for these attitudes, they and their profession has been somewhat certainly send the wrong signal to young repaired. the military has gained respect, people willing to serve their country. not only for being a fighting force but also Colleges and universities, as well for successfully running what has been as high schools, should have rOTC for called “the world’s largest school sys- students interested in military careers tem.” its contributions to american life and educational opportunities, and include, as former presidential advisor they should give the military the same william Galston observes, the fact that access to their campuses as other it has achieved “a stunning level of social employers. integration.”62 increasingly, young americans are uncomfortable with the military virtues of Supporting Our Military obedience, endurance, and self-sacrifice, the nation benefits from an educated preferring individualism, comfort, and military. many high schools have reserve affluence. in previous wars, everyone officers training Corps programs which knew about sergeant york, audie mur- make an important contribution to this phy, and Captain eddie rickenbacker. goal. unfortunately, many colleges refuse today awarding the Congressional medal to have rotC programs. some of our best- of honor to an american soldier who known colleges, including harvard, tufts, died fighting in iraq receives scant media and yale, allow students to participate in coverage. rotC programs only if they go off cam- it is obvious that soldiers must believe pus, requiring cadets to commute to other in the nation to fight effectively. less colleges, sometimes a great distance away. obvious is that civilians must believe in many colleges so strongly oppose mili- soldiers if the nation is to be defended. tary recruitment—while welcoming other kathy roth-douquet and frank employers—that they were willing to fight schaeffer, authors of the book AWOL, a losing battle all the way to the supreme have also bemoaned the relative 40 I the Bradley projeCt on ameriCa’s national identity I e pluribus unum

lack of ivy league graduates in the mili- send into harm’s way. moreover, we need tary. as roth-douquet, a Clinton white the largest pool of talent from which to house official, wrote in a 2006 commen- draw those troops. military work must not tary, “when the deciders are disconnected simply become fee for service.”63 from the doers, self-government can’t Our schools and colleges, business- work as it should.… we need to be intel- es, and civic groups should take time lectually capable … but we also need to be to recognize and honor those who are morally capable, which means we need a serving the nation in the armed forces. moral connection to those americans we the Bradley projeCt on ameriCa’s national identity I e pluribus unum I 41

Chapter 6 the unum is ameriCa The fact is that America is one nation among many, some of which do not share American values, much less our national interests. people can say, “we are citizens of the have no national home and confront no world,” but it is the nation—not the national barriers. or, as one educator puts world—that defends us. american democ- it, the unum is not america but the globe. racy exists; a world democracy does not. we vote in american elections, secure our Keeping American Business American what is an american businessman’s main rights in american courts, and call ameri- responsibility—to his country or to the can police when threatened. for all our bottom line? it’s an open question. look- vital interests, we look not to the world, ing at the global economy, it may seem to but to america. some that nations pose a barrier to the ef- some ask whether this kind of thinking ficient movement of workers, investment, is out of date and lacks vision. the very and technology—perhaps a compelling idea of nation-states, of national sover- analysis from a purely economic point of eignty, and of national defense may seem view. But there are other values at stake. to some an obstacle to international coop- there is what we owe one another. eration and peace. it may seem preferable one cannot readily dismiss the ben- to think in terms of global economies and efits of open world markets and a lively global ecologies, multinational institu- exchange of products, services, and ideas, tions and multinational corporations, but in the minds of many americans, the world citizenship and world courts. some question persists whether this economic dream of “a world without borders” in vision doesn’t leave something out—our which people, money, and information responsibility to the nation that char- 42 I the Bradley projeCt on ameriCa’s national identity I e pluribus unum

ters and protects american companies. democratic nation. one of the challenges respondents in the harris survey were we face is that the idea of national citizen- concerned that in a globalized world our ship is weakening. some believe the notion corporations have more loyalty to profits is outmoded. they think we are living in a than to america. sixty percent stated that “postnational” world and talk of “de-na- it is a “bad thing” that corporations “con- tionalizing” citizenship. some are sharply sider themselves to be global companies critical of the teaching of american history with no more responsibility to america precisely because it promotes a sense of than to any other country.” foreign common identity. these ideas represent policy expert walter mead observes, “you another severe challenge to our national do find today again a growing populist identity, namely, that some of our leading suspicion of whether big business is truly thinkers do not want us to have one. patriotic.”64 But patriotism and good these discussions are not merely aca- business do not have to be adversaries. demic. they influence what the next gen- in world war ii, captains of industry like eration will be taught. will they be taught howard hughes and henry j. kaiser put to be americans and to identify with the their country first and still built economic american past, or something quite differ- empires. ent? phrases such as “global citizenship” While American companies, es- and “citizens of the world” are more com- pecially multinational corporations, monplace in educational discussions today have responsibilities toward their than “patriotism” and “national unity.”65 partners abroad, they should under- this new thinking reflects in some stand their special obligations to the cases a utopian idealism, a naïve desire to united states and to their fellow citi- imagine a world without conflict—a noble zens at home. goal perhaps, but unrealistic. it reflects in other cases an economic vision—seeing Being Citizens of a Nation nations as inconvenient obstacles to free Citizenship is, by its very nature, national. market flows. democratic citizenship is citizenship in a the Bradley projeCt on ameriCa’s national identity I e pluribus unum I 43

