THE FINAL DISPOSAL FACILITY OF SPENT NUCLEAR FUEL

Slavka Prvakova, Vladimir Necas

Department of Nuclear Physics and Technology, Faculty of Electrical Engineering and Information Technology, Slovak University of Technology, Ilkovicova 3, 812 19 Bratislava, Slovakia, e-mail: [email protected], [email protected]

ABSTRACT Today the most serious problemme in the area of nuclear power engineering is the management of spent nuclear fuel. Due to its very high radioactivity the nuclear waste must be isolated from the environment. The perspective solution of nuclear fuel cycle is the final disposal into geological formations. Today there is no disposal facility all over the world. There are only underground research laboratories in the well developed countries like the USA, France, Japan, Germany, Sweden, Switzerland and Belgium. From the economical point of view the most suitable appears to build a few international repositories. According to the political and social aspect each of the country prepaire his own project of the deep repository. The status of those programmes in different countries is described. The development of methods for the long-term management of radioactive waste is necessity in all countries that have had nuclear programmes.

INTRODUCTION disposed off deep underground. Spent nuclear fuel is classified as a specific kind of radioactive waste. It Nuclear power plants do not operate on the base of generates a considerable amount of heat and requires fossil fuel and therefore they are not producers of cooling, as well as special shielding during handling and greenhouse gases. On the another hand these plants are transport. producers of the form of environmental load: spent It has to be disposed of in compliance with the nuclear fuel. In contrast to combustion-based energy obligation issued by Environmental Impact Assessment production the amount of waste is small. (EIA). The IAEA defines disposal as: the emplacement of There is also the third part of radioactive materials waste in an approved, specified facilitywithout the intention that are created in universities, research institutes, of retrieval. If the waste is intended, then it is called storing. industrial and in medicine. It is specified as an Until the disposal facilities are constructedthe spent nuclear institutional waste. This type of waste is characterised by fuel will be temporarily hold in interim storages. Final a very heterogeneous composition, including a broad disposal is only the last step in the waste management spectrum of materials and specific activities. process, after collection, treatment, selection, storage and After the fuel rods are pulled out from the reactor, transport. In 1990 a detailed overview was made of the they are stored in an interim storage, under water to present status of the assessment methodology for the long­ decrease the radioactivity and the heat production. But term safety of final disposal deep in geological formations this storing is only a temporary solution for 4-5 years. [1]. The expert group responsible for radioactive waste During this time the radioactivity decreases to the management within the IAEA, OECD/NEA and CEC value which facilitates its further handling. Liquid high- concluded that methods were available to the long-term level waste is evaporated, mixed with a glass-forming safety of a well designed repository. material, melted and sealed in a metal canister. Solidification processes have been developed in France, GENERAL DESCRIPTION UK, US and Germany over past 35 years. For the final Radioactive wastes occur at all stages of the nuclear disposal, this vitrified waste is put into special canisters, fuel cycle, from the nuclear materials production to which are made of two parts, one inside the other. The electricity production. Two kinds of radioactive waste are outer one is made of copper because of its corrosion generated: low- and medium-level waste and high-level resistance. The inner one is made of modular cast iron. It spent fuel. The short-lived low and medium waste is must be water- and air-tight canister. usually solidified in concrete or bitumen and buried in For the transport of spent fuel it is necessary to have a shallow landfill sites. But long-lived waste will be transfer casks. The cask acts as a protection against the radioactivity emitted from the fuel and protects the spent The geological criteria of the final disposal facility are: fuel from damage during the transport [2]. - stability of the ground for 105-106 years If the spent fuel is later reprocessed, it is dissolved - such a surface relieves which could affect the flow of and separated chemically into uranium, plutonium (97%) groundwater and high-level waste (3%). The not reprocessed spent fuel - absence of those natural resources which might have takes up about nine times the volume of equivalent significance for future use of the area vitrified high-level waste which results from reprocessing. - a few hundred meters away from the hydrological But this process is very expensive and complicated so cycle of groundwater reprocessing plants exist only in reach and well-developed A multiple barrier disposal concept is used to states like France, Great Britain, Japan and Russia. immobilise the radioactive elements from high-level waste However, this process does not eliminate the necessity