writer Bruce Bawer warns about bureaucracies, now speak of a resulting a trade-off: “the more one considers “democracy deficit.” oneself a global citizen … the less one for those who accept the “post-nation- considers oneself an american citizen al” way of thinking, the rewards outweigh whose loyalty is to the Constitution and the risks, permitting authoritative global its creators.”66 George mason university solutions to global problems, even if these professor jeremy rabkin agrees. Global solutions violate the interests and over- governance has a nice ring, he believes, ride the laws of some countries. most but “it contradicts sovereignty, our right americans are not so sure. of respondents to be different.” educator sandra stotsky in the harris survey, 66 percent asserted approaches the issue in more concrete that when the u.s. Constitution and in- terms: “what does global citizenship then ternational law conflict, the Constitution consist of, to whom does one pay taxes, should be our higher legal authority. and for whom does one vote as one’s represen- 83 percent think of themselves as “more a tative or executive, where are the elec- citizen of the united states than a citizen tions and who will protect our individual of the world.” rights?” experts in international rela- since a person cannot literally be a tions, including those who welcome giving “citizen” of the world or continent or greater power to unelected international any other geographical entity, the idea of 44 I the Bradley projeCt on ameriCa’s national identity I e pluribus unum

“global citizenship” confuses and under- Civic education should be based mines meaningful civic education. young on the distinctive features of citizen- people need to understand that to be a ship in American democracy, not on citizen is to be the citizen of a nation, and the misleading idea that one can be a to be a democratic citizen is to be a citizen “citizen” of the world. of a democratic nation. the Bradley projeCt on ameriCa’s national identity I e pluribus unum I 45

ConClusion

In Union Square Park in New York City, a long lawn is flanked at one end by an equestrian statue of George Washington and at the other by a somber statue of Abraham Lincoln. in the center of the park is the indepen- nent universities, an influential culture, dence flagstaff constructed in 1926 to technological prowess, a strong military celebrate the 150th anniversary of u.s. under civilian control, a market economy independence. on the south side of the and private philanthropy, vigorous debate, staff, the declaration of independence a commitment to work and achievement, is inscribed in bronze. etched in stone increasing equality and declining racism, and encircling the staff are these words a diverse population, and a history that of thomas jefferson: “how little do my elicits pride. all these blessings are part of countrymen know what precious bless- the american identity, made possible by ings they are in possession of which no our founding principles, and paid for by other people on earth enjoy.” the triumphs and tragedies that mark our the Bradley project wishes to renew history. america’s focus on her blessings: unparal- in 1776, americans put their lives on the leled abundance, domestic peace, liberty, line by declaring independence. they knew equality of opportunity and entrepreneur- that, should they fail, none would survive. ship, the world’s first constitution and Benjamin franklin warned his colleagues, oldest lasting democracy, rule of law and “yes, we must indeed, all hang together, or respect for property, religious faith and most assuredly we shall all hang separate- religious liberty, patriotism and respect ly.” those options still face america, and for dissent, public education and preemi- we would be wise to heed his warning. 46 I the Bradley projeCt on ameriCa’s national identity I e pluribus unum

A presidential Award for American each period of american history Citizenship should be created. The confronts many problems, but only two award would provide recognition at or three great issues. the great presidents the highest level for individuals in have been those who faced these issues four categories—students, new citi- with courage and imagination. they zens, first generation Americans over succeeded because they provided leader- the age of 60, and Americans with at ship on behalf of national unity, common least one immigrant parent—for their purpose, and shared sacrifice.i n short, understanding of, and commitment to, they reminded us of who we are and what American ideals and institutions. unites us. the Bradley projeCt on ameriCa’s national identity I e pluribus unum I 47

enDnOTes

1. see acknowledgments. 2. harrisinteractive, E Pluribus Unum: A Study of Americans’ Views on National Identity, prepared for the Bradley project on america’s national identity, january 9, 2008, www.bradleyproject.org. 3. abraham lincoln, “Gettysburg address.” 4. thomas jefferson, “first inaugural address,” in Thomas Jefferson: Writings (new york: library of america, 1984), 493. 5. abraham lincoln, “lyceum address.” 6. martin luther king, jr., “i have a dream.” 7. franklin d. roosevelt, quoted in arthur m. schlesinger, jr., The Disuniting of America: Reflections on a Multicultural Society (new york: w.w. norton, 1998), 43. 8. michael mandelbaum, Democracy’s Good Name: The Rise and Risks of the World’s Most Popular Form of Government (new york: public affairs, 2007), xi-xviii. 9. fareed Zakaria, The Future of Freedom: Illiberal Democracy at Home and Abroad (new york: w. w. norton, 2007), 14. 10. henry Commager, America in Perspective: The United States Through Foreign Eyes (new york: new american library, 1947); jack p. Greene, The Intellectual Construction of America (Chapel hill: university of north Carolina press, 1993); alexis de tocqueville, Democracy in America (new york: harper perennial, 1969); j. hector st. john de Crèvecoeur, Letter from an American Farmer and Sketches of 18th Century America (new york: penguin Books, 1986); david m. potter, People of Plenty: Economic Abundance and the American Character (Chicago: university of Chicago press, 1954). 11. andrew kohut and Bruce stokes, America Against the World: How We Are Different and Why We Are Disliked (new york: times Books, 2006), 134-135, 88. 12. thomas jefferson, quoted in john kaminski, The Quotable Jefferson (princeton: princeton university press, 2006), 342. 13. james Bryce, quoted in henry Commager, America in Perspective: The United States Through Foreign Eyes (new york: new american library, 1947), 158. 14. j. hector st. de Crèvecoeur, quoted in henry Commager, America in Perspective: The United States Through Foreign Eyes (new york: new american library, 1947), 28. 15. thomas jefferson, in a letter to john adams, in Thomas Jefferson: Writings (new york: the library of america, 1984), 1309. 16. andrew kohut and Bruce stokes, 56. 48 I the Bradley projeCt on ameriCa’s national identity I e pluribus unum

17. Chris matthews, American: Beyond Our Grandest Notions (new york: free press, 2002), 193. 18. roger wilkins, “the Civic education of a Black american in a Great Big world,” in To Restore American Democracy: Political Education and The Modern University, ed. robert e. Calvert (lanham, md: rowman & littlefield publishers, inc., 2006), 209. 19. franklin d. roosevelt, remarks before the daughters of the american revolution, washington, dC, april 21, 1938. 20. john adams, quoted in john j. patrick, “multicultural education and the Civic mission of schools,” chap. 4 in Research Review for School Leaders, Volume III, eds. william d. wraga and peter s. hlebowitsh (philadelphia: lawrence erlbaum associates, 2000), 104. 21. national Center for education statistics, National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP), 2006 Civics Assessments (washington, dC: u.s. department of education, institute of education sciences, national Center for education statistics), 22, 7. 22. jerry l. martin and anne d. neal, Losing America’s Memory: Historical Illiteracy in the 21st Century (washington, dC: american Council of trustees and alumni, 2000), 2. 23. intercollegiate studies institute, Failing Our Students, Failing America: Holding Colleges Accountable for Teaching America’s History and Institutions (wilmington: intercollegiate studies institute, 2007), 9. 24. “Characters from ‘the simpsons’ more well known to americans than their first amendment freedoms, survey finds” (Chicago: mcCormick tribune freedom museum, 2006). 25. robert putnam, Bowling Alone: The Collapse and Revival of American Community (new york: simon & schuster, 2000). 26. robert putnam, “e pluribus unum: diversity and Community in the twenty-first Century,” Scandinavian Political Studies, vol. 30, no. 2 (june 2007), 150-151. 27. ibid., 151. 28. peter levine, Cynthia Gibson, et al., The Civic Mission of Schools (College park, md: the Center for information & research on Civic learning & engagement, 2003), 5. 29. michael Bloomberg, quoted in jon meacham, “the revolutionary,” Newsweek, 12 nov. 2007, 34. 30. harry lewis, “a Core Curriculum for tomorrow’s students,” The Chronicle of Higher Education, section: the Chronicle review, vol. 54, issue 2, 7 sept. 2007, B20. 31. michael sandel, “liberal education and the Civic project,” chap. 3 in To Restore American Democracy: Political Education and The Modern University, ed. robert e. Calvert (lanham, md: rowman & littlefield publishers, inc., 2006), 47. the Bradley projeCt on ameriCa’s national identity I e pluribus unum I 49