of and to isolate them from the biosphere. The principal the final storing of spent fuel. barriers are: New technologies of transmutation method are under - the solid state of the spent fuel development [3]. Substance of this method is in the - twofold canisters separation of the long, middle- and short-lived radioactive - bentonit clay surrounding it, so-called engineering nuclides. Separated long-lived radionuclides are barrier (bentonit has high swelling and high transmutated to the non toxic and short and middle time absorption capability) lived radionuclides. But this solution also needs the final - several hundred meters deep geological barrier (the repository. On the figure 1 is schema of final disposal most suitable minerals are granites, metamorphities, repository. pelits and vulcanic minerals) The project of final disposal facility starts with an The last barrier protects from external forces, creates investigation phase after the selection a suitable location mechanically and chemically stable conditions for the of the disposal site and construction the investigation final repository and limits the quantity of water getting shafts. Many technical factors must be taken into account: into contact with the canisters. In addition, the natural - geology, hydrogeology, geochemistry, meteorology barrier is expected to retain the dissolved radionuclides in - transportation of waste the geological environment for a long time by absorption - distribution and environmental protection capacity of the minerals. The properties of potential host - human induced events, population, public acceptance. rock are not only from the surface but many underground However, political factors and public opinion have laboratories have been constructed. However, 10 to 15 curbed repositories developing. years would be necessary before the research laboratory

FIGURE 1. The schema of final repository could be transformed into a repository. The list of major its geography and economic condition, Australia was ones are in the table 1 . chosen for the emplacement of repository of radioactive The project ends with the decommissioning, sealing waste. Participant firms of the programme Pangea are: and performing safety assessments of the final disposal BNFL (UK), NAGRA (Switzerland) and EHL (Canada). facility. The surface facilities consist of access control, The Pangea concept can be traced to the Synroc Study maintenance, site monitoring, research and management Group which began its activities in December 1988. The building, general sample storage, workshop and other. concept envisages the depth of the repository of 500 m. The long-term safety of the final disposal can be The central north region in South Australia has been shown by models based on experimental investigation. selected for further investigation from 8 previously Final models can be tested by comparison with natural identified regions. The next part of the process is to find a analogues which demonstrate the basic feasibility of suitable site in the region. geological disposal (for example about 2000 million year The repository is planned for 75 000 t of spent fuel, old uranium ores at Oklo in Gabon or 1300 million year high-level waste from reprocessing plants and also for old uranium deposit near Cigar Lake in Canada). some medium-level waste. The cost is estimated at A$ 10 It is necessaryy to make financial provisions. The cost billion, with A$ 700 million per year operating cost. estimate of final disposal of spent nuclear fuel and high- Direct employment would be about 2000, indirect 6000 level waste in the OECD countries is described in detail in people. The project adds about one percent to the the publication [4]. Cost of current waste management Australian GNP [6]. consist mainly of: China has had a long-term programme since 1986. - treatment of spent fuel and radioactive waste Granit has been selected as the proposed host rock and (e.g. reprocessing, encapsulation) four sites for investigating are planned. The Beisthan area - construction and operation of final repositories of Gansu Province appears potentially suitable. The final - decommissioning and dismantling of nuclear repository site will be selected around 2010. The power plants. repository is planned to be built with western technology, For example, In Germany the cost estimate, based on financed by Taiwan in exchange for disposing of waste from 4000 TWh eletricity production for Taiwams waste. Vitrified waste will be stored there. The construction of two repositories are US$ 2500 million and latest date for repository construction is given as 2050. for annual operation is US$ 90 million [5]. The first underground laboratory will be situated in the Beijing area and two candidate sites have been SITUATION IN DIFFERENT COUNTRIES identified [7]. Australia is one of the biggest uranium producers in Belgium has very old nuclear history. The first the world, but there are no nuclear power plants. Due to research reactor started to build at Mol in 1956. Apart TABLE 1. Major past or present underground research laboratories [1] rock formation Laboratory name Country salt bedded Salt Vault (Kansas) USA dome Avery Island USA (Louisaiana) dome Asse Germany bedded WIPP (New Mexico) USA dome Hope Germany crystalline rock granite Stripa Sweden granite Grimsel Switzerland granite Edgar Mine USA (Colorado) granite Tono Mine Japan granite URL, Manitoba Canada granite Climax Mine USA (Nevada) granite Fanay Augeres France granite Akenobe Mine Japan granite Hard Rock Laboratory Sweden granite NSTF (Washington) USA basalt G-tunnel (Nevada) USA argillaceous rock plastic clay Mol Belgium clay-mar Pasquasia Italy from it, the Mol Centre has also various experimental They plan to construct the final repository between 2030 laboratories. In 1974, Belgium Nuclear Research Centre and 2040 [12]. (CEN/SCK) launched a research programme on the The Radioactive Waste Repository Authority geological disposal of the high-level radioactive waste. (RAWRA) was established on the 1 June 1997 under the Investigation was concentrated on argillaceous formations decision of the Ministry of Trade and Industry. RAWRA because of their abundance at various depths in some parts is also co-operating with other national organisations for of Belgium. Since 1984, the HADES project (High the management of radioactive waste. On 3 January 2000, Activity Disposal Experimental Site) has been carried out the repositories of radioactive waste will transfer under by CEN/SCK in the Boom clay at Mol. A shaft 229 m the management of RAWRA. In compliance with the depth has been constructed with almost 1 00 m of tunnels. Atomic Act, a nuclear account was established by the Backfill will be bentonite and boom clay. The overall Ministry of Finance with the Czech National Bank in the permeability of the clay layer is below 10-10 m/s which second half of 1 997. The nuclear account is funded from reduce migration and diffusion of radionuclides. For the the payments by the radioactive waste producers. Cost last 15 years, no adverse hydrological behavior has been estimate is 49000 million CZK [13], which correspond observed [8]. In 1998, an additional 60 m long drift was approximately to US$ 1330 million. built for the testing impact of temperature and radiation Finland started research of suitability of the Finnish [9]. The real-scale simulation of disposal gallery, called bedrock for the final disposal at the end of the 1970's. At PRACLAY, follows the current concept based on a first was the spent fuel transported to Russia. But due to concrete-lined gallery. The CEN/SCK started also a the changes of the NEA in 1 994, all spent fuel produced preliminary performance assessment of the direct disposal in Finland has to be handled, stored and finally disposed of spent fuel. However, ONDRAS/NIRAS were instructed of domestically. It is considered to dispose the spent fuel in 1 997 to undertake investigations in another deep clay without the reprocessing. At present, the fissionable formation in Ypresian Countrai Formation [10]. materials obtained from the natural resources are cheaper The government planned to continue reprocessing of than from reprocessing fuel rods. Also Sweden has very spent fuel by COGEMA at La Hague until the year 2000 similar conception. and sent it to Sellafield in UK. The need for a high In 1991, the Ministry of Trade and Industry decided, radioactive waste is anticipated after the cooling period that the locality will be selected by the end of2000. It is (2035) hence the tentative schedule for the design is in planned to construct the final repository in 2010 and the 2015 and for construction in 2020. actual final operations to begin in 2020 [12]. The disposal Canada has more than 15 years of laboratory concept is based on the Swedish model (KBS-3) with the research and other research abroad, except that it is one of modified canister [14]. The repository is planned in the the biggest uranium producers in the world. In 1978, the depth of 300 to 800 m. Cost estimates for waste government of Canada and Ontario announced a management system corresponding to the production of programme to evaluate the geological disposal concept. 430TWh is US$ 1600 million [5]. Atomic Energy of Canada Limited (AECL) has developed There were idea about the solutions like final disposal this concept by using underground chambers of the in polar glaciers or in the sea bed, according to scientific Canadian Shield in a vault excavated in a stable plutonic studies, are quiet safe. However, this alternative was rock formation at the depth of 500 to 1000 m. The waste excluded on the basis of international agreements EIA. form would either be used as CANDU fuel or as a Also the waste launching into the space is not realistic due solidified highly radioactive reprocessing waste. Room to the high cost, great risk and also the Nuclear Energy AECL has been already developing and investigating Act (NEA) prohibited this solution. concept of post-closure monitoring, primarily in an France has more than 25 years of experiences in the underground research facility near Pinawa, Manitoba. In field of radioactive waste management. There are well 1990 operations of construction of laboratory in Southern developed the reprocessing plants. Unlike the USA, the Manitoba, below water table began. Laboratory goes to French government considers safer the combustion of the depth of 445 m with 2 levels (240 m and 420 m) [11]. plutonium in nuclear power plants than his underground The disposal would not be likely begin before about 2025. storing. This idea is enhanced in the countries like Japan Natural analogues play an important role in building and UK, which have