32. william damon, Making Good Citizens: Education and Civil Society, eds. diane ravitch and joseph p. veteritti (new haven, Ct: yale university press, 2001), 137. 33. ibid., 133. 34. albert shanker institute, Education for Democracy (washington, dC: albert shanker institute, 2003), 14. 35. john patrick, 110. 36. public agenda, A Lot to Be Thankful For: What Parents Want Children to Learn About America (washington, dC: public agenda, 1998), http://www.publicagenda.org/ specials/thankful/thankful1.htm, http://www.publicagenda.org/specials/thankful/ thankful6.htm. 37. statement submitted in conjunction with press conference unveiling Congressional resolution on restoring america’s historical memory (june 27, 2000). 38. national Center for education statistics, National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP), 2006 U.S. History Assessments (washington, dC: u.s. department of education, institute of education sciences, national Center for education statistics), 9. 39. martin and neal, 2. 40. Failing Our Students, Failing America, 14. 41. sheldon stern, “advanced placement u.s. history,” in Advanced Placement and International Baccalaureate: Do They Deserve Gold Star Status? (washington, dC: thomas B. fordham institute, 2007), 34. 42. Barry latzer, The Hollow Core (washington, dC: american Council of trustees and alumni, 2004). 43. Gordon wood, “the founders rule!” The New Republic, 7 nov. 2005. 44. robert david johnson, “intellectual diversity and the historical profession,” Historically Speaking (forthcoming). 45. Gilbert t. sewall, History Textbooks at the New Century (new york: american textbook Council, 2000), 24. 46. Chester e. finn, jr., foreword, Where Did Social Studies Go Wrong?, eds. james leming, lucien ellington and kathleen porter (washington, dC: the thomas B. fordham institute, 2003). 47. john f. kennedy, quoted in The American Heritage New Illustrated History of the United States, Volume I, The New World (new york: Choice, 1988), 5. 48. Charles krauthammer, “assimilation nation,” The Washington Post, 7 june 2005, a31. 49. henry Cisneros, quoted in stewart lytle, “henry Cisneros – homeownership is key for hispanics,” The Dallas Morning News, 8 oct. 2007. 50 I the Bradley projeCt on ameriCa’s national identity I e pluribus unum

50. thomas sowell, Ethnic America: A History (new york: Basic Books, 1981), 275. 51. orlando patterson, Ethnic Chauvinism: The Reactionary Impulse (new york: stein and day, 1977), 172. 52. walter lippmann, The Public Philosophy (new york: new american library, 1955). 53. see daniel t. lichter, j. Brian Brown, Zhenchao Qian, julie h. Carmalt, “marital assimilation among hispanics: evidence of declining Cultural and economic incorporation?” Social Science Quarterly 88 (2007): 745-65 and Zhenchao Qian and daniel lichter, “social Boundaries and marital assimilation: interpreting trends in racial and ethnic intermarriage,” American Sociological Review 72 (2007): 68-94. 54. alejandro portes and rubén G. rumbaut, Legacies: The Story of the Immigrant Second Generation (Berkeley: university of California press, 2001), 157-158. 55. stanford university housing, http://www.stanford.edu/dept/rde/has/applying/ upperclass/ucapply/ucpriorities.html (accessed may 1, 2008). 56. michael a. fletcher, “minority Graduation Galas highlight a timely issue,” The Washington Post, 19 may, 2003, a01. 57. ibid. 58. jose luis Gutierrez, quoted in antonio olivo and oscar avila, “influence on both sides of the border,” Chicago Tribune, 6 apr. 2007. 59. Barbara jordan, “the americanization ideal,” New York Times, 11 sept. 1995. 60. rasmussen reports, “america’s Best days,” april 29, 2008, http://www.rasmussen reports.com/public_content/politics/mood_of_america/america_s_best_days/ (accessed may 1, 2008). 61. lawrence summers, “speech at rotC Commissioning Ceremony,” june 2003, http:// www.president.harvard.edu/speeches/2003/rotc03.html (accessed may 1, 2008). 62. william Galston, “six truths about america,” in Terrorists, Despots, and Democracy (washington, dC: the thomas B. fordham foundation, 2003), 50. 63. kathy roth-douquet, “absence of america’s upper Classes from the military,” aBC news, august 3, 2006, http://abcnews.go.com/us/story?id=2270473&page=1 (accessed may 4, 2008). 64. walter mead, Power, Terror, Peace, and War: America’s Grand Strategy in a World at Risk (new york: knopf, 2005), 176. 65. see advertisement in Foreign Affairs, march/april 2008, 36. 66. Bruce Bawer, “the peace racket,” City Journal, summer 2007. the Bradley projeCt on ameriCa’s national identity I e pluribus unum I 51