considerable installed nuclear power confidence for long-term prediction (e.g. the Cigar Lake capacity. The waste generated since 1 978 is now stored at uranium deposit in northern Saskatchewan). the reprocessing sites [15]. In December 1993, the status In the Czech Republic is spent fuel currently safely of the law of the French National Radioactive Waste stored in the interim storage of the locality in Dukovany. Management Agency (ANDRA) was defined and It is dry storing with an ear circulation of natural cooling. proposed three possible sites in clay formations and one in At present three repositories for low and medium-level granite rocks. On a December 1998, after 4 years of waste are in operation: Bratrstvi in Jachymov, Richard geological research, the French government decided to near Litomerice and Dukovany. The oldest repository have 2 underground research laboratories: the first one is Hostim near Beroun was closed in 1 997. The test locality in a clay of the Paris Basin, at Bare, the second one is in a for final disposal is situated in Melechovsky bedrock. granitic site yet to be determined. A network of underground galleries was built under the disposal the design of final repository. A general concept of structures to drain potential rainwater. A large-diameter geological disposal was introduced as early in the 1950's. main pipeline is designed to collect the rainwater drained The rock formations in Japan is classified into two groups: from non-operational cells. The underground laboratory is crystalline rocks (fractured media) and sedimentary and planned to start operation in 2006 and the actual final granitic rocks (widely distributed throughout Japan). The operations in 2015. In this year the government would emphasise is given on the extremely slow groundwater decide for the final way of treatment of spent fuel [16]. flow and reducing chemical environment of neutral to Since 1984, ANDRA has been participating to slightly alkaline nature. experiments conducted in underground laboratories in Japan has well developed reprocessing technology. Sweden, Switzerland and Canada. The spent waste is planned to be stored in an interim Germany is the only country all over the world that storage until this time, when the cost of natural uranium has selected such a approach that gives absolute priority will be higher. to safety, regardless the cost. In early 1 965 the first In 1991 there was excavated the shaft on sedimentary European underground research laboratory in Asse salt rocks in the Tono area (part of Mizunami mountain) for mine was established. This was also used as experimental underground research and development laboratory (Tono repository until 1978. Final disposal is under the direct Frontiers Science Research City) [18]. One characteristic responsibility of the Federal Government. of the geological environment of Tono uranium deposit is DBE (Deutsche Gesellschaft zum Bau und Betrieb von no major migration of uranium in the past 1 05 years. In Endlagern fur Abfallstoffe) is a privativaly company, this region, an enormous amount of geological created in 1 979 with the concept of construction and information is being accumulated through academic operation repositories. DBE's staff includes some engineers, research. The research is based on many models. Future geologist, physicists and other professionals. This company tasks are to accumulate geochemical data at the depth has wide experience in planning and designing on all 1 000 m and study the geochemical evolution of the aspects of radioactive waste management. DBE has also groundwater, also for granitic rocks [1]. international cooperation and inforamation interchange with Long-term observation in the next possible site in similar waste disposal organisationsover all Europe. Kamaishi Mine of pore pressure and chemical properties Since 1978 waste is additionaly being disposed of at of groundwater, revealed no major change so far. Morsleben, the operation license is originaly valid until Temporary changes are recorded at the time of an June 30, 2000 was extended for 5 more years. The waste earthquake, but these are within the range of seasonal is located in the depth of 500 m in a rock salt. fluctuations. Disposal of high-level waste is planned to Development of salt dome in Gorlebene started in take place around 2040 [19]. 1979 and the preparatory work for underground The Russian government issued a decree on an exploration started in 1982. Construction of the environmental protection that prohibited the import of exploratory consist of sinking two shafts. The suitability radioactive waste in May 1994. In September 1995, it was statement expected that the Gorleben mine will be issued a decree stating that all radioactive waste received transformed into a deep repository around 2005. by Russia must be returned to its country of origin after 20 Repository will accept all kinds of radioactive waste. years [20]. Future licensing and operation of a repository is highly Development of a strategy for spent fuel and high- dependent on consensus between society, the government level waste management and disposal is now the and the main waste producers. responsibility of the Russian Institute of Geology of Ore Konrad site was selected because of the great depth of Deposits, Petrography, Mineralogy and Geochemistry the ore horizon, the extraordinarily dry clima and the (IGEM). Several different disposal concepts are currently complete isolation from shallow groundwater by clayish under investigation. There was an effort to locate overlying rock. In 1982 a positive statement regarding this repository near to the sources of the waste. Attention has site suitable for repository in the depth of 800 and 1300 m. been given on the Krasnoyarsk and Chelyabinsk sites. A The disposal capacity is approximately 650 000 m3 of waste screening proces has already been conducted of areas packages. The licencefor Konrad is expexted very soon. around Krasnoyarsk. The crystalline rocks at the southern There is no think over the possibility of direct end of Yenisey Ridge looks the most potential. In the disposal of spent waste. Therefore, the firm SIEMENS second potentially suitable place situated at Mayak suggested the way of individual encapsulating each of the Complex, known as Mars-2, is now developed pellets for the final disposal. It is planned not to continue underground laboratory. The work is funded by the former in underground research until there will be investigate USSR Academy of Sciences. regions in different geological formations. Since 1994, The Kola Mining Institute has been involved in spent fuel direct disposal is also accepted [17]. numerous studies to develop underground research for Japan is a typical country with very limited domestic Northern Fleet HLW. Novaya Zemlya is under energy resources and with frequently earthquakes and consideration for emplacement the waste deep to the volcanic activities. Therefore it is necessary to optimise permafrost zone. In other to absent of the political and economical area of about 0,2 km2. The investigations includes stability, many countries try to help the Russia. There are measurements in boreholes in depth 1 000 m and it was organised training seminars, to improve the safety of found out, that the most suitable for sitting a repository is Soviet-designed nuclear plants and funded many projects, the depth of about 500 m. involving e.g. safety systems upgrade work, waste In order to prepare for the sitting and construction of management and others. a deep repository, SKB has built the Aspo Hard Rock Slovak concept was based on the co-operation and Laboratory to create a realistic environment for the future assistance with the former Soviet Union. During the whole repository. The planning of this facility started in 1986. period of operation of Czechoslovak nuclear power plants, The planning and the site investigations and construction there was provided unpaid transport of spent fuel to have been already completed and the operational stage USSR. The main reason for changing the original strategy would started in 2020 [14]. was the abandonment of unpaid spent fuel transport after Switzerland is a small country with limited natural political changes in the Russian Federation. After the resources. Since the founding of National Cooperative for dividing of CSFR, work on development of disposal the Disposal of Radioactive Waste (NAGRA), work has started only at the end of 1995. been carried out of development of disposal concepts. Country is now in an investigation phase of the Two host rock options are considered: the crystalline selection of the final disposal site. There is wet interim basement or low permeability sediment layers. There are storage for spent fuel in Jaslovske Bohunice. The assets, planned two repositories, one for short-lived low- and needed for the final disposal of the spent fuel, are intermediate-level waste and one for high-level waste. In collected from the price of electricity and funded by the Northern Switzerland is crystalline basement and Fund for liquidation of nuclear facilities by the 1 of sedimentary formations, called Opalinus Clay, where is January 1995. From the present situation of nuclear power investigated a potentially host rocks for high-level waste plants follows, that the final repository will be necessary repository. Programmes of site-specific studies are now in 25 years, it means, around the years 2020-2030. running in parallel in the crystalline basement and the According to the energetic policy the cheapest concept Opalinus Clay. seems the direct disposal spent nuclear fuel into final NAGRA’s main underground test site is situated at repository without reprocessing. The cost estimate for six Grimsel Pass in the Swiss Alps. The facility is situated in reactors is 68 billion SKK, which correspond granite, below 500 m under the surface. This site is approximately to US$ 1480 million [21]. unsuitable for repository, it is defined only for Spain started the disposal strategy in 1987. Empresa development of the technology required for site National de Residous Radioactivos, S.A. (ENRESA) was characterisation. A further underground test site has been established in 1984 as a public company to undertake the initiated within the scope of an international project, a management of radioactive activities [22]. Parliament has road tunnel through the Opalinus Clay at Mt. Terri in the approved the General Radioactive Waste Plan that Jura Mountains [24]. foresees direct disposal in deep geological formations The Swiss concept places less emphasis one the expect fuel from the nuclear plant Vandellos 1 which is individual engineering barriers, it focuses