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The Project the lynde and harry Bradley foundation established the Bradley project on america’s national identity in 2007. during that year, the project brought together leading histori- ans, political scientists, journalists, public figures, and educators to examine four aspects of american life crucial to american identity: historical memory, civic education, immi- gration, and national security. the project is grateful to the following for contributing their time and ideas: richard f. o’donnell, executive director, the Bradley project on america’s national identity; michael aeschliman, Boston university; john agresto, philanthropy round- table; michael Barone, journalist; peter Berkowitz, hoover institution; james w. Ceaser, university of virginia; linda Chavez, Center for equal opportunity; lionel Chetwynd, president’s Committee on the arts and humanities; michael Cromartie, ethics and public policy Center; paul donnelly, formerly, u.s. Commission on immigration reform; ross douthat, journalist; lucien ellington, foreign policy research institute; amitai etzioni, the George washington university; richard fonte, former director, “we the people” initiative, national endowment for the humanities; john fonte, Center for american Common Culture, hudson institute; hillel fradkin, Center on islam, de- mocracy and the future of the muslim world, hudson institute; francis fukuyama, paul h. nitze school of advanced international studies; william Galston, university of maryland; Charles Glenn, Boston university; eugene hickok, former deputy secretary of education; Carol iannone, Academic Questions; fred iklé, Center for international & strategic studies; tamar jacoby, immigrationworks usa; robert david johnson, Brooklyn College; robert kaplan, united states naval academy; amy kass, university of Chicago; james p. kelly, iii, the federalist society for law & public policy studies; Charles r. kesler, Claremont mckenna College; Charles krauthammer, journalist; mark krikorian, Center for immigration studies; peter levine, tufts university; herb london, hudson institute; Chris matthews, journalist; Bill mcClay, university of tennessee; 52 I the Bradley projeCt on ameriCa’s national identity I e pluribus unum

walter mcdougall, university of pennsylvania; john j. miller, journalist; anne neal, american Council of trustees and alumni; marvin olasky, university of texas at austin; john o’sullivan, founder, new atlantic initiative; john patrick, indiana university; orlando patterson, harvard university ; james p. pinkerton, journalist; jeremy rabkin, George mason university; noah pickus, director, kenan institute for ethics at duke university; mike ratliff, the jack miller Center for teaching america’s founding prin- ciples and history; Bill schambra, Bradley Center for philanthropy and Civic renewal, hudson institute; Gilbert sewall, the american textbook Council; fred siegel, Cooper union for the advancement of science and art; matthew spalding, B. kenneth simon Center for american studies, the heritage foundation; sandra stotsky, university of arkansas; sol stern, manhattan institute; Gordon wood, Brown university; ruth watten- berg, American Educator. the project coordinator was the american Council of trustees and alumni. primary authors of the report were peter Gibbon and jerry martin.

The Survey the Bradley project commissioned harrisinteractive to conduct a survey to inform its work. the survey of american citizens took place from december 10, 2007 to december 17, 2007 and results are discussed in the report. a total of 2,421 individuals, u.s. citizens aged 18 and older, completed the survey. the questions and answers cited are available on the project’s website www.bradleyproject.org.

The Lynde and Harry Bradley Foundation michael w. Grebe, president in 1903, lynde and harry Bradley established a business in milwaukee, wisconsin, which became the allen-Bradley Company. in 1985, the rockwell international Corpora- tion acquired the allen-Bradley Company and a significant portion of the proceeds were dedicated to establishing the lynde and harry Bradley foundation. the Bradley broth- the Bradley projeCt on ameriCa’s national identity I e pluribus unum I 53

ers were committed to preserving and defending the tradition of free representative government and private enterprise that has enabled the american nation and, in a larger sense, the entire western world to flourish intellectually and economically. the Bradleys believed that the good society is a free society. the lynde and harry Bradley foundation is likewise devoted to strengthening american democratic capitalism and the institu- tions, principles, and values that sustain and nurture it. its programs (www.bradleyfdn. org/program_interests.asp) support limited, competent government; a dynamic mar- ketplace for economic, intellectual, and cultural activity; and a vigorous defense, at home and abroad, of american ideas and institutions. in addition, recognizing that responsible self-government depends on enlightened citizens and informed public opinion, the foundation supports scholarly studies and academic achievement.

The Bradley ProjecT on america’s naTional idenTiTy www.BradleyProjecT.org