on the being reprocessed in COGEMA. The suitable host behaviour of the near-field (all engineering barriers in geological formations under consideration are granit, salt their geological setting) as whole. A very similar concept and clay. The disposal concept contemplates a mined-type has been adopted by Japan. repository excavated at a depth of 250 m in clay, 500 m in At present, part of spent waste is reprocessed abroad granite and 600 m in salt. A total of 3600 canisters will be (in France and in UK) and the rest is stored in the interim needed. The final repository expected to start the storage with the capacity for the next 40 years. The operations in 2020 [24]. government think that after this time it will be evident Sweden has preceded the development of spent fuel which conception is the best. The repository will be management in steps. The progress of waste management required from the year 2020 at the earliest and there are program is closely monitored by the government and by economic arguments for delaying this date. Nevertheless, the pertinent authorities. In the 1980’s, this programme public and government move the project ahead as quickly was focused on final disposal of the spent fuel without as possible [25]. reprocessing. Because the prices for reprocessing services Taiwan’s government issued the Radwaste are increased, there was created a political resistance Management Guidelines in 1 990, and Taiwan Power against reprocessing. Following the evaluation of Company (TPC) became responsible for waste alternative methods [14] in 1992, Swedish Nuclear Fuel management and disposal activities. The screening and Waste Management Company (SKB) decided to start process began in 1 990, 1 4 mainland and 1 7 offshore the building of a repository. The operations should start in island potential sites have been identified, all in crystalline 2008. A repository for all spent fuel should have a rocks. Other sedimentary rock sites may be added later. capacity of about 8000 t or 4000 canisters. The Preliminary site investigation is scheduled to begin in underground facilities will need 30 - 40 km of tunnels and 2000. Current disposal plans envisage an operational repository by 2032. The disposal will be financed by fees determination is scheduled for 2001, with license from nuclear power production [26]. application to the Nuclear Regulatory Commission in Ukraine gains its independent after the breaking of 2002. The total construction time will be approximately in the former Soviet Union in 1991. In the past, the spent 2010. If at any time, Yuccea mountain is found unsuitable, fuel was sent to Russia for reprocessing. But in the 1 992, studies will be stopped, the site will be restored and a new the Krasnoyarsk government refused to accept Ukrainian direction will be found by Congress. The most respected spent fuel from VVER-1000. Already in January 1995, scientific and engineering organisations of the world are Russian President issued a decree allowing Ukrainian conducted the work for this project. spent fuel to be stored at Krasnoyarsk. A project of final disposal of high-level waste began CONCLUSION in 1 993 with the nation-wide site selection process. The Ukrainian Academy of Sciences, Geskomatom and the Today there is no final disposal facility all over the State Geological Committee have identified 1 2 possible world. There are only investigation underground sites for repository. The crystalline rocks granitic, clay laboratories, see table 1 . There is also a proposal for an and salt have been chosen as suitable host rocks. It is international nuclear waste repository in optimum planned to develop underground research laboratories in geology. This could be located in Australia. Many all rock types [27]. specialist claim that Europe needs only two or three final In the United Kingdom was the first major repositories for high-level radioactive waste. But where it government review of nuclear waste management carried will be located? out in the late 1950's. In 1978, the government established The preparation and building of final disposal facility the Radioactive Waste Management Advisory Committee need co-operation all of the interested groups from the (RWMAC). In 1979 began the drilling of boreholes at a world like the scientists, producers of nuclear waste, site in Scotland (Altnabreac) and later at Harwell in governments and also the citizens. Major co-operative Oxfordshire to investigate the properties of various types organisations include the International Atomic Energy of rock. In 1982 the government established the Nuclear Agency (IAEA), the OECD, Nuclear Energy Agency Industry Radioactive Waste Executive (NIREX), which (NEA), the European Atomic Energy Community later become United Kingdom Nirex Limited [28]. (EUROATOM) and the Association of European atomic At present 11 defuelled submarine are being stored Forum (FORATOM). afloat. The spent fuel from them is being stored in purpose Many studies have shown that geological disposal of built ponds at Sellafield. The London Convention meeting nuclear waste is feasible and can be made safe. The extended the moratorium on dumping indefinitely. adequate isolation from the environment can be assured Various amounts of surplus fissible material were for hundreds of thousands years. 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